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THE LIBRARY OF 




BIBL] 


[CAL AND THEOLOGICAL LITERATI 


IRE. 


EDITED BY 




REV. GEORGE R. CROOKS, D.D., LL.D., 






AND 




VOL. I. 


BISHOP JOHN F. HURST, D.D., LL.D. 


$4 00 


INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE HOLY 
SCRIPTURES. By Rev. Henry M. Harman. D.D. 


•• II. 


BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. By Rev. Milton S. 
Terry, D.D., LL.D 


3 00 


" III. 


THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA AND METH- 
ODOLOGY. By Rev. George R. Crooks, D.D., 
LL.D., and Bishop John F. Hurst. D.D., LL.D., . 


3 50 


" IV. 


CHRISTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY. By Rev. Charles 
W. Bennett, D.D. With an Introductory Notice by 
Dr. Ferdinand Piper, . . . 


3 50 


'• V. 


SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. Vol. I. By Rev. John 
Miley, D.D., LL.D 


3 00 


" VI. 


SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. Vol. II. By Rev. 
John Miley, D.D., LL.D., . . . 


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LIBRARY 



OF 



BIBLICAL AND TIIEOLOaiCAL 



LITERATURE. 



EDITED BY 

GEOEGE R. CROOKS, D.D., 

AND 

JOHK F. HURST, D.D. 



VOL. III.-THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPiEDI A AND 

METHODOLOGY. 



NEW YORK: HUNT & EATON 
CINCINNATI : CRANSTON & CURTS 



pi^M-i:^ O 



PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT. 



THE design of the Editors and Publishers of the Biblical 
AND Theological Libraky is to furnish ministers and lay- 
men with a series of works which, in connection with the 
Commentaries now issuing, shall make a compendious appa- 
ratus for study. While the theology of the volumes will be in 
harmony with the doctrinal standards of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, the aim will be to make the entire Library acceptable 
to all evangelical Christians. 

The following writers have co-operated in the preparation of the 
series : Dr. Harman, Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scrip- 
tures (tenth thousand). Dr. Terry, Biblical Hermeneutics (fifth 
thousand). Drs. Creoles and Hurst, Theological Encyclopaedia 
and Methodology (fourth thousand). Dr. Bennett, Christian 
Archaeology (third thousand). Dr. Miley, Systematic Theology, 
Vols. I and II. Yol. I, second thousand, and Yol. II, ready 
June 1, 1894:. The Introduction to the Study of the Holy 
Scriptures, Hermeneutics, and Encyclopaedia and Methodology 
are revised editions, the revision of the last named being com- 
pleted May 1, 1894. 

Other works in preparation are. The Evidences of Christianity, 
by Dr. Ridgaway; Christian Theism and Modern Speculative 
Thought, by Dr. Charles J. Little ; History of Christian Doctrine, 
by Dr. Crooks ; and History of the Christian Church, by Bishop 
Hurst. 

In the case of every treatise the latest literature will be con- 
sulted and its results incorporated. The works comprised in 
the series will be printed in full octavo size, and finished in the 
best style of typography and binding. 



-75 



THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPJDIA 



A.ND 



METHODOLOGY. 



Iv- 1 Ci'.\c^:^^■^r 



OlSr THE B^SIS OF Ii:.A^&E?^B^CIIc 



J*Y 



GEOEGE R. CROOKS, D.D., 



AND 



JOHN F. HUEST, D.D. 



MEW EDITION, REVISED. 



NEW YORK: HUNT & EATON 
CINCINNATI : CRANSTON & CURTS 



Copyright, 1894, by 
HUNT & EATON, 

New York, 









<. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Idea and Scope of Encyclopaedia, Y. 

Idea and Scope of Methodology, 11. 

Theological Science and Theological Em- 
piricism, 12. 

The Choice of Theology as a Yocation, 15. 

Importance of the Teaching Order to So- 
ciety, 18. 

Superiority of Religious Teaching to Law 
and Art, 20. 

Religion, 25. 



The Religious Community — Christianity, 
42. 

The Church and Theology, 44. 

Theological Schools and the Spiritual Or- 
der, 46. 

Relation of the Spiritual Order to the 
School and the Church, 50. 

The University, 52. 

The Formation of Character, 55. 

Doubt and Belief, 56. 



PAET I. 
GENERAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 



Theology Considered as a Positive Science, 
58. 
As an Art Theory, 61. 
In its Historical Development, 62. 
As Related to Preparatory Studies, 
66. 

Philology the First of the Preparatory 
Studies, 68. 

Uses of Mathematical and Natural Science 
to the Theologian, TO. 

Theology as Related to the Arts and Gen- 
eral Culture, 72. 
As Related to Philosophy, 74. 

Brief History of the Relations of Philos- 
ophy and Theology, 74. 

The Leading Object of the Study of Phi- 
losophy, 79. 

Philosophy Incapable of Originating Theo- 
logical Doctrine, 81. 

No Objection to Philosophy from the Va- 
riety of Systems, 82. 



Unchristian Systems of Philosophy, 84. 

Sense in which a Philosophy must be 
Christian, 86. 

Relations of Ethics, Psychology, and Logic 
to Theology, 87. 

The Leading Tendencies of Theological 
Thought in the Early Church, 100. 
In the Middle Ages, 101. 
Among the Reformers, 101. 
In the Seventeenth Century, 102. 
In the Eighteenth Century — Ration, 
alism, 102. 

The New Direction given to Theology, 103. 

Pietism, Mysticism, and Confessionalism, 
105. 

Theological Tendencies in England and the 
United States, 107. 

Relation of the Student to these Tenden- 
cies, 109. 

Appendix — History and Literature of Theo- 
logical Encyclopedia, 118. 



CONTENTS. 



PAET II. 

SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 



Division into Departments, 139. 
Arrangement of the four Departments, 143. 

CHAPTER I. 

EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. i 

Idea and Scope of Exegetical Tiieology, 

146. 
The Holy Scriptures as the Subject of 

Exegesis, 147. 
Division of the Canonical Scriptures, 151. 
The Old and the New Testaments, 154, 156. 
Value of the Old Testament, 155. 
Influence of the Old Testament on the Form 

of New Testament Thought^ 154. 
Classification of Old Testament Books, 155. 
Scope of the New Testament^ 157. 
Subdivisions of the New Testament, 158. 
Sciences Auxiliary to Exegesis, 159., 
The Original Languages of the Bible, 160. 
The Hebrew Language and other Semitic 

Dialects, 161. 
History of the Study of the Hebrew, 163. 
The Hellenistic Greek, 170. 
Brief Sketch of the Study of Hellenistic 

Greek, 172. 
Biblical Archaeology, 175. 
The Material of Biblical Archaeology, 176. 
History of Biblical Archaeology, 179. 
Isagogics, 191. 
Limits of Isagogics, 191. 
Formation of the Canon, 194. 
Biblical Criticism, 204. 
Conditions of Canonicity, 206. 
Critical Procedure, 210. 
Positive and Negative Criticism, 212. 
The Relation of Criticism to Exegesis, 214. 
History of Criticism, 215. 
Biblical Hermeneutics, 234. 
A Branch of General Hermeneutics, 236. 
The Science of Hermeneutics a Gradual 

Growth, 237. 
Exegesis as the Product of Hermeneutics, 

244. 
The Application of Exegesis, 247. 



The Method of Exegetical Theology, 249. 
History of Interpretation, 251. 

CHAPTER IL 

HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Sacred History, 274. 

History of the Hebrew People, 275. 

Periods of Hebrew History, 275. 

Life of Christ, 285. 

The Life of Jesus Self-interpreting, 288. 

History of the Biographies of Jesus, 290. 

Strauss and Renan and the Replies, 291- 
293. 

Lives of the Apostles and of the Found- 
ers of the Church, 306. 

Biblical Dogmatics, 310. 

Relations of Life and Doctrine, 311. 

History of Biblical Dogmatics, 313. 

Church History, 316. 

Historical Development of the Church, 318. 

External and Internal History of the 
Church, 318. 

Periods of Church History, 321. 

Proper Treatment of Church History, 324. 
Criticism of Sources, 324. 
Mediate and Immediate Causation, 

325. 
Deistic, Pantheistic, and Theistic 

Methods of History, 327. 
The Moral and Religious Disposition 
of the Church Historian, 329. 

Method of Church History, 331. 

Monographs and Parallels, 334. 

History of Church History, 335. 

Sciences Auxiliary to Church History, 369. 

Separate Branches of Historical Theology, 
378. 

The History of Doctrines, 384 

Definition of the History of Doctrine, 385. 

The Task and Province of Doctrinal His- 
tory, 385. 

General and Special Doctrinal History, 387. 

Division of Doctrinal History, 389. 

Method of Treating Doctrinal History, 391. 



CONTENTS. 



Patristics and Symbolics, 396. 

Tlie Church Fathers, 396. 

The Term Classic, 398. 

History of Patristics, 399. 

Definition of Symbolics, 402. 

Scope of Symbolics, 404. 

Relation of to History of Doctrine, 
404. 

History of Symbolics, 405. 
Archaeology, 410. 
History of Arch;eology, 412. 
Statistics, 412. 

History must Furnish Statistics, 413. 

Best Source of Statistics, 413. 

CHAPTER III. 

SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Defiaitiou and Scope of Systematic Theol- 
ogy, 416. 

Christian Doctrine Ethical, 418. 

Dogmatics and Ethics Distinguished, 419. 

Dogmatics, the Center of all Theology, 
421. 

Apologetics — Its Relation to Dogmatics, 
425. 

The Task of Apologetics, 428. 

The History of Apologetics, 430. 

Polemics and Irenics, 437. 

The History of Polemics and Irenics, 441. 

The Method of Dogmatic Theology, 444. 

Outline of a Dogmatic Sj'stem, 447. 

Theology (Doctrine of God), 448. 

Anthropology, 451. 

Christology, 453. 

Soteriology, 455. 

The Church and the Sacraments, 458. 

Eschatology, 460. 

The Trinity and Predestination, 462. 

Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy, 464. 

History of Dogmatics, 466. 

Christian Ethics, 481. 

Christ's Work the Basis of Ethics, 485. 

Division of Ethics, 487. 



The History of Ethics, 490. 
The Methodology of Systematic Theology, 
496. 

CHAPTER IV. 

PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Province of Practical Theology, 500. 

Practical Side of Clerical Life, 503. 

Method of Treating Practical Theology, 506. 

History of Practical Theology, 510. 

Catechetics, 514. 

Catechetical Methods, 516. 

The Mental and Spiritual Endowment of a 

Catechist, 520. 
History of Catechetics, 521. 
Theory of Worship — Liturgies, 526. 
Roman Catholic and Protestant Liturgies, 

530. 
Forms of Worship and their Relation to 

Art, 534. 
The Methodology of Liturgies, 541. 
History and Literature of Liturgies, 543. 
Homiletics, 547. 
Homiletical Arrangement and Material, 

553. 
The Method of Homiletics, 560. 
History of Homiletics. 

I. Histoiy of the Christian Sei*mon, 
563. 

II. History of the Theory of Preach- 
ing, 568. 

The Literature of Homiletics, 571. 

Pastoral Theology in its Limited Meaning, 
574. 

The Pastor's Relation to Church and Peo- 
ple, 577. 

Practical Sciences Auxiliary to Pastoral 
Theology, 580. 

The Method of Pastoral Theology, 581. 

History of Pastoral Theology, 583. 

The Further Cultivation of Theological 
Studies, 585. 

Literature of Pastoral Theology, 586. 



PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 



OUR American and English theology has been singularly desti- 
tute of a general introductory work to the theological sci- 
ences. The following Encyclopaedia and Methodology is designed 
to supply this lack. It aims to give an outline of the importance, 
nature, and history of the four great divisions of theological 
study, together with a bibliography of the English and American 
literature. The volume on this subject by the Rev. Dr. Karl 
Hagenbach, who taught Historical Theology many years in Easel 
University, has been so highly esteemed that we liave made it the 
basis of our work. In this edition the bibliography has been en- 
larged and enriched by descriptive accounts of important works. 
To meet the wants of students we have also placed, in an ap- 
pendix, a selection of tlie English and American literature of the 
relations of religion and science, and a list of histories of Chris- 
tian Churches in the United States. We have endeavored, by 
utilizing both the material of Hagenbach and the material added 
by us, to make a handbook for the theological student ; a guide 
to show him the right path of inquiry ; a plan or draft of the 
science, so that by the help here afforded he can see its exterior 
lines, the boundaries of its subdivisions, and can take the whole 
into the compass of a complete survey. 

New York, May 1, 1894. 



INTRODUCTION. 



SECTION I. 

rpHEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA is a survey of all the de- 

-*- partments of theology, with a statement of what has been 

accomplished in each. It is a branch of Universal En- ^ ^ . , 

^ . . , . Definition of 

cyclopaedia. It does not aim, however, to unite within TheoiogicaiEn 
itself the substance of all that deserves to be known, <^y^^op^<^*- 
but rather to comprehend the further development of the science 
as conditioned by its historical character; and, also, to describe its 
form and extent in their inward and outward relations by correctly 
indicating its limits.* 

The position of Theological Encyclopaedia is outside the organism 
of theological science, since its office is to describe that organism 
and open the way into it for the student. On the other hand, how- 
ever, it forms a part of the larger, universal organism 
of scie^ice, and in the character of theological encyclo- 
paedia constitutes a fragment of encyclopaedia in general. Eveiy 
student should endeavour, at the outset, to gain a general idea of 
the range of human knowledge, not for the purpose of superficially 
determining every question, but that he may recognise his true 
place upon the orbis doctrince* 

* "With regard to the force of eyxtJ/cAiOf iraideia, tyKVK2,ia fia^^^fiara {orbis docirinm^ 
Quinctil., i, 16), see Lobeck, Aglaophamus, torn, i, p. 54; Philo, comp. Dahne, Alex. 
Rlgsphil, i, 90; Clem. Alex., Strom., i, pp. 333, 373 (ed. Potter); vi, 781, 787 (in 
opposition to Philosophy in the proper sense) ; vii, 839. The compound form, hyKV- 
KXoiraideia^ is first (?) found in Galen (f A. D. 201); comp. Staudenmaier, Theol. En- 
cykl., p. 3, sqq. ; Pelt, Theol. Encykl., p. 6, sqq. ; Pauly, Realencykl. der klass. Alter- 
thumswiss., s. v. EducaUo, p. 39 ; and my article, Encyklopaedie, in Herzog's Real- 
encykl., iv, p. 9, sqq. 

' " The recognition of the organic whole of the sciences must precede the definite 
pursuit of a specialty. The scholar who devotes himself to a particular study must 
become aeq\iainted with the position it occupies with relation to this whole, and the 
particular spirit that pervades it, as well as the mode of development by which it 
enters into the harmonious union of the whole — hence the method by wliich he is 
himself to estimate his science, in order that he may not regard it in a slavish spirit, 
but independently, and in the spirit of the whole." — Schelling, Method., p. 7. " Phi- 
losophy is substantially encyclopaedia, inasmuch as truth can only be a totality, and 
it is only by observing and determining its differences that the necessity for them, 
3 



6 HISTORY OF ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Both general and special (theological) Encyclopaidia aim to con- 
centrate rather than to dissipate the mental faculties. Encyclo- 
paedia should not degenerate into a pattern-card, but rather resemble 
a map — a comparison that demonstrates itself. But few works of 
recent times fulfil the required object.^ While German resolution 
and thoroughness, in a form that is no longer adequate to the needs 
History of En- ^^ science, appear in Ernesti (Initia Doctrinse Solidioris, 
cyclopaedia. first gd., 1736, and often), the so-called French encyclo- 
pedists brought the science of encyclopaedia into bad odour," so that 
an encyclopedist, like a philosopher, became synonymous with a 
freethinker. The lexical method followed by those writers, which 
now became popular, and was adopted also by the German encyclo- 
pedists,* suffered from the additional disadvantage of being limited 
to the discussion of subject-matter only, and might as readily be 
made to serve the superficial mind for destructive purposes, as to 
aid the cautious scholar in referring to matters that deserve to be 
known. 

As the material deficiencies of the science became apparent, there 
arose also a demand for its organic and comprehensive treatment; 
that is, for a proper science of encyclopaedia. Eschenburg was the 
first to employ the title of Wissenschaftskunde (Introduction to the 
Sciences, third ed., Berlin, 1809), and Jaesche (Prof, at Dorpat) 
wrote an Architektonik der Wissenschaften in 1816.* Large and far- 
reaching views into the organism of the sciences were opened by 
Schelling's Yorlesungen iiber die Methode des akademischen Stu- 

and the freedom of the whole, can be made to coexist. Hence it follows that an en- 
cyclopaedic treatment of science is not to present it in the thorough development ol 
its particulars, but must be confined to the beginning and fundamental ideas of the 
particular science." — Hegel, Encykl. der phil. Wiss., sees. 7 and 9. 

' Concerning the older works — Martianus Capelia (about A. D. 460), Cussiodorua 
(f after 562), Isidore of Seville (f 636), Hugo de St. Victor (f 1141, see Liebner's Mo- 
nographie, p. 96, sqq.\ Vincent of Beauvais (f about 1264), Louis de Yives (f 1540), 
Gerh. Joh. Voss (f 1649), Grotius (f 1645), Lord Bacon (f 1626), J. G. Alsted (f 1638), 
D. G. Morhof (+ 1691, Polyhistor., fourth ed., Liibeck, 1732), Joh. Matth. Gessner 
(f 1756, Isagoge, see Herder's Sophrou., Werke zur Phil, und Gesch., x, p. 253) — 
see Pelt, I. c. 

' (Diderot et d'Alembert) Encyclopedic ou dictionnaire raisonne des scienccg, dds 
arts, et des metiers, etc., Paris, 1751-1772, 28 vols. Comp. Herzog's Encykl., Iv, p. 1, 
and M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclop., s. v. Encyclopaedia, French, etc. 

' Deutsche Encykl, od. allg. Realworterbuch aller Kiinste u. Wissenschaften, etc 
Frankfurt, 1778-1804, (A-Ky), and other works of that day, which have been sup- 
planted by later productions; e. g., H. A. Pierer, Univers.-lex. od. vollst. EncjkL 
Worterbuch. Altenburg, 1822-1836, 26 vols., 8vo., fourth ed.; ibid., 1857-1864. A 
fifth edition was begun at the close of 1867 ; and especially the (not yet complek \ 
Allgem. Encykl. d. "Wissenschaften u. Kiinste, by Ersch and Gruber. 

See Pelt, pp. 12, 13, where additional works are cited; Scheidler, Hodegetik, p 51 



AND METHODOLOGY. 9 

diums (second ed., Tiib., 1813) ; and still earlier Fichte bad consid- 
ered the "Vocation of the Scholar" (Bestimraung des Gelehrten, 
' Berlin, 1794) and his Character (AVesen des Gelehrten, 1806) in an 
ideal light. The works by Heidenreich,* Tittmann,'' Beneke,^ Schei- 
dler,* Mussmann,^ Leutbecher,® Kirchner,' von Schaden,® and others, 
are better adapted to practical requirements, and are of a more 
methodological character. 

With reference to the nature of the encyclopaedia of theolo^^y it 
should be observed that the real- encyclopaedia, or dictionary, Tvhich 
contains the subject-matter of theological knowledge, 
is distinct from the encyclopaedia in our sense. The Sf^ig'^^ 
value of the former consists in the completeness of the ciopasdia, or 
matter to be imparted,® while the latter seeks to avoid 
crushing the mind beneath the weight of a mass of knowledge, and 
confusing the vision by the number of objects to be presented. It 
confines itself, instead, to the work of pointing out the road to be 
pursued. The aims of encyclopaedia are not the objects sought by 
the different branches of theology, but those hra7iches themselves.^" 
It is, of course, impossible to separate a study from its object, or 
the form from its matter, for the one conditions the other ; and, 
therefore, encyclopaedia will be compelled to put on flesh, unless it 
is to become a naked skeleton. The matter, however, which it con- 

'Ueber aie zweckmiissige Anwendung der Universitatsjahre. Leipsig, 1804. 

*Ueber die Bestimm. des Gelehrten u. seine Bildung durch Schule u. Universitat. 
Berlin, 1833. (The Vocation of the Scholar: The Nature of the Scholar, and its 
Manifestations. Both translated by Dr. Wm. Smith. London, John Chapman, 1848.) 

*Einl. ins akad. Studium. Gottingen, 1826. 

• Grundriss der Hodegetik od. Methodik des akad. Studiums. Jena, 1832 ; second ed., 
1839; third ed., 1847. 

' Vorlesungen lib. d. Studium d. Wissenschaften u. Kunste, etc. Halle, 1832. 

• Abriss d. Methodologie d. akad. Studiums. Erlangen, 1834 (p. 15, sqq. — ^the older 
and more recent literature in this field). The same author has translated Van Heusde, 
Socrat. Schule, parts 1 and 2, Encyklopadie. Erlangen, 1840. 

' Akad. Propadeutik od. Vorbereitungswissensch. zum akad. Studium. Leipsig, 1842. 
Hodegetik od. Wegweiser zur Universitat fiir Studierende. Leipsig, 1852. Compa:*, 
also, Fritz, Vers. ub. die zu d. Studien erforderlichen Eigenschaften. Strasburg, 1883. 

'Ueber akad. Leben u. Studium. Marburg, 1845. 

• Real-encyklopadie fiir protestant. Theologie u. Kirche, by J. J. Herzog, assisted bj 
other Proiestant scholars and theologians. 22 vols. Gotha, 1854-1868. Partially 
translated by Bomberger, of Philadelphia, 1856, sqq. Of Roman Catholic works : Jos. 
Ashbach, Allgem. Kirchen-lexikon. Frankfurt, 1846-50, 4 vols., 8vo. Wetzer arid 
Welte, Kirchen-lexikon, od. Encykl. der kath. Theologie u. ihrer Hulfswissenschaftcn. 
Freiburg, 1846-1860. 12 vols., 8vo., with index. 

*'In other words, "The object of encyclopaedia is the organism of science rather 
than its subject-matter, since it aims to discover the relations existing between th« 
manifold branches of knowledge." — Harless, p. 2. 



10 RELATION OF ENCYCLOPEDIA 

nects with its descriptions is only designed to aid in comprehend- 
ing the form. But inasmuch as the science is not definitely com- 
plete, being rather in process of growth, it becomes a matter of ]»ri- 
mary importance that its ideal object should be brought into vic^w, 
by the clear pointing out of the goal it strives to reach. This like- 
wise requires a substantial foothold, a 66g fioL ttov ffrw, without 
which the entire structure will be a castle in the air. Care must, 
however, be taken that the footstool be not regarded as the top 
most round in the heavenly ladder, beyond which lies an infinite 
perspective. Encyclopaedia thus becomes not merely "a descrip- 
tion of the circle of human knowledge as it should 5e, nor yet a dis- 
cussion of the character of that circle as it is . . . it is the under- 
standing of what has come into being, through the recognition of 
its 6/id" (Harless, Theol. Ency., etc., p. 459.) 

SECTION IL 

The relation of theological encyclopaedia to the body of theolog- 
ical science is twofold ; it stands at the threshold of the course as 
an introductory science, and it serves a complementary 
cyclopaedia to purpose for him who has arrived at its end, by collect- 

eo ogy. • j^^ together the results obtained. Upon this distinction 

in the relations it sustains to the whole course of study will, in great 
measure, depend its treatment. In the former aspect it is predom- 
inantly stimulating, methodological, working toward its object, 
which in the latter case has been attained and passed. The proof 
of every truly scientific method consists in this — that the beginning 
and the end correspond; and that what proceeds from a living con- 
ception of things and their relations, shall again lead to a deeper 
spiritual apprehension and insight of the object sought. 

This distinction has generally received too little attention in con- 
nexion with the teaching of Encyclopaedia.* Most of the recent 
encyclopaedias have not only attempted to introduce the student 
into the field of theology, but also to develop the science itself. In 
this regard the whole of theology is greatly indebted to Schleier- 
macher's little book." But all men are not Schleiermachers. He, 
like all reforming spirits, closed an old, and at the same time opened 
a new, era. And yet that very book presents insurmountable diffi- 
culties to the beginner. An encyclopaedia for the learned (virtuosos 
was Schleiermacher's term) should certainly exist, for the study of 

* See Harless, § 4, p. 2. 

'Kurze Darstellung des theol. Studiums, etc. 2d ed., Berlin, 1830. fComp. tin 
history of encycl. at the end of Part I.) (Brief Outline of i.r.« Htud, jt Thaologf 
Translated by William Farrer, T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh.) 



TO THEOLOGY. 11 

encyclopaedia, fite that of the catechism, can never be pertains both 
exhausted; and as exponents change with varyins: maa:- ^ '^® begin- 

./ o o tilufi and th<^ 

nitudes, so does encyclopaedia keep pace with science, end of the^iog- 
It forms tlie dial-plate to the mechanism of the clock. *^^^ stnay. 
But to introduce the pupil into the deliberations of the masters, and 
allow him to participate in forecasting the future before he has 
comprehended the present, would be to reap where we should sow. 
It might, therefore, be wise to recommend that every student should 
give attention to encyclopaedia twice, provided that it be presented 
from these two points of view — the beginning and the end of the 
course. The present encyclopaedia professes to belong to the intro- 
ductory class.* 

SECTION III. 

Methodology (Hodegetics) is applied encyclopaedia ; for a true 
conception of the nature and combinations of the sci- Definition ot 
ence will lead to its correct treatment; and as an ency- Methodology, 
clopaedic comprehension is the necessary condition of a correct 
method, so the latter demonstrates the former. 

In other words. Methodology contains " the regulative conclusions 
from the principles and historical character of a science, which are 
requisite for the process of appropriation."' These conclusions 
might be properly regarded as self-evident, were it not that many 
unpractised persons whom introductory encyclopaedia is designed 
to aid require some guidance. Introductory encyclopaedia will, 
therefore, in proportion as it has comprehended its task, of neces- 
sity assume a methodological character, without finding it requisite 
to tow methodology in its wake as a supplementary and distinct 
study. For works on General Methodology (Hodegetics) see on 
Section I. 

SECTION IV. 

Two dangers are to be avoided in connection with Methodology: 
first, that of failing, by reason of the numerous objects 
presented from without, to attain to a connected view treatment mI 
and an intellectual control of the subject-matter (a false ®* ° ° °^- 

* This distinction does not imply, however, that introductory encyclopatdia differs 
materially from the complementary. The relation is, rather, that of the germ to the 
fruit, of the school-grammar to the fully-rounded system of instruction in language. 
It furnishes the first lines toward an art which must be perfected by study. Nor 
does it imply that the masters are in the possession of an esoteric learning, while the 
pupils are obliged to content themselves with mere exoteric knowledge. The lowest 
roand upon the ladder conducts toward the highest, but no round may be overleaped. 
In science, as elsewhere, intermediate stages have their value ; and a view from be- 
neath creates a different impression from that obtained by a view in perispective from 
above. ' Harless, p. 6, 



13 THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE HAS 

empiricism) ; and second, that of being puffed up with the conceit 
of idealistic wisdom, which loses sight of actual life and its condi- 
tions, as ordered of God, and consequently mistakes and fails to 
realize the true object of science, and, more than all, the life- object 
of the theologian. 

Lord Bacon makes use of a suggestive figure upon this pcint, 
when he compares the raw empiric to an ant^ the idealistic dreamer 
to a spider^ and the true devotee of science to a hee. The previous 
age suffered more from the first ailment, the present languishes 
under the influence of the second. 

"Non scholae sed vitas discendum," is an old maxim.* The schooJ 
and actual life are not, however, to form a contrast; for life is itself 
Life the object ^ school, and the school is designed to prepare for life, 
of all study. to impart life, to beget and promote life. What do we 
understand by life ? If it be explained to denote the multiplicity 
and diversity of objects among which we are placed and with which 
we are interwoven, without understanding our experience, life cer- 
tainly forms a contrast with science, whose office it is to unify this 
very multiplicity of diversity, and to seek an inward comprehension 
of the objects presented from without. But while penetrating their 
nature, it first mmfies them, and not until this has been done can 
we realize that we have hitherto been employed upon dead matter 
Science, however, can only give life by entering into things, not by 
taking its stand, as an abstract theory, over against them. In the 
latter character it is itself dead, and its corpse-like pallor is more 
repulsive to the mind than even the diversified and fluctuating play 
of life. If the life is to assume a scientific character, it will be 
necessary that science should also live; they must react upon each 
other. Kant strikingly observes, "Ideas without observation are 
empty ^ and observation without ideas is hlind.^"* 

The maxim that " theory has become gray " has often been abused 
in the service of a lazy empiricism. Among medical men empirics 
Theological ^^'^ Contrasted with " rational physicians," and the term 
empiricism, jg applied especially to persons who are entirely governed 
by the accidental circumstances of a particular disease presented to 
their notice, and the accidental possession of remedies which, by a 
sort of mechanical routine, they have become accustomed to employ, 
and who lack the ability to rise into a higjher and more legitimatt 
method of treatment based on scientific diagnosis. But empirics are 
also found in theology; and their empiricism is manifested in two 

' Comp. Herder, in the Sophron. Werke zur Philos., x, p. 207, sqq. Ceteros enim 
pudeat, qui se ita litteris abdiderunt, ut nihil possint ex his neque ad communem 
aifere fructum neque in aspectum lucemque proferre. Cic. Orat. pro Archia poeta, c. 6 



LIFE FOR ITS OBJECT. 13 

different directions, and from two thoroughly opposite religious 
points of view. The one is ascetlcally pious, and imagines that 
I)ractical piety will be all-sufficient; perhaps defending itself witli 
the plea that the apostles themselves were unlearned men, thus mis- 
interpreting the connexion between primitive Christianity and the 
requirements of the present age. This tendency has always found 
supporters among persons who are too indolent to study or think, or 
has been ironically advocated by the class which occupies the stand- 
point of extreme idealism, and despairs of the scientific character of 
theology.* The other is thQ phila7ithropic, cosmopolitan view (allied 
to the older rationalism), which restricts the duty of the clergyman 
to lecturing and enlightening the public, and, therefore, regards an 
encyclopaedic training in a normal school as possessing the highest 
value. Theological knowledge and dogmatic proficiency are thrown 
overboard. It calls for practical men. Its idea of practical Chris- 
tiimity differs from that of pious empiricism, however — a proof that 
even the most trivial schemes cannot be sustained without a previ- 
ous scientific explanation. 

The bad repute into which science has been brought 
with both these classes is not, however, the fault of J^en^^de^ 
science itself, but of its caricature, which constitutes and learned 
the most wretched of all empiricisms, because it is ^' 

thoroughly impracticable in its nature. We refer to that dry 
learning which simply heaps up lumber, and smothers itself with 
the dust of books, without attaining to a clear consciousness of 
what it is doing, or of the object toAvards which study is direct- 
ed.' Learnedness and scholarship are unlike. There may be 
very learned persons who are unable to appreciate science; and 
although science cannot exist apart from learning, it is yet possible 

* Strauss, GlaubensL, ii, p. 625. *' Theological study, formerly the means employed 
to prepare for the service of the Church, now forms the most direct road to unfitness 
for that service. The cobbler's bench, the writing-room, and any other place that ia 
secure against the entrance of science, now constitute better places for preparatory 
practice for the ministi-y than the universities and seminaries. Religious idiots and 
self-taught theologians, the leaders and speakers of pietistic gatherings — these con- 
stitute the clergy of the future." 

'Kant (Anthropologic, p. 164) says: "There is a gigantic erudition which is yet 
Cyclopean, in that it lacks an eye with which to comprehend rationally, and for a pur- 
|»3e, this mass of historic knowledge, the burden of a hundred camels, viz., the eye 
Df a true philosophy." With reference to this mechanical knowledge, in which the 
memory does not operate as the " energy of mental retention," but simply as a store- 
house of perceptions, compare Carblom also (Das Gefiihl, etc., p. ^^sqq.)\ "The moa^ 
repulsive exhibition of this kind is afforded by the spiritual office, when simply th* 
tongue, hand, and foot of the clergyman are engaged in it, but not his spii it, to %m 
nothing of the Spirit of God." 



i'i THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE 

to display the scientific spirit in a high degree, in cases where the 
learning is confined within very narrow limits (as with a youthful 
student). Learning without scientific culture commonly W4ars the 
garb of school-boy pedantry, except when it simply has the appear- 
ance of a superficial acquaintance with many studies; it at once 
dries up and inflates the mind, and, being confined within the nar- 
row boundaries of its specialty, its estimate of other branches oi 
knowledge is often coarse and contemptuous. 

While, however, it is admitted that a false empiricism exists, 
whose unscientific character is manifest, even when it appears in 
the garb of learning, there is also a falsely vaunted science (1 Tim. 
vi, 20), which superciliously spreads itself under that usurped name, 
but in the end dissolves into empty vapour. The present gene- 
True method of ration should be warned against both errors, with an 

mauing theo- emphasis increasing with the separation which exists 

logical science ^ ° . ^ , 

practical. between the school and actual life, and in proportion as 

the contrast between scientific theology and the practical perform- 
ance of clerical duties threatens to become irreconcilable.* If it be 
true, that every science which lacks suflicient support from observa- 
tion and experience resembles the soap-bubble, in which the colours 
of the light are, indeed, magnificently displayed, but which bursts 
at the slightest breath of air, it is especially true of theological sci- 
ence, which can only lay claim to the name and character of a dis- 
tinct science by reason of its living relations to religion and the 
Church. It should accordingly be required, in the interests of gen- 
uine science, that the study of theology be made practicaly but 
practical in the sense that the science itself is to become action^ 
that the indwelling word of life is to be made flesh, and the inhe- 
ring germ of life to produce appropriate fruit. Science must be- 
come a salt that shall penetrate the entire mass; "but if the salt 
have lost its savour, wherewith may we salt ? " 

"The letter is not science!" True; but the mind cannot dispense 
evjin with the letter. It must achieve its results through the 
Word, the firm, clear, living Word, not by means of idle words; 
but without the letter there can be no words, and no Word. Gen- 
!iine science is as far removed from a dead materialism as from a 
dead formalism and an empty idealism. It deals with the nature 
of mind and the nature of things, and in this light it becomes at 
once both realism and idealism. The idea of science is conditioned 

* " Is, then, the historical knot to be so solved, as that Christianity must take sidei 
with barbarism, and science with unbelief?" was the question of Schleiermacher, 
thirty years ag-o. Compare the preface to the Prot. Kirchenzeiturg fur das evaug. 
Deutschland. ISU. 



MUST BE PRACTICAL. 15 

by thoroughness, clearness, depth, free activity, and originality of 
thought,' in connexion with caution and soberness of judgment, as 
opposed to superficial and confused thinking, shallowness, dullness, 
servile subjection to prejudices old and new, pedantic dryness, and 
boorish narrowness. It will, moreover, maintain a steady regard 
for the purely human while pressing toward the divine. Ii certainly 
s?ems as if clearness at times detracted from depth, or dejith froiu 
Clearness; but dullness and a fluid-like transparency carried to the 
verge of shallowness, should no more be confounded with clearness, 
than a darkly-brooding, shadow-loving stupidity should be identi- 
fied with depth. Shallow-headedness finds every thing obscure that 
is beyond its comprehension, while wrong-headedness attributes the 
profoundest depth to the very thing it fails to understand. 

It is no doubt true that he who would be eminent in science must 
confine himself to a single branch (a specialty) ; but devotion to a 
specialty should not begin too early. The general cul- 
ture, which itself involves progressive gradations, must ing should pre- 
precede the special. Elementary schools call the desire ®®^® special. 
to know into being; the gymnasial training strengthens and intensi 
fies its character. The training, whose method was conditioned by 
the study of languages and mathematics, realizes its higher object 
in the departments of history and the natural sciences. The univer- 
sity training follows, not only to bring the whole field of science 
within the range of vision, but also to concentrate the efforts of the 
student by assigning to him a definite field of learning. Not until 
the university studies are ended is the practical preparation for 
active life in place, whether for the pastorate, or for independent 
scholarly investigations with a view to carrying forward the theo- 
retical development of science by means of authorship or academ- 
ical instruction. 

SECTION V. 

CHOICE OF THE THEOLOGICAL VOCATION. 

Dan. Schenkel, Die Bedeutung des gelstllchen Berufs, etc., in Stud. u. Krit., 1852, p. 205, sqq. ; 
Hagenbach, Ueber die Abnahme des theol. Studiums, in Kirchenbl. fur die ref. Schwelz, 1856, 
Nos. 6 and 7 ; Ibid., 1862, and Gelzer's Monatsbl., 1863, January ; Dieckboff (rutn. Cath.), Uebe/ 
den Beruf u. d. Vorbereitung 2aiDi geistl. Stande, Paderborn, 1859. 

Although the study of encyclopaedia is necessary to the theologian 
for a clear understanding of the nature of his work, it is yet proper 
to require that every person who enters thereon should have 
reached a general conception of the position he expects to occupy 

*No absolute originality is intended, but simply independent reproduction. "To 
accept and submit to authority," says Marheineke, " is not unworthy of an indepen- 
dent spirit. But the mind must reserve to itself, especially in scientific matters, tbe 
right to know and understand the authority in the principle of its necessity." 



16 THEOLOGICAL STUDY NOT 

in human society, and that he should have formed a clear and satis- 
factory idea of the nature of the calling to which he gives himself 
in the exercise of his own independent choice. 

We begin with the concrete, with the individual and his relation 
to the science. What urges you to the study of theology? Die 
Worldly mo- ^^^ ^^^^ ^® inquire of every candidate who is an- 
tives for the nounced. Dat Galenus opes, dat Justinianus honoiTs. 
ogy not suffl- Neither of these can come into question here (Matt, x, 
«ient. g^ sqq.), even less in our day than heretofore. Is it 

matter for complaint, that the time is over in which persons stud- 
ied theology in the expectation that they would soon receive an 
assured provision for their wants, and be able to lead a life devoid 
of care ? * Nor is it a misfortune that theology is no longer the 
outer court through which the scholar engaged in the pursuit of 
other objects must, pass in order to secure official position in the 
schools. None are compelled to become theologians, unless they 
choose. The apostle's words, "Let a man examine himself," and 
"he that eateth and drinketh unworthily, eateth and drinketh 
damnation to himself," are not without significance in this connex- 
ion also, where no mere bread-and-butter science in the usual sense 
is involved," but, the dispensing of the bread and drawing of the 
water of life itself.' 

' We recommend to persons who still entertain such desires, the perusal of Valen- 
tin Andrea's glorious poem, Das gute Leben eines rechtschaffenen Dieners Gottes, in 
Herder's Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie (No. 49), lately published by Lau- 
rent (1865); and also the twenty-fourth of Herder's own letters. 

' Hoc intelligamus, hominum duo essa genera, altei'um indoctum et agreste, quod 
anteferat semper utilitatem honestati, alteram humanum et politum, quod rebus om- 
nibus dignitatem anteponat. Cicero Orat. part. c. 25. Comp. Anc'llon, Vermittlung 
der Extreme, i, 4*7 ; Herder, 1. c. : " There is scarcely one among the learned classes 
that contains so many cripples as does the clergy ; necessities, poverty, ignoble am- 
bition, hundreds of miserable motives, urge people to that work, so that God is fre- 
quently obliged to accept the refuse instead of the firstlings of its kind." — The twenty- 
fifth letter : " Perhaps no study has in all ages had so few to serve it with entire faith- 
fulness, as theology ; precisely, however, for the reason that it is an almost superhuman, 
divine — the most difficult study." " He who devotes himself to the Church," says 
Daub, "and to that end studies theology, will miss his aim, if he simply desires a 
church office that he may have life, sustenance, comforts, ease, honour, etc. ; for 
while he considers the office as a means, and himself or the gratification of his desiroa 
as an end, he can never become a church officer, but must remain a hireling ' See 
Daub and Creuzer, Studien, ii, p. 67. 

' Archbishop Leighton speaks, in like manner, of " men ministering the doctrine of 
salvation to others, and not to themselves ; carrying it all in their heads and tongues, 
and none of it in their hearts ; not hearing it, even while they preach it ; reaching the 
bread of life to others, and eating none of it themselves." — Commentary on 1 Peter, 
ch. i pp. 10-12. 



A WORLDLY PURSUIT. 17 

SECTION VI. 

The resolution to study theology will be inspired more especially 

either by the influence of practical religion, or by the love of study, 

in accordance with the varyinff peculiarities of natural . , , 

... ,, -r ^ desire for 

endowment, and of previous traming and culture. It both religion 

v^ill be sufficient in the beginning that a disposition and needfuMo^Se 

'lesire for both religion and learning should exist, to- study of theoi- 

gether with a general conviction that piety without ^^^' 

learning is as incapable of forming a theologian, as is learning 

without piety. 

Young men who approach the study of theology do not invaria- 
bly bring from their homes an assured religious consciousness, so as 
to be able to say, with Schleiermacher, " Piety was the maternal 
womb, in whose sacred darkness my young life was nourished and 
prepared for entrance on the as yet inaccessible world." Not all 
of them are Timothies, of whom it may be said that they have 
"known the Holy Scriptures" from their childhood (2 Tim. iii, 15), 
although such characters are not, upon the whole, very uncommon. 
It is, after all, the correct principle, that the desire to study theol- 
ogy should spring from religious impulses, even though much that 
is confused and sickly be in particular instances involved. It is the 
office of study to clear up the uncertain, and to correct the sickly tone 
of the mind. Experience has shown that an unconquerable religious 
impulse to become a minister of God whether as pastor or as mis- 
sionary has enabled many, even in advanced years, to surmount the 
difficulties which opposed their resolution; and, however supercil- 
iously the fact may be criticised (comp. § 4, note 2), it is true that 
the writer's desk, the cobbler's or the tailor's bench, have contrib- 
uted servants to the Church of whom she has no cause to be 
ashamed, while the same boast will not apply to all who have simply 
stepped from the schoolroom into theology. 

Such, however, are exceptional cases. The rule probably is, that 
with a majority of persons who have received a proper preparatory 
education, the resolution to study is formed before they come to de- 
cide upon the particular course in which they will engage. Prac- 
tical considerations have less effect upon their determination than 
theoretical; and this again is proper, provided the religious factor 
be not reduced to zero in making the decision. When religious 
motives are not ignored in such a case, a real study of theology 
serves naturally to increase their power; for scientific interest is 
as certainly conditioned by religious interest, as the religious by 
the scientific. Each must increase with, and be nourished by, 

the other. 
3 



18 THE EXALTED POSITION 

Within the circle of the sciences persons may, moreover, be de- 
termined to theology by a variety of endowments. So philology 

_. .^. becomes for some the bridge into theoloffv, while others 
Premonitions i m t • * 

of a vocation come to it through philosophy, oratorical, or artistic 
to theology. g.£^g^ ^j, ^ talent for teaching. The future theologian 
may be suspected in the person who at school displays readiness in 
the acquisition or use of languages, just as a mind turned toward 
the natural sciences indicates the future physician, political econo- 
mist, or technicist.* 

As a preliminary qualification, the existence of a genuinely scien- 
tific spirit must be considered important. The more a religious 
mind is in earnest about the determination to study, the less will it 
yield to the vagary that piety can take the place of learning ; and 
the more thoroughly the studious disposition enters into science, the 
more powerful will be its conviction that a sound theology cannot 
exist without piety, since all theological truth becomes intelligible 
only in the light of religion. The sharp contrast between " pious " 
and " scientific " students can be obviated on no other principle. 

SECTION VII. 

Without anticipating the discussion of the special place belong- 
ing to the clergy (§ 17), we now include them in the category of 
teacherSy whose high importance demands recognition 
S^heS^^he fii'st of all. We therefore remark that the order of 
highest in so- teachers stands first among the cultivators of man's 
^^^ ^' spiritual nature, and is superior, in this regard, to the 

legislative and artist classes. 

This exaltation of the teaching order is, however, in no wise in- 
tended to excite learned or spiritual pride. The agriculturist and 
the soldier are likewise of great importance to the organism of 
society ; and they, too, may, in the hand of God, become an element 
of culture and development. The cultivation of the soil was the 
most ancient teaching of mankind, and the sword of the warrior 

* Great importance should be attached to such natural indications ; nothing is more 
hurtful than a human predestination to any study, and especially that of theology. 
The days when it was believed important to dedicate children in the cradle to God by 
devoting them to the pulpit, are probably over. But how many sons of clergymen 
adopt the paternal calling in obedience to family custom, without being inwardly 
moved thereto either by religious or scientific considerations ! The inclinations of a 
child or youth are not, of course, to be held decisive in every case ; but Goethe ia 
probably correct when he says, " Our desires are premonitions of the abilities that lie 
in us, intimations of what we shall be able to perform. The things we can and wish 
to accomplish present themselves to our imagination from without and as future ; we 
feel a longing for that which we already secretly possess." Autobiography, vol. i, 
pp. 331, 332. 



OF THE WORLD'S TEACHERS. 19 

opened the earliest furrows into which the seed of culture might 
fall. Commerce and manufactures became the most powerful levers 
of culture in the Middle Ages. It accordingly is a blinded judg- 
ment which conceives of the height that industrial Teachers not an 
life has reached in our day, as being purely material- isolated orderof 
istio. The range of encyclopaedic culture involves ^°^^^^' 
rather that such facts, however distant from the field of the- 
ology they may lie, should be estimated in accordance with their 
social importance; and to theology in particular, unless it prefers 
to perish in monastic isolation, belongs the task of comprehending 
these " secular matters " in their relations to the household of God 
and the sacred order of his kingdom, in harmony with the apostle's 
thought, " all things are yours." (1 Cor. iii, 21.) In that divine order 
each thing is linked with every other thing, and the most material 
elements strive to become spiritualized. Accordingly, the military 
calling finds its spiritual expression in legislation, and the handi- 
craft rises to the dignity of an art; but both legislation and art rise 
above the preliminary conditions illustrated by the soldier and the 
artisan, since the former not only controls wickedness by the re- 
straints of law, but also establishes the fundamental principles of 
behaviour in the State, and the latter does not confine itself to the 
adorning of the sensual life, but, in addition, spiritualizes the sen- 
sual in harmony with its ideal character, and employs it for ideal 
purposes. 

The legends of immemorial times, and the traditions of later ages, 
have always represented artists and legislators as the spiritual lead- 
ers of mankind, and as revealers of the godlike, who derived their 

oris^in from heaven.* They, too, are teachers of man- ^ , , 

° . . Ill . ^® relation of 

kmd in a certain sense, although not m the complete teaching to art 

and highest sense; for with the one the teaching ele- ^-^^ legislation. 
ment is subordinate to the purposes of illustration, and with the 
other it is secondary to the idea of absolute rule. Mere law has in 
itself no life; its whole importance depends upon external condi- 
tions : it can onlv determine the outward character of human action 
with reference to a given case. Habit and custom may enable the 
power of the law to penetrate into the depths of the moral disposi- 
tion, and from thence to put forth shoots; but law will never be 
able to develop the actual root of the moral life from within itself. 
Art, on the other hand, is uncertain and undecided in its effects. 
Every work of art is a concealed symbol, to be interpreted only 

*Odyss., xix, 1*79. Herod., i, 66. Plutarch, vita Lycurgi, c. 6; vita Numae, c 4. 
Anthol. graeca, iv, 81. Philostrat. vita ApoUonii, vi, 19. Jacobs, academische Re- 
den, i, 862. 



30 THE TEACHING FUNCTION SUPEEIOR 

by the cultured person who has been initiated into the interior life 
of art; to the uncultivated mind it remains an unexplained hiero- 
glyphic/ But what is beyond the ability of both law and art is 
accomplished by the living word of teaching alone. It goes down 
into the depths of human dispositions, taps every vein, passes 
through every stage of culture, addresses both the child and the 
adult; and as the magic of art calls forth a god from the rough 
block of marble, so does the powerful magic of the word bring into 
view the image of God from the undeveloped spiritual tendencies 
in man. In this regard the teacher unites in himself, and with in- 
creased efficiency, the functions of both legislator and artist with 
reference to the cultivation of mankind. He is the bearer of the 
divine, an administrator in the domain of holy things, a priest of 
God. Without an order of teachers men would still be in a savage 
or half-civilized state. The heritage of culture is forever vsecured 
and guaranteed to a people only where wise men, scholars, philoso- 
phers, orators, poets, '^ prophets, authors, in one word, the instructors 
of mankind have by vivid employment of the vernacular given 
their intellectual treasures to the public, and, through the medium 
of a free circulation of ideas, have developed a common conscious- 
ness, the results so gained being embodied in history for the ben- 
efit of succeeding generations. 

SECTION vm. 

Inasmuch as the teaching-order is preeminently the spiritual 
trainer of mankind, it follows that only a religion which has a 
body of doctrine, and consequently an order of teachers, will corre- 
spond to the idea of religion in its highest form. 

Religion (on its nature see infra, § 12), which we consider for the 
moment, in its general character, as the highest interest of man, 
Superiority of ^'^uld only appear, in any period, under the three forms 
the teaching of of Law^ Art, and Teaching, discussed in the preceding 
trine to law Section. The laws of ancient peoples were religiously 
and art. sacred ; priests and scholars were at the same time polit- 

ical and religious personages. This fact rests upon the truth that 
ideas of right have their origin in the eternal laws of reason, and, 

* Griineisen, referring to Grecian art, observes very correctly : " It was the lack of 
positiveness, power, and depth, the unsettled and undecided elements in the moral 
consciousness, and its influence over the world-view and artistic conceptions of the 
Greeks, that permitted illusions and immorality to intrude upon this field also, and 
that in the end opposed with steadily decreasing energy the superior force of moral 
corruption." Compare his treatise, Ueber das Sittlicbe der bildenden Kunst bei den 
Griechen, p. 14. 

• Poets convey art and instruction through spirit and word. 



TO ART AISTD LEGISLATION. 21 

therefore, in the Divine; but what was true in the idea became 
perverted by the abuse of the spirit in the letter. The law can 
only represent the eternal by an inadequate comparison with the 
temporal, whose conditions are limited and modified by existing 
states. When circumstances undergo a change, the law becomes 
a dead statute. Law is moreover deficient in seizing upon only a 
single aspect of religion — that of unconditional obedience and the 
consequent recompense. It knows nothing of an unconstrained 
love and enthusiasm. Upon this latter point art is in advance of 
law. It assumes the infinite (ideal), and makes that its object; but 
in the qualities in which law is too rigid, art appears entirely too 
free and unrestrained. The moral element, which appears in the 
law under the rigid form of commandment, is here entirely subor- 
dinate; it is neither desired nor allowed to become prominent, for 
fear that it might injure the purposes of art which accounts for 
the mongrel character of all didactic poetry ; but art can never 
displace doctrine, because its function is not, primarily, to teach. 

A merely assthetic religion, a mere " worship of genius," is quite 
as deficient as a merely legal religion. The latter lacks the power, 
the former the discipline, of the spiritual element ; the one is deficient 
in not providing for the free exercise of the religious disposition, 
the other in not possessing the strict principles and the impelling 
power of the ethical.* It follows that the doctrine, the word, in- 
struction, and sermon {Sidaxfi, Aoyo^", KarrixTjaig, Krjpvyfjta) occupy 
a higher place than either law or art, the two inadequate modes of 
revealing the life of religion. Teaching possesses the ability to 
excite the entire man to action. It arouses feeling — to create it is 
beyond its ability also — develops the understanding, and gives 
direction, although not ability, to the will. It lifts man out of the 
undecided chaos of impressions into a hannoniously-developed ra- 
tional life, and treats him as a free, self-determining nature. It is 
the "fountain of life, to depart from the snares of death" (Prov- 
erbs xiii, 14). 

SECTION IX. 

The conclusion reached in the foregoing discussion may be his- 
torically illastrated by the Jewish, heathen, and Christian religions, 
since the development of Judaism has been chiefly in the direction 
of law, of heathenism in the direction of art, and of Christianity in 
the direction of doctrine. 

The Jews were the people under the law {ol vnd rov vofiov). The 

* Valuable observations on this point in Ullmann^s work, Der Cultus des Genius, 
Hamb., 1840. 



22 THE SUPERIORITY OF TEACHING 

law was conditioned by the theocracy. So long as the latter con- 
Superiority of ti^^^^^^j ^^^ ^^^ retained the peculiar importance as- 
the teaching signed to it in the Divine economy (John iv, 22). It con- 
and art tuus- taincd elements (oroLxsla) of Divine training that tended 
trated. toward a higher development, and became a school- 

master (naidayGyyog) working toward perfection (Gal. iii, 24; iv, 3), 
The prophetical institution was already introduced as the necessary 
complement of the law, and of the priesthood founded upon law. 
A still more decided turning toward doctrine is apparent after the 
Captivity. Provision for teaching is made in the synagogues, 
which, however, affords opportunity for the perversions of Phari- 
saism to vaunt themselves, until the true Teacher, sent of God, 
appears in Israel. In ancient heathenism art formed the leading 
element of religion, attaining its highest development in Hellen- 
ism (the gods of Greece).* While, however, the Jews strove in 
vain to express from the rind of the law the last drop of the juice 
of life, and the statues of gods left the heart as cold as the marble 
from which they were carved, and while only a dreamy suspicion of 
the existence of an " unknown God" pervaded the nations, the hu- 
manized divine doctrine, the Logos, the Word from heaven that 
was made flesh," was walking quietly and humbly among men in the 
form of a servant, and scattering the seed which should produce 
the Divine regeneration of the nations. Preaching gave birth to 
faith (Rom. x, 17), and faith to love, while love bloomed in the life 
that conquers death. The worship of God in spirit and in truth 
took the place of the law, and the altar of "the unknown God" 
received name and significance. 

The inter-relation of these elements should, however, be ob- 
served. In each of the religious systems to which we have re- 
ferred, the three, law, art, and doctrine, exist, although in vary- 

' " Heathenism," says Rust (Philos. u. Christenthum, 2 ed., p. 103), " had no lumi 
notis teaching in which the result of the development of its religions life was laid 
down, and it had no need for it. Instead of doctrine, it cultivates a mighty symbol- 
ism, which has emanated from its own being, a concrete representation of its relig- 
ious spirit to the senses." (Also in Griineisen, at § 7.) "Nowhere in heathendom 
does the human spirit rise above natural conceptions. In the figures of his gods the 
heathen beholds simply the form of his own being." Schenkel, Der ethische Char- 
akter des Christenthums, in Gelzer's Prot. Monatsbl., 1857, p. 44; comp., also, p. 47: 
'• The pagan systems of religion exhaust their strength in the effort to construct a 
thoughtful and frequently artistic symbolism. They are extravagant in ceremonial 
manipulations and changeless customs, but indifForent about moral manifestations, and 
anconccrned about the eternal nature of things." 

' It is scarcely necessary to observe that no attempt to exhaust the Logos idea, in 
an exegetical or dogmatic way, is here implied. 



OR DOCTRINE ILLUSTRATED. 23 

Iiig proportions and combinations. Not only does Judaism, by. vir- 
tue of its worship, include artistic elements, and the law .^ ^ 
stand forth in religious dignity among the heathen, but Doctrine co-re- 
doctrine also seeks to gain acceptance with both Jews ^^^' 
and pagans. The prophetic order toiled for this among the Jews, 
as did philosophy among the Greeks. The great importance of 
Socrates consists in this, that he turned the attention of philosophy 
away from nature and toward man, that he aroused reflection upon 
moral and religious questions, and that he represented in himself 
the noblest work of art — a moral renovation. Christianity, on the 
other hand, includes in its constitution both law and art; for to the 
extent to which " man's highest work of art is man," ^ will appear 
the representation of a pure man, which existed in Socrates only as 
an effort, in absolute perfection in Christ, the Divine Son of man; 
hence the ideal Christ represents art's highest task. Christ, in like 
manner, came not to destroy the law, but to fulfil it ; in harmony 
with which principle, it cannot be disguised that modern art and 
the public life of modern nations are essentially determined by the 
teachings of Christianity. That Christianity is not a mere abstract 
system of doctrine, but a living xoord, a higher law, and independent 
(art-) work of the Spirit, will appear from what follows. 

SECTION X. 

The teaching function of Christianity is more strongly empha- 
sized by Protestantism than by Roman Catholicism, since the latter 
elevates law and art, at least to the level of doctrine, while with 
the former doctrine holds the first place. 

In the apostolic age teaching was the leading element, most fully 
developed in the Pauline Christianity, while the Ebionitish Judaiz- 
ing Christianity retained a legal character, and Gnosticism severed 
the doctrine from its historical foundations, and carried it back into 
mythology. At a later period the body of doctrine, 
after having been speculatively and ecclesiastically de- function more 
veloped, was held in the unyielding restrictions of protestantism* 
dogma, and became rigid. A theoretical legalism was than in Rom- 
developed side by side with a practical righteousness ^°^^°^' 
of works, and as the latter manifested itself, as formerly in Judar 
ism, only in the performance of ecclesiastical ceremonies, a supera- 
bundance of symbolic and artistic matter was produced, which, in 
its turn, served to encourage the legal spirit. The two elements 
are combined in the established canon of the mass. The unlicensed 
sensuality of common life at last resulted again in heathenism; but 

* Ullmann, Cultus des Genius, p. 67. 



24 PROTESTANTISM THE RESTORER 

while art celebrated its prosperous condition in modern Rome over 
the ruins of the Apostolic Church, the restoration of the word to its 
primitive authority, and the preaching of the free doctrines of the 
Gospel, were being accomplished in Germany and Switzerland.' 
From this time forward the sermon became the heart and centre of 
Protestant worship, to an extent which compels the admission that 
in some instances the element of teaching received undue pi emi- 
nence, to the exclusion of every thing artistic, and even that doc- 
trine itself hardened into legalism, which gave rise to reactionary 
movements endangering the existence of the Protestant faith. 

SECTION XI. 
Although the religious instructor belongs preeminently to the 
order of teachers, he is still so far to be distinguished from the sci- 
entific instructor, as religion is not bare knowledge, and therefore 
cannot be taught and acquired directly, and without the interven- 
tion of other agencies. 

The position of We have now reached that point in the field of learn- 
teache?'^°^^r ^"^ ^* which the different courses and methods of study 
oilier teachers, may be distinguished from each other. With respect 
to methods of instruction the clergyman, as a teacher of adults, 
holds a position midway between the teacher of youth. and the aca- 
demical professor. Being addressed to adults, his teachings will 
assume a more elaborate character, and take a higher range than 
those of the teacher of youth; but as they do not subserve a purely 
scientific purpose, they will be more popular and less purely didactic 
than tliose of the academical instructor. The sermon, moreover, is 
not to become a mere intellectual discourse, though the preacher 
should never cease to be a teacher.'^ The clergyman, in the exer- 
cise of both his catechetical and his pastoral duties, divides the 
function of training with the teacher of youth. The subject-matter 
of his instructions is determined by the peculiar nature of religion 
itself, to which we now direct attention. 

' The Lutheran Reformation in Germany bore predominantly the character of a re- 
action against the Judaism that had intruded into the Church, while the Reformed, iu 
Switzerland, was chiefly a reaction against paganism. This distinction is, however, 
only relative. Comp. Al. Schweizer in the Introduction to tiie Glaubenslehre der 
evang.-reformirten Kirche, Zurich, 1844. 

* " The clergyman should be both preacher and teacher of religion. It is even im- 
possible, in various regards, for him to be a genuine teacher, without being, at the 
same time, a preacher, and introducing one element of the sermon — illustrative di<». 
course — into his teaching; and he cannot be a true preacher of religion without being 
at the same time a teacher, and basing his entire preaching upon his teaching func- 
tion, so as to connect it with, and ground it in, the doctrine itscli." — K. Sack, Werth 
a. Reiz d. Theologie, Sixth Discourse, p. 92. 



OP CHRISTIAN TEACHINO. 26 

SECT. XII. 

RELIGION. 

Elwert, Das Wesen der Religion, etc., in Tiib, Zeitschr, fur Theologie, 1835, No. 8 
Reich, Das Schleiermachersche Religionsgefiihl, in Stud, u, Krit, 1846, No. 4, p. 845; 
Herra. Renter, Die Religion als die Ureinheit des Bewusstseins, in Hanov. Vierteljahr8- 
scrift, Gott., 1846, No. 4; J. P. Lange, Phil. Dogmatik, p. 185, sqq.; E. Zeller, in 
Tiib. Jahrbb., 1845; D. Schenkel, in Herzog's Encycl., s. v., Abhangigkeitsgef lihl ; 
Tholuck, id., s. v., Gefiihl, iv, p. 704, sqq.; C. D. Kelbe, psychischer Ursprung u. Ent- 
wicklungsgang der Religion, Brunswick, 1853; Carlblom, Das Gefiihl in seiner Be- 
deutung fiir den Glauben (Religionsphil.) ; H. Paret, Eintheilung der Religionen, in 
Stud. u. Krit., 1855, No. 2; Jul. Kostlin, in Herzog, s. v.. Religion, xii, p. 641, sqq.; 
Jens Baggesen, Phil. Nachlass, 2 vols., 1858-63; Jager, Was ist Religion? in Jahrbb. 
fiir deutsche Theologie, x. No. 4, p. 118, sqq.; Bobertag, Eiuige neuere Bestimmungen 
d. Begriffes d. Religion, id., xi. No. 2, p. 254 ; Tolle, Die Wissenschaf t der Religion, 
2 vols., 1865-71 ; Pfleiderer, Die Religion, ihr Wesen u. ihre Geschichte, 2 vols., 1869 ; 
Fauth, Ueber die Fromraigkeit, in Stud. u. Krit., 1870, No. 4; Biedermann, Bilanz iib. 
d. rationellen Grundbegriffe der Religion, in Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Theologie, 1871, No. 1. 
(Comp. the literature on the philosophy of religion, § 80.) 

Religion (piety, the fear of God, godliness, nih' nN"i% (jio^og rov 

deov, evae^eLo) is, primarily, neither knowledge nor ac- Definition oJ 
tion, but rather a definite state of feeling, which is to religion, 
be developed into a clear and rational consciousness through the 
exercise of intelligent reflection, and into a firmly established dis- 
position through the moral determination of the will. As the true 
principle of life, it is to permeate the whole inner man (6 eaoi dv- 
iSpwTTo^-), and to manifest itself externally as the highest fruitage of 
human nature.* 

An objection might be raised at the outset against the use of the 
Latin term religion (from religio), and "godliness" be suggested as 
a substitute; but if Hase's definition," that, objectively 
considered, religion is man's relation to the infinite, and word religion, 

that, subjectively, it is the determination of human life andthedistinc- 

'•'.•'; . , , tion between 

by that relation, be accepted, " godliness " and similar it and various 

terms will be inadequate, as indicating only the subjec- ®''^®^^®™^^ 

live side of religion. The word "faith" is likewise not entirely 

sufiicient ; for, as David Schulz (Die Chr., Lehre von Glauben, 

2 ed., p. 104) observes: "In the word religion, for which the Bible 

* On the etymology of the word (whether from relegere, Cicero, De nat. deor, ii, 8, or 
from religare, Lactantius, Inst, div., iv, 28; or even from relinquere, M. Sabin., in 
Gellius Noctt. Att., iv, 9), comp. Nitzsch, Religionsbegriff d. Alten, in Stud. u. Krit., 
i, No. 3; *J. G. Miiller, Ueber Bildung und Gebrauch d. Wortes Religio, Risle, 1834 ; 
C. A. Dietrich, De etymol. vocis religio, Schneeb., 1836; K. F. Braunig, Religio nach 
Ursprung u. Bedeutung erortert, Leips., 1837. Also, Rohr's Krit. Predigerbibl, xviii, 3, 
p. 248, sqq.; Redslob, Sprachl. Abhandll. zur Theologie, Leips., 1840, and Stud, u 
Krit., 1842, No. 2. 

''liehrbuch der ev. Dogmatik, 1838, § 2. 



26 THE TERM RELIGION 

has no special term, but which in the New Testament is generally 
represented by ixiariq and TTLarevEiv, wa conceive of all the rela- 
tions of man to God in their entirety and their connexions wiih 
each other. The fear of God, trust in God, love, reverence, piety, 
hope, all express definite and particular relations of the rational 
creature towards the Deity, and therefore constitute separate feat- 
ures of religion." However inadequate this term may be, there- 
fore, when the object is to illustrate a decided piety, it is yet con- 
venient and even indispensable, whenever choice or necessity com- 
pels a more general discussion, as in scientific exposition. 

Thus much on the word. 'W'ith reference to its interpretation, it 
is to be observed that the older method, dating from Buddseus, 
by which "religio" is taken as equivalent to "modus Deum cog- 
noscendi et colendi," has been shaken in both its members by the 
more recent definition, which, according to Schleiermacher,^ denies 
that religion is either bare knowledge or action. 

1. It is not simply knowledge. Cicero's derivation (from relegere), 
and, to some extent, the scriptural and popular usage" 

Religion Is not . . , , « ,. ^ ' j.-£ .x. 

merely knowi- (mn' n;^^, eniyvdyaLg rov KvpLov), seem to justiiy the ren- 

^ ^^* dering of religion by " knowledge," inasmuch as it may 

be both taught and learned. But, practically, religion presents a 
somewhat abnormal appearance among the courses of study in an 
institution of learning ; and it cannot be said, with the same pro- 
priety, that a student is a good religionist as that he is a good 
philologist, mathematician, geographer, etc. The maxim that re- 

* Glaubensl., i, § 8. Schleiermacher, however, was neither the first nor the only 
person who regarded religion as a matter of feeling. Without recurring to the 
earliest period and to mysticism, we may notice that Zwingle defined religion to be 
devotion to God, hence an inclination and determination of the feelings, (De vera 
relig., p. 51 ; Vera religio vel pietas haec est, quae uni soli que, Deo haeret.) Among 
modems the emotional theory, with various modifications, has been adopted by 
Herder, Jacobi, Lavater (Biographic von Gessner, iii, p. 151), Clodius, Fries, de 
Wette, Twesten, Benj. Constant, and, with special thoroughness, by Elwert. The 
philologist, J. G. Hermann, expresses similar views (in his oration at the jubilee of 
the Leipsic reformation, p. 6) : Non enim mentis, sed pectoris est pietas ; and also 
Bulwer (England, i, 2), " Religion must be a sentiment, an emotion, forever present 
with us, pervading, colouring, and exalting all." An additional question concerns the 
adequacy of the term "feeling" itself, which must be settled by what follows in 
the text. 

' It is evident, however, that the exercise of reflection and the scrupulous exami- 
nation into questionable features, which are involved in the term religio, in their turn 
direct attention to a state of feeling that lies at the basis of all such questionings. 
The knowledge, moreover, to which the Scriptures refer, is a practical heart-knowl- 
edge. It is also significant that the Hebrew regarded the heart {'2^)) as the seat of 
knowledge. 



INADEQUATE, YET USEFUL. 27 

ligiou is a concern of the intellect is, moreover, subject to various 
interpretations. The lowest view would be that which it is not bare 
makes it a mere matter of memory, which is often done ^o^^ed^ m 
in practice. The memory should certainly not be ex- the memory, 
eluded, for all positive religion rests upon tradition, and religious 
instruction properly begins with impressing on the memory the 
facts of religion and its truths as conveyed in proverbs, hymns, etc. 
This, however, must be regarded simply as a method of reaching 
the heart, in which the scattered seed is to take root and grow, so 
as to exert an influence over the dispositions and the character. 
Such one-sided cultivation of the memory, and the contentment with 
such religious knowledge, constitutes a dead orthodoxy. 

Another doctrine advocates a different view. Religion is not to 
engage the memory alone, but is to be received into the understand- 
ing and wrought over by it. Some try to improve on ^ jg ^q^ ^^^ 

this by substituting: the word reason, though they often knowledge, ag 

, , ^^ ,. . , . .1 1 • 11 grounded in 

mean the understandmg simply, t. e., the logically an- the under- 

alytic and synthetic faculties of the mind, or also a standing, 
sound common-sense, which, without being conscious of its proc- 
esses, instinctively discovers the right. No sensible person will 
deny that understanding is necessary in all things, and religion 
among the rest, and the Scriptures concur in attributing proper dig- 
nity to this faculty.* Experience teaches, however, that bare intel- 
lectual knowledge is by no means identical with religious knowledge. 
The work of the understanding in the field of religion is strictly crit- 
ical, and, therefore, negative. It strips off the robes of figurative 
speech from religious conceptions, guards against misapprehen- 
sions and stupidity, and, like a current of fresh air, becomes a 
healthful corrective to religious feeling; but there is unceasing 
necessity that it be confined within its proper limits and reminded 
that the infinite cannot be embraced within the range of finite 
ideas. An exclusive tendency to cultivate the understanding con- 
stitutes a false rationalism. 

Science, however, presses its claims from a third point of view. 
In opposition to both a formal orthodoxy and an intel- it is not a 
lectual rationalism, it contends that religion belongs ^owTd**^°^f 
to the department of a higher knowledge. It takes the absolute, 
exclusive possession of the term reason, and declares that religion 
belongs to the field of the thinking spirit, which mediates all con- 

* Jesus was pleased when the scribe answered him " discreetly " {v(wvex(i>c\ Mark 
xii, 34; and St. Paul counsels Christians to be children in malice, but men in under- 
standing. 1 Cor. xiv, 20. The Old Testament, likewise, connects the religious dispo- 
sition with the understanding ({-[D'^S), Prov. ix, 10, and elsewhere. 



28 RELIGION NOT BARB 

trasts, and penetrates and energizes all things (knowledge of the 
absolute). Not the dead conception, but the living idea, forms 
the element in which religion lives. Short-sighted understanding 
cannot penetrate to the highest ideas of reason. We agree to this : 
but we question whether reason as here described is innate to the 
mind, instead of being the product of the feelings and the under- 
standing — a resultant higher unity of the two. It is a further ques- 
tion whether the grasping of this idea or whatever phrase may be 
applied to it is itself religion and eternal life, or whether reason 
as thus conceived is not rather a mere phantom of the mind, so long 
as it is not the reflex of a profound personal feeling and experience. 
As the word reason is, with rationalists, often merely a sort of 
Sunday suit in which ordinary understanding clothes itself, so the 
same word serves with idealists to conceal an arbitrary poetizing 
fancy, which is incapable of satisfying either the feelings or the 
understanding.* That imagination in its proper character is not 
the source of religion will be universally conceded, although it 
must be allowed, like every other faculty, to share in the religious 
life." 

The following general considerations should be brought to bear 
against the assumption that religion is merely an intellectual 
affair ; — 

1. If religion were simply this, it would follow that knowledge 
Evidence that ^^^ right thinking concerning it would determine the 
religion is not measure of piety. Our own age ouacht to be more 

Bxcluslvely the . a ./ o o 

product of the pious than former ages, philosophers than the public, 
intellect. -jo^Qn than women, adults than children. Why was sal- 

vation transmitted through the Jews, rather than through the 
schools of Greece? Why did God conceal it from the wise men 
of this world, and reveal it to babes and sucklings ? Why did the 
r€7iaissa7ice of learning simply prepare the way for the Reforma- 
tion, instead of completing it? Why is the finely-cultured Erasmus 
eclipsed by Luther, his inferior in culture ? 

2. If knowledge were to constitute religion, the Church (com- 
munion of believers) would possess no value, and must become 
transformed into a community of the learned, or school. The dif- 
ferent degrees of learning among its members would produce an 

^ Comp. C. A. Thilo, Die Wissensehaftlichheit der modern sn speculativen Theologie 
in ihren Principien beleuchtet, Leipsic, 1851 — a book that deserves to be noticed, 
despite its prudish bearing towards all religious speculation, since it urges soberness 
and watchfulness. 

' UUmann has beautifully developed this idea in Theol. Aphorismen, in Stud u. 
Erit., 1844, p. 41*7, sqq. 



THINKING OR KNOWLEDGE. 29 

esoteric and au exoteric class, so that " many men of many minds " 
might be said of this community, but not "one heart and one soul." 
If such descriptions are heard even now, it is the result of the fact 
simply, that in the Church undue importance has been attached to 
learning, and theology has been allowed to supplant religion. Sec- 
tarianism and controversial tendencies have their origin chiefly in a 
false assertion of the claims of knowledge, and in a lack of purity 
and simplicity of faith.* 

3. If thinking and investigation constituted the peculiar organs 
of religion, their exercise ought to produce religious satisfaction, 
and religious inspiration ought to reach its highest energy during 
the process of thinking ; and in like manner religion should decrease 
in moments when the faculty of thought is impaired or restrained, 
e. g., in old age,'' and upon the sick and dying-bed, while the truth 
is, that, under precisely such circumstances, it often appears in its 
highest perfection. The emphasis placed upon thinking is mis- 
placed ; for in the vocabulary of religion the emphasis rests rather 
upon feeling. When the Quietists asserted that the most perfect 
prayer is that in which thought has no place, they were guilty of 
exaggeration verging upon the absurd ; but a profounder truth 
lies at the basis of the apparent absurdity, which is wholly over- 
looked by those whose views would reduce even prayer to a mere 
arithmetical example. 

II. Religion is not merely action. The idea that re- Religion not 
ligion is altogether a doing^ a moral determination of "^^^^^^ action, 
the will, has even more support than that which identifles it with 
knowledge. " If ye know these things, happy are ye if ye do them" 

* A fact stated by an old Reformed Theologian, Keckermann, is generally forgotten 
(he himself overlooked it occasionally), namely, that theology is not simply a disci- 
plina contemplatrix, but also operatrix. See Al. Schweizer's Ref. Dogmatik, p. 103. 
The members of the general synods of Bergen, beginning with A. D. 1680, were, 
on the same principle, required to pledge themselves to the studiura pietatis as 
well as the studium orthodoxiae. The excessive importance attached to the so-called 
Confessions is evidently owing to the misconception that religion has its seat in the 
cavities of the brain instead of the chambers of the heart, or that it may be preserved 
in formulas, as anatomical subjects are preserved in alcohol. 

'- For a remarkable psychological proof of the fact that religious ideas are capable 
of being clearly present to the consciousness, independently of other processes of 
thought, and even under circumstances when the power to think is departing, comp. 
John Spalding's Life of his Son, G. L. Spalding (Halle, 1804), p. 188, sqq.^ note, and 
also the death of Schleiermacher, in W. von Humboldt's Briefe an eine Freundin, ii, 
p. 259. Schenkel's remark is, therefore, of great force : " The religious consciousness 
is infinitely greater than the world-consciousness, even as God is infinitely greater than 
the world ; and it, therefore, contains a fountain of inexhaustible power and perennial 
comfort " —Dogmatik, i, p 153 



80 RELIGION IS NOT 

(John xiii, 17.) It is sustained also by the expressions nin' !|"Ti, 66o(, 
rov KvpioVj mbv, ■SprjaKela, depaneia, ^pya, Kapnog, etc., religio (in the 
sense of conscientiousness), and by popular usage, according to 
which a pious person is the same as one who is good or upright 
(diKaiog), and which conceives of virtue and godliness as being iden- 
tical. There are, however, different methods of conceiving religion 
as contined to the sphere of action. The lowest view, a counterpart 
of that which places it in the memory, regards piety altogether 
Not action in as a work to be outwardly performed (opus operatum), 
mechaScaM(J ^ ^^^^ ^^^^' mechanical doing. It is evident that this 
tog of works, does not deserve the name of religion. It is to be 
observed, on the other hand, that they who contemplate religion 
chiefly with the understanding, generally identify it with moral- 
ity (the Kantean, rationalistic view), or, at any rate, regard as 
essential to religion only such elements as will promote the moral 
Religion not ^^^tonomy of reason. A higher view (corresponding to 
Identical with the speculative theory, among those who assign religion 
mora y. ^^ ^-^^ intellect) makes religion an internal activity, or 

an action of the spirit in us. If the latter expression be not a mere 
speculative phrase, behind which moral indifference may hide, it 
may be understood, in the Christian sense, as a work of the Divine 
Spirit in us, and therefore as equivalent to " regeneration." The 
supporters of this opinion add that at bottom piety is concerned to 
Not identical bring about the improvement or sanctification of our 
posed spiritual <iispositions and our walk ; so that here rationalism and 
activity. pietism agree in the practical demand that religion must 

produce results. To insist upon religious action does not, however, 
constitute a proof that religion in its last analysis is action. In 
opposition to this view we present the following: — 
The reasons for 1. While religion and morality coincide in their high- 
reiiSon'^^^and ®^^ development, so that a true religion without morality 
morality. and a true morality without religion are equally incon- 

ceivable,^ they are yet clearly distinguished in their details as well 

' Rothe (Anfange der Christlichen Kirche, p. 27) remarks : " A complete morality, 
which is not in its positive aspects substantially religious, does not exist. In the 
same proportion in which morality should not have acquired the certainty of religicc 
(the certainty of conscious dependence upon God) would its development as morality 
be deficient." Kym (Die Weltanschauungen und deren Consequenzen, Zurich, 1854, 
p. 9) : "A religion that should not pass over into morality, and through this into life, 
would be a centre without circumference, therefore a half, and accordingly untrue, 
unreal religion. A morality that should have no connexion with the Deity would be 
without depth and without a last (?) central point. . . . The morality which separates it- 
self from religion is likely to become self-righteousness and self-satisfaction, because it 
lacks provision for the judgment of self. Hence faith is the creative reason of love." 



IDENTICAL WITH MORALITY. 81 

as their general character. A genuine piety is found to exist in 
which the moral element leaves much to be desired, but which can- 
not be justly rated as hypocrisy ; and there are many poorly- 
'behaved and ill-bred children of God who yet know that God is 
exercising discipline over them, and submit to his authority. This 
was true of David and other Old Testament characters. Without 
this presumption it becomes impossible to understand the Old Test- 
ament as a whole,* and also the Middle Ages, with their profound 
apprehension of God and their boundless immorality. 

The period of the Reformation and modern pietism might also 
furnish illustrations of this point.'* On the other hand. Morality anri 
the piety of many is put to shame by the existence of ^^g^^^ f^^^l 
a praiseworthy and correct morality, which has grown separated, 
beyond a mere legality, and become moral self-respect and self- 
control, in a measure compelling approval and admiration, which 
yet lacks the sanctions and the impulse of religion; ^. e., a definite 
relation towards God and eternity. This applies not only to the 
stoicism of the ancients, but also to the categorical imperative of 
Kant, and the morality of cultivated persons in our day. While, 
therefore, morality and religion belong together, and in their ulti- 
mate development must coincide, they may yet be logically distin- 
guished, and bear a separate character in the lower stages of their 
development even in actual life. It is, however, the mark of a 
truly religious disposition, that, when moral imperfection or sin is 
recognized, it should be acknowledged as sin, and as a wrong com- 
mitted against God (" I have sinned against heaven and in thy 
sight," Luke xv, 21); and that the soul should bow before God, and 
humble itself and repent. Morality without religion knows nothing 
of sin as such, but recognizes only moral deficiency; and it therefore 
substitutes " self -improvement " for repentance. Sin and repent- 
ance are religious-ethical ideas. 

2. Morality pr<3supposes capacity, developed by practice, and 
evidencing: itself in a series of moral actions or denials. „ „^ , _, 

..... . . . . . Religion Is orlg- 

Religion is original power, original spiritual life, and is inai spiritual 
concentrated upon a single point. It stands related to p*^^®^* 

*■ All objections against the moral character of the patriarchs are founded on this 
misconception. 

"What a contrast exists between the spiritual songs and the passionate polemical 
writings of A.ngelus Silesius (Scheffler) ! a contrast so great as to apparently require 
that two different persons be assumed in explanation of their authorship (comp. Kahl- 
ert, Ang. Silesius, Breslau, 1853, conclusion). A similar contrast is presented by the 
Lutheran poet Philip Nicolai, whose hymns breathe a profound piety, while his con- 
troversial works bear witness to a morality by no means refined (comp. Schweizer, 
Prot. Centra Idogmen, p. 584). 



32 RELIGION REQUIRES WORSHIP 

morality as genius to talent in the sphere of art. Men of genius 
may exist who possess a rich fund of intellectual conceptions, but 
who nevertheless are exceedingly awkward in the application of 
technical rules, while others may work in obedience to the highest 
rules of art to represent utterly commonplace ideas; and a similar 
distinction holds good between morality and religion. The real 
master, of course, is he whose talent has become subservient to 
genius, and impregnated by it. 

3. Moral action is determined by the external conditions of life, 
Moral action and its range is confined within the limits of such con- 
outw^d ^con- ^itions. The castaway cannot employ his morality in 
ditions. the solitude of his island, unless moral self-respect 
should become for him a mode of worship, and thus idolatry supply 
the place of religion. The religious life, on the contrary, may ap- 
pear in its highest perfection under circumstances of quiet seclusion 
from the world. ^ Anchoretism, like Quietism, is a morbid phenom- 
enon; but it arises from the truth that a religious person, unlike the 
merely moral man, has occasional need of solitude ; and the ideal 
element in such phenomena can be properly estimated only from a 
religious point of view. 

4. The moral life needs no worship ; the moral action constitutes 
Religion re- its cult. The religious life likewise finds expression 

faction for ^^ ^^^^^^ ' "^J *^^i^' ^^^^*« J^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ them." But 
Its expression, it seeks, in addition, to manifest itself symbolically in 

words and imagery. It seeks to express itself in prayer, to portray 
itself in art, to communicate itself to others, and, when rejected by 
them, to commune with God himself. It was because of this that 
the conduct of Mary Magdalene was incomprehensible to the pro- 
saic company of banqueters; and similarly a rational morality still 
asks, " Why this waste ? " whenever the religious life finds expres- 
sion without regard to utility: "The money might be given to the 
poor," etc. A community founded simply on morality would not, 
as Kant conceived, exhaust the idea of the Church. It could only 
have either a negative tendency, like a temperance union, or an in- 
structive purpose, as in schools of morality and lectures, which, 
however, are no longer necessary to the advanced learner, or, finally, 
it must aim at practical results in the outward life (benevolent and 
mutual aid societies). The Church-union is grounded in a totally 
different want, and it is a misconception of the religious idea to re- 

* In the exercise of religion man is primarily concerned for himself ; he alone is in- 
volved therein, in his relation towards God. In this he is alone with his God. . . . For 
this very reason the view that religion in itself is the relation of the individual to the 
community, or of the community to the individual, is erroneous. Schenkel, 1. c. p. 1 56. 



FOR ITS EXPRESSION. 83 

gard a congregation of worshippers as belonging to any of the above 
classes. Are prayer and the sacraments simply means for the pro- 
motion of virtue ? and are they necessary only to the weak ? Let it 
be remembered that the ideal of the Church is not the ecclesia mil- 
itans, but the ecclesia triumphmiSf the glorified community of 
heaven, which is exalted above all conflict. Religion is not only to 
accomplish something for God, but to receive something from him 
i^the idea of grace), and is ultimately to rejoice in God, and find its 
perfect rest and satisfaction in him (the idea of glory). 

5. Morality is based on the ideas of independence and self-deter- 
mination; religion on those of dependence and direc- Morality \a 
tion from above. The two do not exclude each other, based on inde- 

. • • J ^1, r xi pendence, re- 

and are even necessarily conjoined, though they may ligion on da- 

be separately considered. The religious element may Prudence, 
predominate at one time, and the moral at another, in the life of 
every individual, and as the result of his circumstances and dis- 
position. The most perfect state, however, is that in which religion 
transfigures morality, and in which the moral attests the religious 
character.^ 

III. Should religion, then, be considered a matter of feeling? 

Loud protest is raised against this view. Baumscarten- ^ 

^ . ° . , ° In what sense 

Crusius has most forcibly included the various objec- is religion root- 
tions to it in the sentence, "No one who understands ®*^^'®^^*°^^ 
himself, and who is concerned to attain to an assured and definite 
life, will make feeling the basis of religion." ^ The problem pre- 
sented will be solved, however, if we set the idea of religious feel- 
ing in a clear light, and show that a " definite and assured life " 
may exist in connexion with it when properly understood. 

A clear apprehension of this subject is certainly necessary, for 
the name of religious feeling is not due to all that lays claim there- 
to." It will be needful, first of all, to exclude the sensuous feeling^ 

* "Although religion and morality are two noble buds upon a single stalk, thej have 
nevertheless their respective shoots and crowns. For religion is nothing else than a 
conscious life-connexion with God, a conscious dependence of the finite spirit upon the 
infinite. The flower could not lose the feeling of connexion with its roots, were it, 
like man, capable of feeling. Religion is in a derived sense only a matter in which 
the thinking and volitional spirit is concerned ; primarily, it is the feeling of the re- 
lations our life sustains to God." — Tholuck, Gesprache iiber d. vornehmsten Glaubens- 
fragen der Zeit, Halle, 1846, p. 60. 

'Binl. in die Dogmatik, p. 64. 

'Steffens beautifully remarks: "While the term 'feeling' may be indefinite, and 
not entirely appropriate, this feeling (of Schleiermacher) was more comprehensive ; it 
contained a life and consciousness of its own, and designated the sacred growvd of its 
(mm ortginy — Christliche Religionsphil., p. 11. 
3 



84 IN WHAT SENSE 

to which some have applied the term sensibility.^ It would bo 

danorerous to assume that the most impressible, emo- 
Religlous feel- . °- ,, -,..-, ^^ • f i 

ing not mere tional, sensually and mtellectually excitable persons are 

sensibility. ^^ ^Ymt account the most pious. They who are unable 

to conceive the subject in a different aspect from this are entirely 

justified in rejecting a religion of feeling at the outset, and taking 

refuge in a religion of action. Spalding's essay, On the Value of 

the Religious Feeling, will continue to assert its force against such 

defenders of sentimentalism, even though, like many others, he fails 

to comprehend the true nature of feeling. That Schleiermacher, 

the keen dialectician, whose sermons have even been described as 

icy-cold, should have advocated mere sensibility, can be asserted 

only by persons who are determined to misunderstand. Nor is cbs- 

T, n^ * thetie feeling intended. A certain relation of art and 

Religious not ... 

the same as aes- poetry to religion cannot be denied; but it would be 
e ic ee ing. ygnturesome to assert that all who are unable to appre- 
ciate art, or, more boldly still, who are not endowed with creative 
imagination,'^ are thereby unfitted for religion; or, on the contrary, 
to maintain that the greatest poet, painter, or, possibly, even the 
most eminent actor, is therefore the most pious man. We are com- 
pelled to acknowledge that often the devotees of the beautiful and 
the priests in the service of genius resemble the parasitic plants, 
which fix themselves upon the sacred blossom of religion, and ex- 
tract from it the life-giving sap ; ^ while, on the other hand, the 

* The usage upon this point is, apparently, not yet settled. It is as allowable to 
speak of a sensibility for religious and material things, as of feeling for them. We 
shall not err greatly, however, if we consider sensibility as excited more particularly 
oy impressions received from without, while feeling is a spiritual faculty that is rooted 
m the inmost depths of our being. Hence it might be more proper to attribute sensi- 
bility than feeling to brutes. Sensibility is more especially related to the perceptive 
faculty, and to the individual object upon which it is engaged (thus, the eye is sensi- 
ble of the entering ray of light) ; in feeling, the subject and the object are more inti- 
mately combined (I feel myself blessed). In this view we coincide with Carlblom, 
who finds in sensation single points of contact between the subject and the object, 
while in feeling he discovers the collective relations between the two — " the collective 
impressions made upon the subject by the object as a whole," or " the uplifting of the 
subject through the ideal power of an object " (inspiration). Comp. p. 2 ; also, Twc9« 
ten, Einl. zur Dogmatik ; Kym, 1. c, p. 5. 

^ Ullmann, 1. c, makes the just observation that " feeling and imagination, although 
they connect in the unity of the spirit and condition, and excite each other, are yet 
not one and the same." 

' An evidence of this is found, upon the one hand, in the degenerate romancing of 
a Zacharias Werner ; and, on the other, in the observations of a now defunct " Young 
Germany." The course which the young German school of poetry believed itself com- 
pelled to adopt, in its reaction against an overwhelming romanticism, serves, however, 
to illustrate al£>o the damage inflicted upon poetry when it is separated from religion. 



IS RELIGION FEELING? 35 

fulness of religious life, existing side by side with imperfect forms of 
ai*t and a neglected Aesthetic culture, justifies us in overlooking such 
deficiency. What else gives attractiveness to a badly-modelled 
image of some saint, or endows the excruciating church music of an 
assembled village congregation with the power to edify, nay, to 
excite profoundest emotion ? We would not approve the bad taste 
which, under the infiuence of religious zeal, appears to have con- 
spired against whatever is beautiful. An unaesthetic piety, and 
that miserable absence of taste which is so often commended as 
being originality, are assuredly more hurtful than beneficial to re- 
ligion. Who would venture to assert, however, that a lack of 
religious feeling in Zinzendorf is evident, because he sometimes 
wrote verse m bad taste, or in Abraham a Santa Clara, whose 
preaching was of a like character? Such men have religion, but 
they lack the sense of beauty ; a proof that the two are different. ^ 

But are religious and moral feeling identical ? They are certain- 
ly closely related, and touch upon and interpenetrate Religious not 
each other. It is possible, however, to distinguish the identical witb 
two in thought, for the purpose of scientific inquiry, in ^^^'^ ^^ "^* 
the same way as has been done with religion and morality them- 
selves. The moral feeling manifests itself more particularly in its 
negative aspects as tact, and on the positive side as impulse or in- 
stinct. The substance in which it adheres is conduct — the doing 
of things, or leaving them undone. It impels or restrains. Relig- 
ious feeling is self-centred, and finds its satisfaction in itself. It is, 
in short, the sacred chamber of our inner being ^ that advrov of the 
soul, in which all earthly changes cease to agitate, together with all 
opposition of desire and aversion, within whose limits the merely 
sensuous has its range. This inner sanctuary,' which is first disclosed 

*Kahler, Sittenlehre, p. 239, distinguishes in a similar way between the religious 
feeling, and the pathological or aesthetical. 

" The internal basis of life, the Ego, in which are comprehended all distinctions in 
their individual simplicity and their concrete lack of dissimilarity, must be regarded 
as the soil and ground of religion." — Deinhardt, Beitr. zur rel. Erkentniss, Hamb., 
1844, p. 5. "Religion is and must remain an immediate influence, a something that 
lies as near to man as do the impressions which are made upon the senses by the 
outer world. If, for this reason, religion be defined as the ' feeling of dependence,' a 
real truth will be conveyed, provided a spiritual feeling is understood thereby ; for m 
matters relating to the spirit there can be no reference to sensuous impressions." — 
Fritzc, Ideen zur Umgestaltung der Kirche, Magdeb., 1844, p. 2. We can readily ap- 
prove of the substitution of the term heart for feeling (in popular language), as beinj; 
justified by scriptural usage, and including both the intellectual and the moral ele- 
ments (yp)' " The assurance with which genuine culture retains words like heart in 
their higher significance, despite the definitions of the sciences, unquestionably rests 
upon the assumption that the animal life is the counterpart of human being, even as 



36 THE SENSE OF DEPENDENCE 

to the pe7iitent alone — this heaven in the soul, whence shine the 
stars of faith, and love, and hope, to cheer the darkness of oui 
night — this anchor that holds firm, upon which every thing depends 
and must depend if it shall not founder in the current of fleeting 
time — is religions feeling. 

We designate it more closely as the feeling of dependence ; that 
P J. . . is, dependence upon God, the Infinite One. Objections 
ing of depend- are raised against this also. It is said, " The very dogs 
enceuponGo . ^ifXYQ the feeling of dependence!" — a cynical reflection, 
which is beautifully disposed of by Matt, vii, 6, and xv, 21-28. 
Comp. Isa. i, 3, and Athenag. Apoloog. for Christ., p. 16 (ed. Oxon).* 
Dependence is construed to mean servility, and the saying of Jan- 
sen, " Dei servitus vera libertas," or of our Lord in John viii, 32, is 
forgotten. We likewise discover a twofold character in religious 
feeling — a discouraging (humbling) and an encouraging (exalting) 
element; but in their inmost nature the two are one. Even the 
feeling of liberty and of communion with God must be derived 
from God; and St. Paul's exclamation, " I can do all things through 
Christ, which strengtheneth me," is as thoroughly pervaded by the 
sense of dependence as that other word, "Without me ye can do 
nothing."'^ To be dependent is equivalent to being conditioned 

the former finds its counterpart in the organism of the visible body ; or, that in this 
life, at least, the anatomical and physiological organization corresponds to the spirit- 
ual forms of the human soul, that it was constructed for and determined by it, so that 
it still conveys the shadowy image where the soul itself has fled. From this point of 
view the cultivated person, whom we request to undertake an explanation of the idea 
hearty will describe it as the centre, or the pulse ; or, better still, as the proper source 
of our entire inner life." — Steffeusen, Das menschl. Herz u. d. Philosophie, in Gelzer's 
Monatsabl., 1854, p. 281. 

' Deinhardt, 1. c, p. 9, strikingly observes : " The genius of religion lies in the rec- 
ognition of our limitations and our nothingness. The limitation does not of itself 
lead to religion, for the very beasts would in that case become possessed of religion ; 
but the consciousness of our limitations involves at the same time the recognition of 
the infinite, and of our relations to the infinite.'' And Carlblom writes (1. c, p. 180): 
" The feeling of unqualified dependence, freed from pantheistic and Pelagian elements, 
can only work advantage to our time, as a scientific principle." 

' Kahler's remark is therefore correct (Sittenlehre, p. 324) : " In their relation to 
God or the absolute, dependence and communion hold the same position ; they are 
inseparable. Upon what is such communion based, if it be not upon dependence ? 
We do not invite him to fellowship, he calls us ; and we attain to the feeling of com- 
munion with him only through that of dependence upon him ; through the fear of 
God to the love of God." Comp. Nitzsch, System of Christ. Doct, p. 18, " There is 
nothing religious in free consciousness but the consciousness that we are free through 
God and in God; that is, dependent on him." Kahler nevertheless endeavouis to 
limit the idea of dependence, against which see Elwert, p. 79, sqq. It may be true 
that, with Schleiermacher, the feeling of dependence is connected with pantheistic 
assumptions • but if so, the attacks of criticism should be directed simply against hip 



CONSISTENT WITH FREEDOM. 37 

and determined by an outward power, as is sufficiently apparent in 
the relations that exist between men. Who so dependent upon 
others as he whose life is interwoven in such a way with another life 
as to justify the language, "Without thee I cannot live?" The 
religious man depends on God in this sense, that he cannot be with- 
out God, that his life is guided and controlled by God, and thai he 
knows himself to be so determined and controlled. It is impossible 
to see how such a feeling of dependence can impair or negative our 
freedom. It is, on the contrary, itself the highest freedom. 

If we have been successful in isolating religious feeling in the 
way of analysis, so that it becomes available for scien- rj^^ synthesis 
tific observation in a pure and unmixed form, it will of religious 

_ .,,.. /..!• -in feeling with 

now be required that, in the way oi synthesis, we shall our other fac- 
again connect it with the faculties of the soul, by which, "^^^^^s. 
and through which, it finds expression. The " theory of feeling " 
is not antagonized simply because its opponents misconstrue the 
term, but because they deduce the radically erroneous conclusion 
that feeling alone is implicated therein, and that cognition and ac- 
tion are excluded by the fact that they are not made the immediate 
seat and organ of piety. A " definite and assured " life would, of 
course, be impossible, if religion were so restricted to the feelings 
as to never venture out of its sanctuary, either into the light of 
knowledge, or into the fresh air of active exertion. As the germ 
contains within itself the principle of development, so the nature of 
healthy religious feeling involves the disposition to strive for the 
attainment of clearness on the one hand, and of steadiness, firmness, 
and thoroughness on the other. The infant in the manger grows 
to maturity, and becomes the light and joy of the world. Kahler* 

methods of deduction, not against the principle itself. Nor can we acknowledge that 
the feeling of dependence is " wanting in the moral element " (Schenkel, in Herzog's 
Encykl., p. 64). What is obedience^ the source of religioiis morality, but the ethical 
outworking of the feeling of dependence? or sacrifice? or the devotion of love? 
moral self-denial? humility? When Biedermann (Dograatik, p. 82) observes that the 
necessary correlative of " liberty in God," that is, in an " infinite dependence " is 
" freedom from finite dependence," that is, " from the world considered as world," he 
is simply stating in speculative language what we have expressed merely as a dictum 
of experience. In the same connexion that author gives some noteworthy observa- 
tions concerning the interrelation between God, the infinite, and man, the finite spirit, 
and also concerning the " correlation of revelation and faith," although we find it im- 
possible, from our point of view, to accept his conclusions. 

*Christl. Sittenlehre, p. 195. Comp. also Dav. Schulz, Vom Glauben, p. 112: 
" When a person has attained to self -consciousness, he cannot avoid observing the 
movements of his feelings, which at first are possibly involuntary, and, as it were, pas- 
sive, but which he will now elevate, by his free activity, into a condition of greater 
clearness, and consequently into convictions." 



88 OUR RELIGIOUS AND OTHER 

strikingly remarks: "From feeling, as it sends forth its roots, pro- 
ceeds the more definite activity which is termed thought^ and desire 
Religious feel- when it grows the bud." It connects itself with the 

tug connects it- understandino^, and thereby attains to clearness; it ioins 
self witli the ' j 

understanding with itself the power of the will, and thus acquires 

andwiu. steadiness and firmness. The knowledge that is rooted 

in religious feeling, and supported by it, is religious faith. Faith, 
in its turn, is capable of a further development, and ripens toward 
a state of, as yet, conditioned sight. The moral power arising from 
religious feeling manifests itself in analogy with faith in the form 
of conscience,^ and develops into moral disposition or firmly-estab- 
lished religious-ethical principle, ultimately resulting in that cer- 
tainty of action, that devotion to virtue, which is the highest 
expression of true liberty. 

Religious feeling should become a conscious feeling. The relig- 
Reiigious feel- ious feeling has correspondent religious conceptions, 
the Tmagina- ^^^ ^'^th. reference to these receives aid first from the 
tion. imagination, which clothes the conceptions in figurative 

garb. " It is the sculptress who collects the heavenly treasure into 
earthen vessels." ^ The understanding comes to its support in the 
service of imagination, arranging the figurative conceptions, and 
combining them into a whole. Thus arise mythology and mythol- 
ogizing symbolism, bare, or more refined ; and the greater the 
supremacy acquired by logical sequence over the original fresh and 
vivid poetical conceptions in such a system of symbolism, the less 
will it be able to satisfy the reason, which seeks to discover a higher 

unity. It will be only a shell, a dry skeleton, from 
Reason cooper- ^ *' ^ •' . 

ative with re- which the life has departed. It is the ofiice of reason 
gious ee ing. ^^ recognize, by virtue of its ideal nature, the eternal 
character of the contents of the feelings, though given under a finite 
form, and to combine and reunite in a higher unity the elements dis- 
tinguished, by the understanding. While unable (supra) to regard 
reason as the source of religion, we yet consider it the pure mirror 
(reflex) of all that has its birth in the feelings ; it is reason that 
catches and reflects the ray which emanates from that source. It 
does not create the religious life out of its own substance, but It 
watches over that life as over every other impulse, and it stamps it 
with the mark of intelligence. We, therefore, consider a religion 

' We cannot regard the conscience proper as the original seat and organ of religion, 
after the noteAvorthy observations made by Schenkel upon this subject, though we 
cordially recognize the importance of conscience, as the moral factor within the sphere 
of religion. 

• Ullmann, 1. c, p. 430. 



FACULTIES EXHIBITED SYNTHETICALLY. 39 

of reason as impossible as a poetry of reason or a commori wealth oi 
reason ; but we demand a rational religion as we demand a rational 
poesy or a rational government. True reason cannot be hostile to 
religious feeling, but is rather necessary to the recognition of the 
latter {martg develops into yvojaig). Religious knowledge, thus 
borne upon the feelings, is no longer mere dead knowledge, but a 
living consciousness. 

An objector might now admit that the primitive form of religion 
was feeling, and that the feelings constituted its earli- objection • 
est seat; but he might add that this was the worst " Feeling ii the 
form, and that religion has no more urgent duty to ^retlorm of 
fulfil than that of removing its seat from the feelings religion." 
to the reason, from the heart to the head. This, however, is not 
correct.* It is important that the double meaning of the word 
"feeling" be not forgotten. Feeling certainly involves a pre- 
liminary perception. There is a spiritual as well as a physical 
sense of touch, which often instinctively discovers the ri2;ht in 
either case. It must not be assumed, however, that such feeling 
and touching (i/)7/A,a0av) is all that is required (Acts xvii, 27); for 
he who does no more than feel in religious matters, " is blind and 
gropes with the hand," where he ought to avail himself of the eye 
of knowledge. The merely anticipative consciousness of feeling 
must accordingly give way to a clear understanding. A different 
principle applies to feeling in its proper character (the feeling of 
love, of gratitude, of devotion, etc.). This cannot be dissolved into 
reason, any more than music may be resolved into one of its i>arts, 
or may petrify into a building. Reason does not love, give thanks, 
or pray, any more than it eats or drinks; but love, gratitude, and 
prayer, may be justified to the reason as highly rational matters, as 
readily as eating and drinking. Religious feeling is the root of the 
religious life ; and we certainly do not aid the tree to put on its 

* Rousseau has already observed, " Quand on commence d penser, on cesse do sentir.** 
On the other hand, Passavant (to Diepenbrok) says truly, "This statement is false, for 
the reason that only a certain class of feelings are displaced hy thought; while the pure 
thought and the pure volition carry with them a higher feeling in steadily increasing 
power and exaltation. So the feeling of pleasure, in which the unskilled person 
shares, becomes a higher and more intelligent emotion to the connoisseur in music 
>%hen observing the harmony of some grand composition. So, too, the indeterminate 
feeling of immensity caused by a view of the starry heavens changes into an intelli- 
gent admiration with the astronomer, whose thought embraces not only the magnitudes 
of masses and their distances, but also the laws which govern the most distant worlds 
and the falling grain of sand, and who realizes that he has apprehended in nature one 
of the thoughts of God." — Briefe von J. M. Sailer, M. Diepenbrok, u. J. K Paasavant 
Frankfort. 1860, p. 100 sq. 
4 



40 THROUGH CONSCIENCE RELIGIOUS 

crown of bloom when we cut off the root, or permit it to deca/. 
The soundness of the root determines the biightness of the foliage 
and the perfection of the blossom ; for " ns feeling is the point at 
which all spiritual life begins and breaks forth in man, so it is also 
the goal of perfection in the cultivation of the spirit." ^ 

Religious feeling should be firm and steadfast. As it developB 
Through con- ^^*^ definite convictions, it should j^lso become a settled 
science reiig- disposition. In this regard the conscience renders the 

lous feeling be- . . ^. , . , „ . . 

comes a stead- Service m practice which reason performs in theory, 
fast disposition, ^g ^j^^ religious feeling is e7ilightened hj reason, so it is 
established and morally; strengthened by the conscience. In practical 
matters law stands related to conscie?ice as the understanding to 
reason in the domain of theory. In the latter province, that is, 
theory, the cognitions, being merely logically arranged and com- 
bined by the understanding, may harden into a lifeless dogma, and 
become rigid ; and, in like manner, the law of outward morality 
may become a dead statute, for the letter of the law kills, the spirit 
makes alive. A conscience enlightened by reason will doubtless be 
one in which religious feeling manifests and approves itself. But 
Religious feel- as feeling could not be resolved into reason, so here it 

S^°^i'o??J!wr can7iot be resolved into conscience. What w^e are accus- 
er, resoivaoie 

Into conscience, tomed to term a good conscience, which gives us bold- 
ness before God and happiness in him, is of itself an indication 
that conscience is rooted in feeling. But the fervent love-life 
of communion with God, which forms the crowning point of all 
religion, the blessed life, which, as being designed for eternity, 
makes use of the finite forms of earthly worship to find expres- 
sion in a rich anticipative symbolism as "joy in God" — this sure- 
ly is not a mere matter of the conscience ! The contrary is true : 
for if a system of worship were to assert itself in the character 
of a concern of the conscience, it would degenerate into work- 
righteousness. Worship is altogether an expression of the feelings. 
Religious impulses may possibly emanate from the conscience under 
certain circumstances (e. g., the impulse to pray) ; but this will be 
the case only when religious feeling has become dull and listless, so 
fts to need a spur. Where the religious feeling is in a healthful 
state, it overflows in thanksgiving, praise, etc., without requiring 

*De Wette, Vorlesungen uber Religion, p. 73. Carlblom uses similar language 
(1. c, p 184): "An absolute feeling of dependence is the proper expression for re- 
ligion, even in the highest stages of its development. The Christian's heart is moved 
because he believes; he conceives himself in feeling as a personal vmit before G^Ki. 
In the character of devotion, feeling combines clearness of understanding and fora 
of will in a mighty ardour, that is inspired by the present God." 



FEELING BECOMES STEADFAST. 41 

the admonitions of conscience. The same reasoning applies to love. 
Conscience may admonish to works of love, but the love that is 
dictated by conscience is not the highest and truest love, which 
loves because it must, and cannot refuse. Conscience does not love, 
give thanks, pray, and praise, in its own character ; and for that 
very reason is no more capable than reason, which likewise fails in 
this regard of being the organ of religion. 

We sum up in the following paragraph what has been pre- 
sented : — 

Religion, far from being, in the first instance or exclusively, con- 
fined to knowledge or to action, has its seat in the centre of man's 
spiritual and moral nature — in the heart * (which is the summary of 
scriptural and popular term for what we have hitherto '^^ argument, 
designated as the feelings, and what others call the spirit). This 
religion of the heart, however, must develop into a living conscious- 
ness through the intellectual process of rational thinking (reflec- 
tion), and must ripen into a settled disposition, and attest itself 
in action, through the moral processes induced and perfected by 
the conscience. 

We may accordingly say that religion is a subject in which the 
whole inner man is engaged," but whose pivotal point is in the feel- 
ing of dependence. "A healthy religion," remarks an excellent 

* On the heart, as the seat of religion, see Prov. xxiii, 26 ; Josh, rxiv, 23 ; 1 Sam. vi, 6 ; 
Ezek. xi, 19 ; xxxvi, 26 ; Matt, v, 8 ; Phil, iii, 7 ; Col. iii, 15 ; Heb. xiii, 9, and many other 
passages. A new objection might arise here, based on the language of the Scriptures, 
viz. : that the heart is represented as the seat of evil, of ungodliness also. Gen. vi, 6 ; 
viii, 21 ; Psa. xiv, 1 ; liii, 1 ; Jer. xvii, 9 ; Matt, xv, 19. These passages, however, illus- 
trate this very point, that the heart is* man's central organ, the hearth, upon which both 
pure and impure fires may burn, the soil, capable of propagating both good and evil 
seed. Comp. Luke viii, 15. Hence we do not make the heart the source of religion; 
if it were, man might devise a religion in accordance with the desires of his heart. 
The source is in God ; but (rod addresses his revelations to the heart, as the receptive 
organ of religion. God's word takes root in the heart ; regeneration proceeds from 
the heart, and the peace of God, in the character of a good conscience, dwells in the 
heai't. The non-identity of heart and conscience, which forbids the substitution of 
one word for the other, is apparent from the usage of ordinary speech, which approves 
of a large heart, but not of a large (elastic) conscience. We therefore commend the 
language of Julius Kostlin : " According to the ordinary usage, conscience is simply 
the organ for the recognition of requirements as such, etc. The recognition of gra- 
cious impressions, and, more emphatically still, the feeling of blessedness, which 
steadily becomes more profound, and connects more and more intimately with Grod in 
the truly religious. Christian life, cannot be assigned to it ; for which reason the con- 
science may not be designated the religious organ, in an unqualified sense." Comp. 
also Immer, Das Gewissen, seine Gesundheit u, s. Krankheit, Berne, 1866. 

* This is strongly asserted also by Mynster (Ueber den Begriff der. Christl. Dogmatik, 
m Stud. u. Krit., 1831, 3, p. 449) ; Olshausen (Begriff der Religion, ibid, 1830, 3, p. 644); 



48 A PURELY SUBJECTIVE 

theologian, " exercises power over all the circumstances and coiidi* 
tions of life. Where its authority is acknowledged it is the hearty 
the silent pulse-beat of our entire being. It there consecrates and 
transfigures all things, however humble ; and it applies a correct 
rule to all things, however proud and ambitious they may be. Not 
in states of spiritual excitement and exaltation merely does the con- 
sciousness of God's presence express itself, but in discouragement 
and deepest sorrow likewise does it convey peace, and exert a sanc- 
tifying power." * 

SECTION XHL 

The task of the religious instructor is consequently threefold: 
Threefold task (■^) *^ excite and quicken religious feeling itself; (2) to 
of the religious cultivate the understanding and develop perception, 
under the guidance of reason, into a clear consciousness ; 
and, (3,) to bring moral influences to bear upon the conscience and 
the will, until the religious consciousness becomes an abiding dis- 
position. The three lines of effort in the one task are not, however, 
entirely separated, but are mutually dependent on each other for 
their successful prosecution. 

Neither an exclusive attention to feeling, nor a bare exercising 
of the understanding, nor yet the mere inculcation of moral maxims, 
will satisfy the conditions of this task. The religious teacher must, 
at the outset, fix his attention upon the entire man. He is to edify, 
to arouse, to teach, to guide, to admonish, to reprove. The modes in 
which the separate features of the task acquire a more distinct prom- 
inence in the work of the Christian Church ,will appear hereafter. 

SECTION XIV. 

THE RELIGIOUS COMMXTNITT — CHRISTIANITT. 

The religious community constitutes the soil in which the relig- 
ious life of the individual is rooted, in which it develops, and upon 
which it reacts. Hence the teacher who desires to achieve perma- 
nent results in the religious cultivation of other minds should not 
only be penetrated by religious principle, but also stand connected 
with a religious society, and hold an active relation thereto. 

A purely subjective religion and a corresponding culture, after 
the manner of Rousseau's Mnil, are conceivable; but they will exist 
in the imagination only, and be without a corresponding object in 

but they do not indicate what constitutes the controlling element in this whole. For 
a contrary view, see Elwert, 1. c, p. 46. Deinhardt, 1. c, p. 4, defines religion as " the 
life of God in man, and the life of man in God," and joins us in limiting the term 
** man " to the inner nature, and in understanding by religion tho living presence and 
efficacy of the Deity in the inner self-conscious man or Ego." 
' Ullmann, Ueber den Cultus des Genius, p. 62. 



RELIGION IS IMPOSSIBLE. 48 

the world of realities, besides being deficient in depth. However 
earnestly we may have sought to locate religion in the jigu^Q^g ^^^^ 
feelings, we have not implied that the subjective feeling ing common to 
of one person alone is sufficient to meet the require- *^™°^'^^^' 
ments of the case, or that any one may construct his religion accord- 
ing to the likes and dislikes of his heart. Religion is certainly 
subjective and personal in its root, and is a natural principle, as 
being grounded in the human constitution, instead of being the re- 
sult of accident; but that which animates a single person is designed 
to quicken aU. Religion is a common interest of the entire human 
race. Subjective feeling must expand into the feeling of brother- 
hood ; it requires prompting ; it is rarely powerful enough to be 
self -stimulating.* When it does so manifest itself, its subjects are, 
humanly speaking, religious geniuses, comparable with the creative 
minds of art in its religious aspects ; men endowed and inspired of 
God. 

Such " elect persons " become founders of religions, about whom 
gather congregations of believers. An erroneous and misdirected 
feeling may, no doubt, likewise display such energy (as in the case 
of false prophets) as to be successful in founding a communion ; and 
for this reason the communion to which one belongs is by no means 
a matter of indifference. He only can be a genuine and properly 
qualified founder of a religious system, in whom the religious feeling 
exists in absolute strength and purity, and in a spiritual harmony 
with all the faculties of the soul ; in whom the God-consciousness 
and the self -consciousness are so one that all friction is removed. 
That such a Being has actually appeared, and that he has founded 
a religion which not only deserves a place beside and above all 
others, but which, accurately considered, is the ojily religion ^^ and 
that, consequently, the salvation which the individual vainly seeks 
in himself or others is to be found in him alone, are necessary as- • 
sumptions, if we would extend our way farther into the field of 
Christian theology, within which a proper place (apologetics) will 
be found for justifying what we now take for granted. 

' This should especially be asserted against the mistaken objection that the religion 
of feeling excludes all objectivity. Against this, see Elwert, 1. c, p. 69, iqq.^ and 
Schleiermacher, Glaubenslehre, i, p. 188. The feeling of beauty is excited in like 
manner by the study of real works of art, the sense of jiistioe by the study of positive 
laws, etc. 

' All the statements we have made concerning religion as such are actualized in 
Christianity. God was in Christ, and his life was involved in the life of God. This 
psychological-historical fact is the root of the entire tree. In no other positive relig- 
ion does religious feeling, as a primary feeling, possess such fervid, energetic power ; and 
no other religion has so clear a consciousness and such free determination of the wilL 



44 THE THEOLOGIAN MUST LIVE 

SECTION XV. 

THE CHURCH AKD THEOLOGY 

H. Schultz, Die Bewegung innerhalb der evang. Klrche u. d. Aufgabe d. Tbeologfe derselben 
(Zu den ktrchl. Fragen d. Gegenwart). Frankfort, 1869. 

The teacher of the Christian religion belongs to the Christian 
Church, or to the visible religious communion of believers in Jesus 
C/'hfist, and must regulate his course as a teacher of religion by that 
Q aim f ^^^** '^^ qualify himself for the duties of his calling, 
of thereHgious he must, first of all, come to regard CLristiaLity, the 
®^* kingdom of God in its historical manifestation, as di- 

vinely ordained, and a necessary, rather than accidental, fact. He 
must trace its origin and recognize its bearings in every direc- 
tion, and appropriate to himself all the knowledge and skill made 
necessary by the historical progress of the Church and its present 
state. The scientific treatment of a positive religion as here indi- 
cated constitutes the study of theology in the narrow sense. 

Every positive religion which is rooted in the facts of history 
presumes positive intellectual acquirements. The necessity for such 
historical mediation should impress the theologian at the very be- 
ginning of his studies, that he may avoid the danger, on the one 
hand, of falling into a false idealism, and, on the other, of pursu- 
ing, hi a merely mechanical way, studies whose importance to relig- 
ion he is not able to estimate. Our ideal suggests a man filled with 
religious fervour entering the theological school, and finding there 
the critical, historical, and philological apparatus, which must be 
regarded as the source from which theological wisdom is to be 
drawn. He may, no doubt, be discouraged by the thought of such 
a mass of apparently dead and unproductive material. It would 
The true spirit ^^^'t^i'^ly Seem more attractive and profitable to draw 
of the theoiog- simply from the depths of the soul, and with strong 
ca u ent. draughts to drink what nature, art, and, perhaps, his- 
tory (chiefly regarded, however, in the large perspective outlines of 
its development), may have to offer, than to toil laboriously with 
grammar, and devote the greater pait of student-life to the interpre- 
tation of single letters, which frequently have but a very distant re- 
lation to the word of God.' We cannot do otherwise than rejoice 
in the question, Cui bono ? the very question to which encyclopaedia 
is to furnish the answer. There is a certain kind of self-denial which 
does not pause to inquire about the utility of prescribed studies, 
but rather enters on them in the conviction that the future will 
throw light on this point. Such modesty is rare, however, and dif- 
fers greatly from the indifference and tlio listlessness which lead so 

* Goethe, Faust, i. 



IN AND FOR THE CHURCH. 45 

many to be directed by, instead of directing, their studies. They 
hear lectures on exegesis. Church history, dogmatics, etc., simply 
because these belong to the course ; they would, in the same way, 
pursue any other study — heraldry, for instance — if an examination 
at the end of the term should be required. The object of Encyclo- 
paedia is to deliver from the dullness that asks no questions. 

SECTION XVL 

The theology developed by a positive religion will assume a sci- 
entific character in proportion as its body of doctrine is intelligent 
and complete. In this regard the highest place is held by the the- 
ology of Protestant Christianity.* 

So long as a religion contents itself with the transmission of 
myths and legends, and with the observance of symbolical usages, 

it confines the wisdom of its priests within narrow „ ^... 

^ Conditions of a 

limits. A higher scientific character belongs to a the- fuiiy developed 
ology which stands related to existent sacred writings, *^^^°^y- 
whether they be found in a sacred language and accessible to the 
priests alone, or whether they be the common possession of the peo- 
ple, and consequently require interpretation. But wherever the 
letter of the writing is not animated by the spirit which pervades 
the community, and wherever the religious idea laid down in such 
writings is permitted to remain undeveloped, the theology will 
speedily become a lifeless letter. That religion only which adds 
to its sacred writings a living history, to its standard and unchange- 
able elements others capable of being modified, can produce a sound 
theology. This character belongs to Christianity. It has sacred 
wi'itings in languages which, though ancient, are accessible to alL 
The writings are not the exclusive property of a priestly order, but 
b.ilong to the people as a whole; on this account they require a 
t? orough exposition, based on the original meaning. It has also a 
historical development in a higher degree than any other religion. 
More than any other, historical Christianity has become 
the religion of the world, seizing upon every language tions fulfilled 
and popular custom, and entering so thoroughly into ^y^^^^^^^^^^y- 
the culture of modern times as to seeni, during an extended period, 
its sole support. These remarks are preeminently true of Protes- 
tantism. The Roman Catholic Church, which has an authorized 
version of the sacred writings, but reserves their interpretation to 
itself, cannot demand of its servants that each individual shall so 
careiully go back to the first meaning of the original ; and, in view 
of the limited use of the Bible by the people, it does not place an 

* Gomp. Schleiennacher, § 2 and 4 



46 THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOL AN 

equal value on the practical exposition of the Scriptures. The 
principle of historical development is more apparently present in 
Roman Catholicism (tradition) than in Protestantism. As, however, 
development in Roman Catholicism is i*estrained by outward au- 
thority, and stability is exalted into a ruling principle instead, it 
results that even history has a higher importance in Protestantism. 
This does not imply that, on the one hand, many individuals will 
not pass beyond, or, on the other, that many will not fall behind^ 
the requirements of their Church in scientific matters. The scien- 
tific character of Roman Catholic theologians is, accordingly, a very 
praiseworthy opus supererogativum, while a similar character is, 
with Protestants, a conditio sine qua non.* 

SECTION xvn. 

THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOL AND THE CLERGY. 

K. Ulluiann, Theologie, Theologen u. Geistliche zu dieser Zeit ; preface to Studd. u. Kritt. for 
1849; K. Lechler, D. neutest. Lehre vora heil. Amte, Stuttg., 1857; W. Preger, d. Gesch. vom 
geistl. Amte, Nordliugen, 1857; Nesselmann, Ueber Priester-u. Prophetenthum in ihrer Bedeu- 
tung f. d. Cbristl. Kirche, Elbiag, 1830; G. F. Magoun, Theological Education in England, Bib, 
Sacra., xxiv, p. 531 ; E. A. Park, Bib. Sacra., xxvlii, pp. 60-97. 

In proportion as theological science widens, and its treatment 

becomes more profound, will a division of the work be found nec- 

Theoiogians essary. To some persons will be presented the duty of 

and practical cultivating the science for its own sake, while to others 
Church teach- .^ , . , ^ , .,-,», 

ers— how dis- it becomes Simply a means for the practical ends of the 

tinguished. teaching oftice in the Church. The former constitute 
the theological school, and are termed theologians, in the strict 
sense ; the latter form the teachers of the Church (clerus), and are 
variously designated in accordance with local or denominational 
usage, or as their stations in the Church and their leading duties 
may suggest; e, g.^ priests, clergymen, ministers of God's word, 
rectors, preachers, pastors, cures, and confessors. 

It should be remembered that the Church is more ancient than 
Scientific theo- the school. The latter sprang from the former. Pas- 
Sors co^re? *^^^ ^^ ^^® Congregation existed before doctors of the- 
lated. ology. The distinction between them, which has now 

become necessary, is not designed to result in their alienation from 
each other; for the life of the Christian community depends for its 
soundness largely upon the effects produced by the school and 
Church upon each other. The scientific theologian can only form a 
correct estimate of his science when he views it as having living 

• The future must decide the extent to which the " Old Catholic " party, which de- 
nies the infallibility of the Pope, but nevertheless, in its own fashion, acknowledges 
the authority of the Church, shall secure an independent organization as a Church, 
and develop a theology corresponding to its character. 



OUTGROWTH OP THE CHURCH. ^ 

relalions to tbo Church and its specific needs; while the practical 
clergyTQan can successfully measure up to the duties of his calling 
only when he holds friendly relations to theological science and its 
<5ultivators.* The pretended gentility of scholars, which, instead of 
seeking to train faithful servants for the Church, rather aims to de- 
prive her of their aid whenever possible (on the ground that good 
heads are too valuable for such business, is quite as perverse as the 
boorishness of unscientific empirics, which looks with suspicion upon 
the advantages of learning, and seeks, to the extent of its ability, 
to repress all inquiry. It is, therefore, important to the preserva- 
tion of the union between the school and the Church that men 
should be found in whom the scientific and the clerical characters 
combine, so as to fit them for successful labours in either field (as 
was the case with most of the reformers, and in a qualified sense 
with some in recent times; e. g.y Tzschirner, Schleiermacher, Sack, 
Nitzsch, Tholuck, J. Miiller, Al. Schweizer, Rothe, Schenkel, Bar- 
row, Wesley, Chalmers, Jonathan Edwards, Hopkins, Moses Stuart, 
etc.). The same rule, however, does not apply to all. All that can 
be required is that men should be open to influences from the one 
department, even while exclusively employed in the other. The 
Church must not be excluded from the school, nor the school 
bolted out of the Church. 

A few words on the appellations above cited. We do not take 
the title doctor of theology in the empirical sense, which 
implies that the holder of it has received a diploma? which pastors 
but in its more pregnant meaning as involving scientific ^^ 
acquirements. It applies not only to academical teachers, but to 
all who are called to give material aid in the further development 
of theological science as such, and also to theological writers.' 

All Christians are priests (1 Pet. ii, 5), for the spiritual priest- 
hood, to which all are called, must for that very reason lead to the 
universal priesthood. But, inasmuch as the priestly character is to 
be especially exemplified in those who are called to minister in holy 
things in the name and in behalf of the congregation, it is not im- 
proper that the Protestant clergyman should bear the title, although 
not in the exclusive sense of the Roman Catholic Church. Viewed 
in its etymological bearings, it is very simple ; for if the word priest 
be derived from TrpeafivrTjg, 'nQeaj3vrcQogy a presbyter^ it follows that 
every j-astor is a priest, or even a bishop^ since enlaKonog and npea- 
QvTepo^ denoted the same ofiicer, in the apostolic Church. But it is 

'Comp. Schleiermacher, § 12. 

'Comp. De Wette, Opuse. theoL, J> ^69 sq.y who compares doctors of theology to 
the piophets of the Old Testament 



48 THE CLERGY NOT CALLED PRIESTS 

evident that we think rather of the Sacerdotium {lEgd-i evfia *) thar 
of the Preshyteriuniy when we use the word, and in that sense the 
Protestant clergyman cannot properly appropriate the title exclu- 
sively to himself." This consideration, however, has not prevented 
defenders of the priestly character (as the possession of a privileged 
class) from arising even in Protestantisn. When Spalding ex- 
pressed a purely economic view of the utility of the clerical office, 
(Kutzbarkeit d. Predigtamtes, 1772), Herder replied in the Provin- 
zialblatter for 1774, defending its priestly character, but guarding 
against erroneous conclusions.^ Marheineke * and Harms * likewise 
came to its support, the latter remarking that the priest need i.ot 
necessarily be conceived as armed with the sacrificial knife, while the 
former held that the sacrifice and the priest are most intimately con- 
nected, because "every one who sacrifices is a priest, and, on the other 
hand, the priest exists only for the sake of sacrifice." — Lect. ii, p. 14. 
In the Reformed Churches the clergy are usually designated as 
the spiritual order (geistlicher stand, geistlichkeit), and the expres- 
sion is employed in the confessions. Many have protested against 
the phrase, among them Harms (1. c), who insists that the spiritual 

class should include all Christians (Gal. vi, 1, TTvevuari- 
Various desig- ,x m, , , . . -, -, 

nations of the KOI). 1 he language, liowever, IS not mtended to oppose 

clergy. ^^^ nvevfxartKog to the i/)^%t«;6f, or the aapKiicog, but has 

reference to the distinction between KXTjpiicog and Xa'iKog. The or- 
ganized body of teachers in the Church (ordo) is now known as the 

* Some derive the word priest from the Persian Perestar, one who prays^ equivalent 
to the apTjTTjp of Homer. Comp. Unger, Reden an kiinftige Geistliche. Leipsic, 1834. 

'Comp. Conf. Helv., ii, c. 16: Diversissima inter se sunt sacerdotium et ministe- 
rium. Illud enim commune est Christianis omnibus, hoc non item. Luther is particu- 
larly emphatic : " In the New Testament we find no external, visible priests, except 
those raised up and established by the devil through the lies of men. By the testi- 
mony of the Scriptures the external priesthood is hurled to the earth in the New 
Testament, for it makes prayer, access to God, and teaching the privilege of all." — 
Werke, Walch's ed., vol. xix, p. 1311. Similarly Spener. 

' " We are not set apart to sacrifice for the people, to be intermediate between God 
and man, half divine and half human, theurgists and theanthropists, in short, exor- 
cists of the devil — ^nor do I know what rabble could suppose this. Not the bearer of 
an offering for the people, but bearer of God's gift to the people, teacher of his rev- 
elation, scatterer of the truest means of culture, and to that extent really a separated, 
chosen, mediating person, a messenger and an instrument of God ! Not an anointed 
administrator of sacred usages, especially as based on human arbitrariness, but some- 
thing nobler : an anointed, *. r., chosen administrator of sacred functions, of the holi- 
est duty on earth, the cultivation of the soul through the influence of religion." See 
Werke zur Religion u. Theologie, vol. x, p. 342, sq. 

* Grundlegung der Homiletik in einigen Vorlesungen lib. d. wahren Charakler der 
Prot. Geistlichkeit. Hamb., 1811. 

•Pastoral theologie, ii, 1st and 2d discourses. 



AS BEING MEDIATORS. 49 

clergy, and the above designations are simply familiar versions of 
this term. The clergy are not termed *' spiritual " in the subjective 
sense, as being more spiritual than other persons, but in the objec- 
tive sense of having in their official character to perform certain 
functions. This of course does not forbid that the laity also may 
and should be a spiritual order; and, in any case, the designation 
may serve to continually remind him who bears it by reason of his 
office, that he should be spiritually-minded beyond all others.^ 

Minister of God's word (verbi divini minister) is an expression that 
prevails especially in the Reformed Church. It forms the direct 
contrast to the term priest, but by that very fact becomes one-sided, 
since it limits the service to the Word, and disregards the liturgical 
element. The proper term to apply to the body of servants of the 
Word would, accordingly, be the ministry (ministerium, not clerus 
or clergy). 

The term rector properly denotes the person who has a parish, 
as distinguished from the unappointed candidate, the mere admin- 
istrator (vicar), or the assistant (diaconus). In this sense some 
derive its German equivalent, Pfarrer, from TrdpoiKog, nagoiKlay 
comp. SLolKTjaig. If it be derived from ndgoxog^ (Trape^w,) it is 
equivalent to dispensator, administrator, and then every person 
who administers the Word and Sacraments might assume the title.^ 

^ The German language makes a keen distinction between the outwardly spiritual 
and the inwardly spiritual. The outwardly spiritual should always be spiritual in its 
inward essence, but the latter does not always fall into the category of the former. 
Differently expressed, not every thing that is spiritual is the object of spiritual func- 
tions. It has been said (Wechsler, Charakter u. Zukunft d. Protestantismus, Konigsb., 
1844, p. 6, sq.) that "the great mission of Protestantism consists in promoting tho 
subjectively spiritual (das Geistige), rather than the spiritual in its outward bearings, 
as relating to order, functions, etc. (das Geistliche). The latter merely indicates like- 
ness to the spiritual, and is related to it about as reddishness is to red." This is an 
entire perversion. The subjectively spiritual is the demonstration of the spirit in 
the most general way, including its worldly (cosmical) relations, while the objectively 
spiritual expresses the relation of the finite spirit to the infinite spirit, and thus be- 
comes a powerful exponent of the religious idea. 

'Another etymology that is urged with much confidence — from pfaren (faren), the 
same as to beget (Vorfahren, ancestors^ those who have previously begotten), or even 
from Farr, a bullock (Parr, the herd), is adduced simply as a curiosity. See Clamor, 
Die Zustande d. Christl. Kirche in d. ersten 6 Jahrhunderten, Halberst., 1 856, p. 46, 
note. The word Pfaffe (out of TrdTTTraf), which had a good meaning in the Middlf 
Ages, now denotes the caricature of the priestly character. The danger of becoming 
a Pfaffe threatens every clergyman more nearly than may be supposed ; for, while the 
teaching order is a necessity for the Church, the merely professional administration 
of religious duties is always an unhappy indication. Only a high and enthusiastic de- 
votion can secure against falling into the depths of vulgar frivolity or of hypocrisy. 
See ZoUikofer's Predigten ub. d. Wurde des Menschen, ii, p. 474. 
4 



50 THE THEOLOGIAN RELATED BOTH 

Preacher (predicant) is a name derived from the leading function 
of the Protestant clergyman, to which those of the pastor and over- 
seer of souls are added in a complementary way; but as the liturgi- 
cal element is not included, the term is insufficient and one-sided.' 
Pastor (notfiTjv, nv^) is taken from John x, 11, sgq.; xxi, 15, sqq.; 

Eph. iv, 11; Heb. xiii, 20; 1 Pet. ii, 25. Comp. the Fastor of Her 
mas, and the Shepherd (ITirCe) of Zwingle. Every person who, in the 
love of a disciple, feeds the sheep and lambs in healthful pastures, 
is accordingly entitled to this name. As an official title it corre- 
sponds to rector (Pfarrer). Curate (Seelsorger) in the Reformed 
Church, and Confessor (Beichtvater) in the Lutheran, have refer- 
ence more particularly to the relation sustained by the clergyman 
toward the individual members of his charge. '^ In the Church of 
England, the word curate denotes a rector's assistant or substitute. 
Supplement 1. — No reference has been made to the missionaries, 
■ „ , who constitute a distinct class in the theological order. 

Missions in . . . .^ . ° 

Theological The increasingly scientific method with which mission- 
Encyciopaedia. ^^^ affairs are administered in recent times, renders it 
more and more imperative that Theological Encyclopasdia should 
make room for the science of missions in its organism. 

2. The officers of the apostolic age (apostles, prophets, evangel- 
ists, pastors, and teachers, Eph. iv, 11 ; comp. 1 Cor. xii, 28) have 
in recent times been regarded by members of the Catholic Apos- 
tolic Church, better known as Irvingites, as obligatory for the 
future also, but without sufficient exegetical or historical authority. 
The fact that the lists of officers in the two passages do not corre- 
spond, is of itself sufficient to suggest a more independent view. 
Neither passage, moreover, refers to the office of angels^ which is 
taken from the Apocalypse, nor to that of deacons, which occurs in 

Acts vi. 

SECTION XVIH. 

RELATION OF THE THEOLOGIAN TO SCHOOL AND CHURCH. 

The Protestant student belongs to the theological school during 
the period of his academical studies, and derives his culture from 

* The reason for this is found in the history of Protestantism. The teaching and 
pastoral office, which certainly demands the most various gifts, was exalted, in oppo- 
sition to the mechanical duties of the " mass-priest." The trice liturgist, however, 
deserves to be termed a priest (with Harms), in so far as he represents the priestly 
character of the entire congregation in the liturgical act — ^but in this case only, and in 
this point of view. 

' Other, provincial, designations («. g., domine among the Dutch), or such as relate 
to the government of the Church, or to special official stations (bishop, abbot, super- 
intendent, antistes, provost, dean, archdeacon, deacon, etc.), do not come under review 
in this place. 



TO THE CHURCH AND THE SCHOOL. 61 

that source, rather than immediately from the Church. The latter 
is entitled, however, to demand from persons who seek a place 
among its teachers such evidence of theological acquirements and 
Christian disposition as may be necessary. 

The Church itself prepared its servants in the earliest period. 
The apostles trained their assistants, and the latter trans- sketch of the 
mitted to others, in a purely practical way, what they ^^^^rS ^'traSl 
had received. Science was as yet in the possession of ing. 
the ancient (heathen) world, and Christians were in the habit of 
attending the schools of heathen philosophers and rhetoricians, and 
of appropriating to their own uses whatever of good they could 
thus obtain.* Specifically Christian training-schools were soon in- 
troduced, however, as that for catechumens at Alexandria (in the 
third century), and the schools at Antioch, Csesarea, Edessa, Nisi- 
bis, etc. The monasteries, also, afforded training-schools, and during 
the Middle Ages the episcopal and convent schools, founded by 
Charlemagne and his successors, in which the trivium and quadriv- 
ium — grammar, logic, rhetoric, and arithmetic, geometry, astron- 
omy, and music, the seven liberal sciences — were taught, were 
especially valuable for the purposes of ecclesiastical education. 

The rise of universities (studia generalia) in the twelfth century 
introduces a new era in the history of the sciences. At The rise of uni- 
the first, certain universities were managed more par- verities. 
ticularly in the interests of a single faculty, the schools at Paris, 
Oxford, Cologne, and Louvain, being especially prominent for 
theology. In these scholasticism set up its throne. Kew uni- 
versities, whose beginnings were due, to some extent, to the con- 
flicts of the hour, were founded in or about the time of the Refor- 
mation, and generally became the exponents of some theological 
tendency (Wittenberg, Jena, Halle, Helmstedt). This exclusive 
character was gradually laid aside, and in more recent times the 
superiority of a university training over that received in institutions 
devoted to a specialty came to be properly recognized," more 
particularly as manifested by the wide culture, the mutual 
exchange and free intercourse of different forms of thought, and 
the unrestrained liberty of teaching and study, which it involves. 
Against this, however, it has been remarked that a wise limitation 
with regard to the matter of instruction, and a more definite ideal 
governing the methods of instruction, would in no wise impair the 
object for which universities exist. 

* Comp. Augustine, De doctr. Chr., ii, 40. 

• See Schleiermacher, Ueber Universitaten, p 62. 



89 THE LECTURE SYSTEM 

SECTION XIX. 

THE UNIVERSITY. 

•Schlelermacher, Ueber Unlversitaten in deutschen Sinne, Berlin, 1808; H. StelTens, Idee doT 
CTnlversitaten, Berlin, 1809; Id. Ueber Deutschlands prot. Unlversitaten, Berlin, 1820; F. C. v. 
Savigny, Wesen u. Werth d. deutscben Unlversitaten, in Ranke's Hlstor.-poUt. Zeltschrift, Ham- 
burg, 1832 ; L. F. Froriep, Ueber das Elffentbumllcbe der deutschen Unlversitaten, Weimar, 1834 ; 
G. O. Marbach, Unlversitaten u. Hochscbulen in dem auf Intelligenz slch grundenden Staate, 
Lelpsic, 1834 ; (Fr. Theremin, Ueber d. deutschen Unlversitaten, Berlin, 1836 ; A. Dlesterweg, 
Beltr. zur Losung d. Lebensfrage der Civilisation, Essen, 1836, 1838) ; Fr. Thiersch, Ueber d. 
neuesten Angrtffe auf d. deutsch. Unlversitaten, Stuttgart, 1837 ; J. E. Erdmann, D. UniversitSt 
u. ihre SteUung zur Kirche, in his Vermischte Aufsatze, I, Leipsio, 1846 ; V. A. Huber, Ueber 
akad. Convicte, zur innern Mission auf d. Unlversitaten, Berlin, 1852 ; Henry P- Tappan, Uni- 
versity Education, New York, originally an article in the Bib. Repository for July, 1850; 
Noah Porter, American Colleges and the American Public, New Haven, 1870, from the New 
Englander for 1869 : also Index to Bib. Sacra., pp. 342-244, title Universities. 

The period of academical study is the time spent in the college 
or university. Usage has limited it to a brief term of years, which 
would seem to be scarcely sufficient^ in view of the present state of 
science. Much has been said for or against the exclusive adoption 
The university o^ the lecture system in university training.' Scientific 
lecture system, instruction can evidently be conveyed only in connected, 
uninterrupted discourse, and the mind of the hearer is stimulated 
to higher energy by quietly receiving and inwardly digesting what 
it hears, than by hastily interrupting and throwing in replies. It is 
by this very feature that the academical lecture is to be distin- 
guished from that employed in the seminaries (gymnasia) and 
grammar-schools. A lecture of this kind" should of course be ex- 
tempore and fresh, carrying the hearers along with the current of 
thought ; not declamatory or pathetic, but strictly methodical, dig- 
nified, and earnest, and accomplishing its purpose by clearness and 
depth of thought instead of foreign ornamentation. It should even 
be edifying, not, however, in the manner of a moving pulpit dis- 
course, but through the silent power of the truth. As it is not 

* Theremin demands a more conversational method of instruction. Diesterweg goes 
atill further, and traces much of the existing corruption to the present character of 
the universities. Comp. also C. F. Fritzsche, De ratione docendi Socratica in institu- 
tione academica, in the Opuse. academ. (Tur., 1846), p. 361, sqq.y and more recent 
treatises on the same subject. 

* Comp. especially Schlelermacher, p. 62, sqq, ; L. Thilo, Grundsatze des akad. Vor- 
trags, 1809; Scheidler, p. 103, 8qq, "What Pyrrhus says to his Epirots, * Ye are my 
pinions ! ' is felt by the zealous teacher toward his hearers, whom he loves, and whose 
entire soul is interested in his discourse. His investigations are not facilitated merely 
by the desire to be clear, and not to present any thing as the truth that could be at 
all doubtful ; but much more by the view of his audience, to whom he sustains per- 
sonal relations that awaken a thousand thoughts even as he speaks." (Niebuhr, in 
Preface to the second edition of his Roman history. Eng. edition (Hare & Thlrlwall's), 
pp. xl, xii. Compare also his letter to a young philologist, published by K. G. Jacob. Leip. 
sic, 1839, p. 38. 



AND ITS PROPER USE. 58 

designed for immediate effect, but to excite thought and mental 
activity on the part of hearers who think and act for themselves, it 
is desirable that these latter should seek to retain the mental image 
brought before them in the lecture by sketching it on paper, or re- 
producing it in its main outlines. College sketches of this kind, the 
work of the student's personal power of independent mental repro- 
duction, and accompanied with marginal notes of inquiry, doubt, 
etc., form the most valuable journal of the years of academical 
preparation, whose direct relation to the writer forbids that any 
printed book should ever take its place. The mere attendance on 
lectures and listening to them, without subsequent writ- rj^etruemeth- 
ing, is often simply intellectual sloth, or, at best, awk- od of profiting 
wardness, which, however, not unfrequently conceals ^ ^^ "^®^* 
itself behind a screen of easy indifference. The sort of copying 
to be commended, by which we mean the independent recording 
of thought from the mind of another person, is, of course, very 
different from a thoughtless writing of dictated matter. Formal 
dictation can only become necessary through the force of circum- 
stances, and with regard to a few leading postulates (for want of a 
printed guide). In other respects the teacher is no more to be de- 
graded into an instrument of dictation than the student is to become 
a copying-machine.^ While, however, the lecture should not be 
displaced by any other method of instruction, it is certainly bene- 
ficial to combine with it other methods. Teaching by question and 
answer seems adapted to primary scholars, and involves a painful 
element ; but semi-annual examinations, following a completed 
course, have their beneficial side. Especially stimulating, however, 
are disputatioris under the guidance of the teacher; and independ- 
ent societies for practice among the students, or presided over by a 
teacher, are likewise of value (comp. § 20). 

SECTION XX. 
Public instruction should be supplemented by private Private indus- 
industry, whose efforts are not to be limited to careful ^^^t o/pubiic 
preparation for the expected lecture, and to a subse- instruction. 
quent exact recapitulation of its matter; it must also approve itself 
by independent inquiry and exercises. 

*It should never be forgotten that some things can be better conveyed through the 
eye, and others through the ear. Names, figures, the titles of books, etc., should be 
before the hearer in printed form, as also the necessary documents. Against dictation, 
see Schleiermacher ut supra, p. 65. It is remarkable that the Jesuits in the sixteenth 
century were the chief originators and promoters of dictation, although the Jesuit Posse- 
vin clearly points out its disadvantages. See his Bibl. selecta, i, 26. The Pietistic school 
(Lange) of Halle likewise opposed the practice, while the Wolfians favoured it greatly. 



54 REPETITION AND DISCUSSION 

Attendance on too many lectures at once works injury and con- 
fusion. In this regard the study of encyclopaedia and methodology 
helps to produce system and rule. But private industry is not to 
prevail at the expense of public instruction, else the sojourn at the 

Preparation university will be without an object. Preparation and 
to be^addedto J'epetition (repetitio mater studiorum) constitute the 
the lecture. bonds of union between private industry and the objects 
sought in the hearing of the lecture. The one, preparation, sharp- 
ens the vision to perceive the objects that may be presented; the 
other, repetition, impresses them more deeply on the mind. In 
one department of study, however, more of preparation will be 
needed, in another more of recapitulation. The former is especial- 
ly necessary with studies that present philological and other diffi- 
culties which must be overcome at the outset; the latter applies 
here also, and likewise in the historical and systematic departments. 
But inasmuch as the mere appropriation of knowledge is of less 
importance than its digestion, the recapitulation will increasingly 
utility of oral expand into a "volvere et revolvere in animo," while dis- 
discussion. cussion with fellow-students will provide the intellectual 
gymnastics by which the faculties are strengthened and made trust- 
worthy. Care must be taken, however, to prevent the spirit of 
disputation in religious matters from degenerating into a petulance 
which eats out the heart, and attacks the root of the deeper life. 

The most approved antidote against disorderly disputes and a scep- 
tical temper is found in severe mental labour; and to this every 
student should subject himself during one or more periods of his 
course, by engaging in the thorough investigation of some specialty; 
this, too, if his aim is to prepare for the simplest duties in the 
Church, rather than for the work of theological scholarship. They 
who have themselves untied knots are alone capable of appreciating 
the labours of others, and they only who possess the patience and the 
courage to go to the bottom of what is individual and special can 
attain the power to comprehend the universal. It may be added that 
only such persons can possess the ability to derive profit from inter- 
course with scientific men, or deserve their notice. The chatterer 
will be avoided. Much, and especially discursive, reading is to be 
avoided; let "non multa, sed multum" be the rule in this regard.' 

' Plin., Epp., vii, 9 ; Quinet., Inst, orat., x, 1, 59 ; Senec. Ep., 45 ; Non refert, quam 
mnltos, sed quam bonos habeas (libros). Lectio certa prodest, varia delectat ; Her- 
der's Briefe, No. 49 , Niebuhr, Brief an einen jungen Philologen, p. 145 : " Give up 
the miscellaneous reading, even of ancient authors ; there are very many worthless 
ones even here. Eolus allowed only the single wind to blow that should bring Ulyssefl 
to his goal, and bound the others ; when loosened and sweeping through each other, 
they prepared him endless wanderines." 



SHOULD SUPPLEMENT LEOTUKES. 55 

Writing, whether of compilations^ or original articles,' is far more 
profitable and improving. 

SECTION XXL 

THE FORMATION OP CHARACTER. 

While attaching all importance to thorough scientific culture, it 

should be a principle never lost sight of, that the char- ^ _, 

^ , . ^ . ° Importance of 

acter of a religious teacher is not only determined by character in 
the measure of his knowledge, but also by the measure '^e^^^ios^^- 
of his religious and moral convictions, and the thoroughness of his 
spiritual culture, and, consequently, that the formation of a theolog- 
ical character upon the basis of previous Christian training is as im- 
portant an object as the acquiring of knowledge and the develop- 
ment of skill. 

No theological teacher who has comprehended his duty should 

avoid entering into intimate relations with earnest stu- „ , ,. 

o . , Relations of the 

dents. We must certainly require that he shall per- teacher to the 
Bonally illustrate a theological character that, with all ^^" ®^'* 
its deficiencies, shall yet possess certain features which are the in- 
voluntary expression of spiritual achievements. The whole may be 

* The younger Pliny boasts (Epp., iii, 5) of his uncle . Nihil legit, quod non excer- 
peret ; dicere enim solebat, nulhun esse librum tarn malum, ut non aliqua parte pro- 
desset. Comp. C. Meiners, Anweisung fiir Jiinglinge zum Lesen, Exeerpiren, und 
Schreiben. Hanover, 1*791 ; Scheidler, Hodegetik. Herder (Sophron., p. 153) calls 
excerpts the cells which bee-like industry constructs, the hives in which it prepares 
its honey. 

'Herder, 1. c. : "Nulla dies sine linea, not a day should pass in which a young per- 
son does not write something for himself, whether he record what might otherwise be 
forgotten, or notes and answers his doubts. The pencil, which for us means the pen, 
sharpens the judgment, corrects the language, develops ideas, and excites the soul to 
activity in a wonderfully pleasant manner. Nulla dies sine linea." Much writing 
with the object of teaching before having learned, or a conceit qf authorship, may, 
however, involve its own dangers. Niebuhr — rather strong and almost extreme— ex- 
presses a contrary opinion (Brief, etc., p. 134 sq.) : " To learn, my friend, to learn 
conscientiously, and always to test and increase our knowledge, this is our theoretical 
life-calling, and it is especially so for youth, which has the good fortune to be able to 
expose itself without restraint to the charm of the new intellectual world revealed in 
books. The writer of a treatise assumes to teach whatever he may say ; and teaching 
is impossible without some degree of wisdom, which, if pursued, is given by God to 
replace the evanescent bliss of youth. A wise youth is a monster." (Accordingly, 
Niebuhr counsels only fragmentary writing, without any attempt at completeness and 
finish [?] ). He continues : " Well is it with the young tree that has been planted in 
a good soil and is surrounded by favourable conditions, whose erect growth is pre- 
served by careful hands, and that forms a solid heart ! Should excessive moisture 
accelerate its growth, should it be soft and weak, exposed to the storm-wind's blast 
without protection and support, the result will be that its wood . is spongy, and its; 
growth deformed throughout the entire period of its life." 



56 PRAYER, MEDITATION, TRIAL 

comprehended in the language of one of the most esteemed theo- 
logians:' "Decision without exclusiveness and repulsive boldness, 
independence freed from all vain self-sufficiency, dignity without 
unkindness, firmness without harshness and passion, and all these 
resting on the basis of a Christian spirit, together with wealth of 
intellect and of knowledge — these are the elements that constitute 
the theological character." 

The student of theology who is in earnest will speedily discover 
that this ideal cannot be realized by the way of study alone, how- 
ever indispensable this may be ; the causes that so often dampen 
the courage and intensify the struggle are more deeply rooted in 
the moral nature. If newly-gained conceptions excite alarm and 
fears arise that faith may become unsettled, while the desire to 
avoid the conflict suggests that it would be better to leave things 
as they are, it is wise to inquire whether indolence has not be- 
gotten the desire, and coicardice the unwillingness to sustain the 
fight. When novelties impress us, and we feel ourselves driven 
into opposition against the existing order, we may ask what share 
in ^^ ^^^ condition is due to vanity^ dogmatical or quarrel- 
which doubt some dispositions.- In this way the student has oppor- 
shouid be met. ^^^jty to constantly apply to himself that beneficial dis- 
cipline of spirit, to which all were obliged to submit who attained 
to eminence in theological character. In this way, too, the maxim 
of the ancients, " Oratio, meditatio, tentatio, faciunt theologum," 
receives its meaning and confirmation. The practice of quiet and 
frequent self-communion, even though it may oblige him to read 
some pages less, meditatio,^ the trustful look and elevation of the 
soul to God, the Living One, in prayer, oratio,'^ courage, and endur- 

*Ullraann, Theol. Aphorisraen, in Studd. u. Kritt., 1844, Xo. 4, p. 448. 

' " We can battle for nothing nobler than the trnth ; and it is worth battling for 
when the mode of conflict leaves love and liberty unharmed. But to quarrel, hate, 
and become alienated about opinions or the authority of councils, svnods, faculties, 
journals, or human decisions and forms of doctrine in general, is the most miserable 
business under the sun for men to follow." — Menken, Leben u. Wirken, ii, p. 108. 

^ It was an early custom at commencements to open a book and close it again, in 
order to suggest reflection upon the instructions now brought to a close. But inces- 
sant reading deprives our generation of the opportunity for thinking. 

* " Dimidium studii, rite precatus habet," said the Fathers, and Herder recommends 
prayer and reading of the Bible in the morning and the evening as a daily food 
(1. c, p. 1*74). In like manner, a Swiss theologian of recent times remarks : " I there- 
fore hold that no person is suited to the sacred oflSce of proclaiming the word, who 
does not come before God with prayer and pleading and sighs day by day, and who, 
with every new hour in which he is to learn some lesson, does not beseech the Lord 
anew in his heart, and so secretly as to escape observation, that he would bless him' 
in that hour, so that he may be able to learn the grace and mercy of God, and the 



MAKE THE THEOLOGIAN. 57 

ance in the conflict against doubt, and against the influences of 
sloth and pride, hypocrisy and passion, bitterness and discourage- 
ment, tentatio — these are the methods by which the theologian is 
developed into a man of God ; and such he must become if he 
would be a divine in the favour of God.^ A theologia irregeni- 
torum is, when carefully examined, a contradictio in adjecto. 

true -welfare of man, from the study upon which he is now to enter." — Zyro, Die 
evang. ref. Kirche, p. 12, sq. 

^It is usual to demand physical qualifications, also, of the future servant of the 
Church, and not without propriety. The Old Testament was prescriptive in this as 
well as other regards. Lev. xxi, 17, sqq. In the Roman Church, too, the authoritative 
Canon law recognizes the principle, sacerdos ne sit deformis. The greater liberality 
of Protestantism appeal's in this respect also, since it prescribes no formal rule. A 
sound, physical constitution is, however, a fundamental condition of ministerial effect- 
iveness. Good lungs are a manifest necessity for the preacher. Much may be ac- 
complished in this direction by dieting, and imperfections of the vocal organs may be 
modified by continued exercise of the parts (Demosthenes). Reading aloud, and also 
singing, are to be particularly recommended, and no less outdoor exercise. Even study 
may be carried to excess, and a walk in the open air is as important for the mind and 
feelings, no less than the body, as a few hours spent beside the student's lamp. 
Lord Bacon read much, but never to weariness and satiety. The beneficial change 
of a walk, a ride, or a daily game of ball, always succeeded the time devoted to study 
(see Rawley in Vauzelles, Hist, de Bacon, ii, p. 197). There has been a narrow age 
which condemned physical exercises like gymnastics, as not suitable for a theologian 
to practice (through a perversion of 1 Tim. iv, 8). We had supposed that such opin- 
ions were no longer held, until an article in Hengstenberg's Kirchenzeitung for 1863 
endeavoured to show the incompatibility of gymnastics with a Christian disposition ; 
it, however, received an answer, to which we assent, in the columns of the same 
journal. On the advantages of gymnastic exercises for students, comp. Scheidler 
Hodegetik). The great importance of social intercourse for the cultivation of man- 
ners is admitted, and it is greatly to be desired that students associate together in a 
cheerful, joyous Avay ; nor should they isolate themselves from other society, lest they 
fall into unbridled license. Schleiermacher, Ueber Univers. p. 126, sq. 



GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 



PART I. 
GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ITS RELATIONS TO OTHER^ SCIENCES, AND ITS AIMS. 



SECTION I. 
THEOLOGY AS A POSITIVE SCIENCE. 

Theology is a positive or applied science (Sclileiermacher, § 1), 
and its scientific character is consequently not determined by any 
thing within itself, as is the case with a pure science, but from with- 
out by an existent and historically-conditioned fact, namely, the 
Christian Church and its manifestation in time. 

The word positive is sometimes employed in a more limited sense, 
so as to denote, not simply what is conditioned in the circumstances 
of outward life, but also what is at the same time commanded by 
outward authority — positive law in distinction from natural. The 

.-• ^ progress of our discussion will show, when treating: of 
Sense in which ^ ° , . ° 

theology is a the relation between reason and revelation, that theol- 
positive science. ^^^ -^ ^ positive science in this sense also — which is 
likewise true of jurisprudence, but not of medicine. But the three 
sciences referred to may be termed "positive" without referring 
to that question, if the word be interpreted to mean "a combi- 
nation of scientific elements whose collocation is not required be- 
cause they form a necessary constituent in the idea of science, 
but simply because they are needed for the solution of a practical 
problem" (Schleiermacher).^ In this view natural philosophy is a 
pure science, in so far as it investigates nature and its phenomena 
for their own sakes and without reference to the relation of nature 
to the practical necessities of the human race ; while medicine, 
although based on a knowledge of natural philosophy, is still a 
positive, or applied, science, because it selects and collocates simply 

^ Similarly Pelt : *' The whole of theology has reference primarily to an external phe- 
nomenon, whence its positive character is derived ; for we designate a science as pos- 
itive when it does not originate in a supreme principle developed by free investigation 
in harmony with its own peculiar laws, but when it relates to an organism having its 
beginning in time as an object, such as the ethical associations of the State or the 
Church." — ijncykl., p. 15, sq. Comp. Harless, Encykl., p. 25. 



THEOLOGY AS A POSITIVE SCIENCE. 59 

what concerns the relation of the human organism to the organ- 
ism of external nature; i. e., the relations of health and disease.' 
If diseases should cease, medical science would come to an end. 
And similarly, in connexion with theology, Hellenistic Greek and 
Hebrew have a different significance for the philologist," and 
Church-history for the historian, than they have for the theologian; 
and the comprehension, e. g., of exegesis. Church-history, etc., in a 
single course, can be understood only in view of the common ob- 
ject to which they relate. "These very sciences cease TheguWanceof 
to be theological, and take their places respectively the chureh the 
with the particular science to which they belong by ogyanditsMn- 
reason of their contents, if they have been acquired dred sciences. 
and are held without reference to the life of the Church and its di- 
rection." "The great varieties of scientific knowledge stand related 
to the purpose of participating in the guidance of the Church, as 
does the body to the soul ; and without such purpose the unity of 
theology disappears, and its constituents fall into distinct elements." 
(Schleiermacher, § 6, 7). This, however, is not universally admitted.^ 
While in former times empiricism prevailed, and the mere 
thought of future practice frequently served to prevent Dangers of the 
thoroughness in study, we now find dominant a scien- excess of the 
tific spirit that mocks at life, and, with cruel harshness, ^^^^^ ^^ 
drives from its presence the most crying demands of actual con- 
ditions. The example of Dr. Griffin (in the Memoires de Paris) 
affords a melancholy illustration of the manner in which the very 
hospitals are made to afford opportunities for scientific observa- 
tions on the part of medical men. In like manner, a certain theol* 
ogy claims the right to undertake its merciless vivisections on 

* The anatomy of man, for instance, is simply a contribution to comparative anatomy 
with the natural philosopher, while with the medical man it forms the soil upon which 
his practical activity is based. To the botanist each plant is of equal value with any 
other ; while the physician has a distinct science of therapeutics (materia medica), etc. 

' A genius for language is generally regarded as at the same time a theological 
genius, and a certificate of philological talent passes for the best assurance of the- 
ological fitness ; but real philologists (by profession) have themselves comprehended 
that the one does not necessarily involve the other. " The connexion of theology with 
philology is more properly an accidental one, arising from the fact that the principal 
documents of the former are written precisely in that language to which the latter 
ascribes the highest classical character." — Passow's Leben u. Brief e, pp. 38, 12. 

•Sartorius, Die Lehre von der heil. Liebe, Part I, 3d ed., Stuttgart, 1851 (new 
1 vol., ed. 1861) — in harmony with the Victorines and Middle Age mystics gener- 
ally — ^makes the sound observation: "Theology is a practical science, a knowledge 
that pervades the affections, and stands connected with the disposition." (The term 
" pectoral theology " has been invented for purposes of ridicule ; but the adage, " Pec- 
tus est, quod disertum facit," cannot be limited, in its application, to the orator alone.) 



60 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

the body of tlie Church, in order to observe the palpitating spasms 
of the heart which the anatomical knife has laid bare to the view. 
The recent times furnish terrible illustrations of this spirit. Are 
men determined not to comprehend that such inconsiderate asser- 
tion of the claims of science forces science itself to become unnat- 
ural, and that, whatever may be thought about the height to which 
such methods may seem to force it, they yet sever the root upon 
which the life of science depends, and thus ensure its death ? * Let 
it be observed, however, that the very organization of universities 
m faculties, which has hitherto prevailed, is based on the distinction 
between the pure and the positive or applied sciences, which we 
have indicated." Philosophy, as a distinct university science, has 
to do with pure knowledge, and therefore deserves, not the last, 
but the first, place.' Medicine, jurisprudence, and theology are 
iriternally allied with it, though in their external bearing they face 
toward actual life, and derive from life their peculiar character as 
determined by its conditions. 

When compared with law and medicine, the remaining positive 
Relations of sciences, theology is found to present numerous points 
law aifd m^- ^^ contact with both, and even to manifest a closer re- 
cine. lationship with either than they bear to each other. It 

rests upon the foundation of historic fact, like jurisprudence, and 
presupposes the Church, as jurisprudence does the State. The 
courses and apparatus of study in law and theology present a sim- 
ilar appearance (exegesis, history, dogmatics, Bible, and Corpus 
Juris), and in their practical application each involves public dis- 
course and the. functions of direction and administration. The two 
meet and interpenetrate each other in the department of ecclesi- 
astical law. But the regulative principle of theology is, never- 
theless, wholly unlike that of law; the latter has to do with firm 
and legally-determined forms, the former with a free development 
of life. A judicial theology is not what we could wish, for it 
would appear as a false positivism. (See the remarks on Law and 
Doctrine, § 7). Theology does not deal with an element of human 
life, such as the principle of right, in the abstract, but with the living 

' There is a papacy and hierarchy of learning and science, a fanatical tyranny exer- 
cised by the learned classes. Their motto is, "Fiat scientia et pereat mundus." — 
Lucke, p. 10. 

' Schleiermacher, Ueber Universit., p. 73 sqq.^ p. 75 : " The three faculties (exclud- 
ing philosophy) do not derive their unity immediately from learning, but from an 
external employment, and they combine from different studies whatever is needed for 
that work." Comp. Herbart. Phil. Encykl., chap. 2. (On man in his relations to 
nature, the State and the Church, whence the author deduces the three faculties). 

^Schleiermacher, 1. c, p. 78 ; Kant, Ueber den Streit der Facultaten. 



THEOLOGY AS A PRACTICAL ART. 61 

man in all his relations. Its work is not mandatory, but curative; 
and this connects the theologian with the physician, particularly in 
the field of pastoral theology. 

The care of souls reaches over into the physical realm, in view 
of the intimate connexion between soul and body. The physician 
and the clergyman meet beside the sick bed, not only in outward 
form, I at also in the profoundest depths of man's need of healing 
(medicina clerica). The moral and intellectual qualities required 
in the physician are also to be in many respects demanded of the 
clergyman, and vice versa. Humanity, apart from what is specific- 
ally Christian, forms here the connecting link. An individualizing 
method of treatment is even more apparent in the work of physicians 
and clergymen than in that of jurists; their personal contact with 
the subjects of their labours is more frequent, difficult to determine, 
and constant. The theologian is accordingly required The qualities 
to unite in himself qualities which are usually presumed ^n^ted?nSe 
in both the jurist and the medical practitioner. He theologian, 
must possess the historic sense, the disposition to labour in a legiti- 
mate way in behalf of a historically-developed society, and the gift 
of oratory, in common with the lawyer; and with the physician he 
must possess the talent for giving direction to the life of individ- 
uals, and for noting the mysteries of the psychical life, an observing 
eye, keen discrimination in the treatment of different persons, and, 
finally, the desire to heal and to change diseased conditions into 
states of health. In former times theology embraced both the other 
sciences, and nourished them in its maternal womb; and their sub- 
sequent separation, though resulting in advantage to them all, does 
not warrant a disregard of their continued relations to each other. 
It forms one of the advantages of a university course (in contrast 
with the opportunities afforded by schools devoted to a specialty), 
that such relations become apparent and are partially actualized 
before its studies are completed. The theologian may gather in- 
formation from the jurist and the physician, and each is able to aid 
the others in behalf of science and future usefulness from his own 
possessions. 

SECTION IL 

THEOLOGY AS A PRACTICAL ART, 

The relations arising from a positively determined field of activity 
not only demand a certain measure of intellectual ac- _...,, 

T>|*gnti aq] ill a 

quisitions, but likewise a high degree of practical abil- the object of 
ity; hence, theology is not to be onesidedly regarded ^^®°^^'^- 
as a speculative or historical science, but also as a practical art oi 
art-theory. 



tt2 GENEEAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

l^elt (Encykl., § 3) has properly called attention to this fact; 
for "the general interest of the thought does not predominate in 
tlieology as in philosophy; the object is not to gain a consciousness 
of the truth, without reference to its application;* the leading idea 
is, rather, that by means of such consciousness the Church should 
be brought nearer to its consummation" (ibid. p. 34). The word 
art (rex^Tj) is here taken in its most general meaning, as denoting 
free action in conformity to recognized principles. 

SECTION m. 

THEOLOGY IN ITS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Zezschwitz, G., Der Entwlcklungsgang der Theologie als Wlssenschaft (particularly Its prac- 
tical development). Leips., 18G7. 

Christian theology, regarded as the aggregate of the various 
Christian theoi- methods and forms of positive knowledge which have 
ogyconditioned j-gfei-ence to the Christian religion and Church, is whol- 
christianity. ly conditioned by the existence of that religion and 
Church; and its scientific character can accordingly be understood 
only in connexion with the actual state of Christianity in the cor- 
responding period. 

Comp. Schleiermacher, § 4. The attempt to explain theology 
from the etymology of the word will surely lead to error. In its 
highest character it is unquestionably divinity^ the doctrine of Gcd 
and divine things ; and apart from this idea it becomes a dead 
aggregate of the most various learning. This learning, however, 
enters into the body of theology, however variously modified the 
latter may be by the conditions of each successive period. The 
man who should attempt to become a "theologian" in the way of 
simply speculating about God, would speedily find his expectations 
crumbling into ruin. The theologian is obliged, rather, to give 
attention to very human matters, as grammar, history, etc., the 
knowledge of which has become necessary through the progress of 
historical development. The incipient theologian, placed at the 
very center of the present, will be unable to appreciate the com- 
plexity of his science unless he has a preliminary knowledge of its 
history. 

The word theology passed over from heathen into Christian 
Origin of the ^sage. They who, among the ancients, were able to 
term theology, furnish information respecting the nature and history 
of the gods, were termed theologians; the word was so applied to 

* Fiehte, however, demanded that the university should not simply transmit knowl. 
edge to the students, but that it should become a school for teaching the art of scien* 
tifically employing the understanding. Comp. his life, by J. H. Fiehte, Part i, p. 622. 



HISTORY OF THEOLOGY. 63 

Pherecydes of Syros (Olymp. 45-49; B. C. 600) and Epimenides of 
Crete (Olymp. 64-68), a contemporary of Pythagoras.^ In the 
earliest Christian age the word theology was understood to signify 
the doctrines of the divinity of the Logos, and of the Trinity; 
and, in accordance with this view, John the Apostle and Gregory 
Kazianzen were called theologians. The Middle Ages were the 
first to include in Christian Theology the whole body ^^ ,,.^^, 
of Christian doctrine; and some (e. g., Abelard) con- sense of the 
tinned to employ the word preferably in connection ^^^^ theology. 
with the doctrine of the Trinity even then. It was the leading 
characteristic of the scholastic theology that it w^ chiefly con- 
cerned with speculative representations of the Divine nature and its 
attributes. The mystics, on the other hand, whose modes of speech 
were adopted by Luther and also by Spener and Francke, understood 
by theology a courageous entering into the nature of religion itself, 
or the absorption of the mind in God — hence the title of the book, 
Theologia Germanica, and the maxim, *K)ratio, meditatio, tentatio 
faciunt theologum." The modern interpretation, by which theology 
denotes the aggregate of the knowledge which bears upon the life 
of the Church, could only originate after a more definite organiza- 
tion of its several sciences had taken place ; but the thing itself 
was previously known under different designations. 

The scientific treatment of religion, or rather of its doctrines, was 
called deoAoyLKT) npayfiaTEta, ovvrayfia marecjg, institutio divina, doc- 
trina Christiana (Augustine), etc.'* A distinction was made between 
nloTLg and yvcjaig (emGrrjfj,r}) ^ the latter denoting the Theological 

speculative apprehension of the doctrines of religion: science in the 
T J. T \. . . &"' early Chnstian 

and a further distinction existed between the true and church. 

the false gnosis.' Theological schools were formed, the speculative 
tendency predominating in that of Alexandria and the grammat- 
ical in that of Antioch. Various considerations led to a scientific 
treatment of theology: 1) the needs of apologetics; it became 
necessary to resist the attacks of scholars and philosophers with 
similar weapons (Justin Martyr et al, Clement and Origen, Minu- 
cius Felix, Tertullian) ; 2) the interests of polemics, the various 
tendencies within the Church having resulted in doctrinal contro- 

^ Cicero, De nat. deor, iii, 21 ; Ernesti, Clavis on that passage; Plutarch, De defectu 
oraculor., xiv, p. 323, ed. Hutten ; Plato, Polit., lib. ii ; Arist., Metaph., x, 6 ; Diodor. 
Sic, V, 80; Stephani Thesaur. lingua, gr. s. v. deoXoyog ; Pollux, Onomast., i, 19, 20. 
The priests of the ancients were called iepelq^ veuKupoi, i^aKopoi., Tzpocpfirac, vTroofjrat, 
vvTai, TeXecrrai, tepovpyoi, Ka'&aprai., fidvreig^ ■&EOfidvT£Lg, ;:{;p^(T/Z6j(5oi, xPV^^H-'^^oyoi^ 
XpVf^f^oSuTai, iravayelg, Trvpdopoi, vnrjpeTaL, T^eovpyoi, T^vrjTr62,oc. Ibid. 14. 

^Semler, Introd. to Baumgarten's Glaubenslehre, i, p. 110, sqq. 

' See Smith's Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctr., § 25, vol. i. 



64 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

versies and in the rise of heresies. The councils, beginning with 
Origin of form- ^^^ fourth century, settled the doctrines of the faith, 
ai Christian and furnished and prepared the material out of which 
eo ogy. ^ later age constructed the edifice of church doctrines 

(Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory Nazi- 
anzen, among Orientals ; and Augustine in the A\^est). 

The contents of theology continued to be Christian; but the 
form of the various doctrines was influenced by the philosojDhies 
(Platonism and Aristotelianism) which had from the first been 
transplanted from heathen into Christian soil. Various intellectual 
tendencies made themselves felt even within the orthodox catholic 
Church; one of these attached more importance to what had come 
down from previous ages, and contented itself with a simple figura- 
tive phraseology, while the other combined the whole of the material 
so transmitted into a body of doctrine, (Isidore of Seville and John 
of Damascus, in the seventh and eighth centuries), and sought to 
penetrate it intellectually, by means of a speculative apprehension 
Early relations ^^^ dialectic treatment of the several dogmas. T'he 
of philosophy effort to reconcile theology and philosophy, faith and 
knowledge, the prescribed and the results of personal 
thought, revelation and reason, was especially apparent in scholas- 
ticism in various directions (Scotus Erigena in the ninth century, 
Abelard and Anselm in the eleventh). Philosophy, however, be- 
came more and more dependent on the established teaching of the 
Church, and filled, while deceiving itself Avith the appearance of 
independent action, a servant's place in the house of its mistress. 
But theology, the mistress, likewise failed to emancipate herself, 
and continued to bear the fetters of a dialecticism imposed upon it 
from without. Aristotle ruled the Bible. 

Exegetical and historical studies, formerly cultivated, were ne- 
Middie Ages glected in comparison with systematic inquiries in the 
dogmatic. twelfth and thirteenth centuries from Peter Lombard 
to Thomas Aquinas. Such studies finally degenerated into an in- 
tolerable rage for disputation, and dogmatism gave way to scepti- 
cism. The mystics, however, especially in the fourteenth century, 
(Mysticism the Were inwardly preparing for a regeneration of the 
fhe^^ReformS^ Christian life and thought, when, in connexion with 
tion. the so-called humanism, philology, criticism, and his- 

tory again became prominent, and exegetical studies, immediately 
before the Reformation, resumed their flourishing condition. (Lau- 
rent. Valla, Reuchlin, and Erasmus.) Theology was obliged to 
renew its youth under the influence of the Protestantism of the 
sixteenth century (Luther, Zwingle, Calvin), which postulated the 



THEOLOGY SINCE THE REFORMATION. 65 

Scriptures as the only certain rule of faith, and based every thing 
upon them. The study of the Bible took a freer range and became 
more independent, and was made the broad substructure of the 
body of Protestant doctrine. This body of doctrine was devel- 
oped bv the Lutheran and Reformed theologians of Development 
^ , , ^ . ',1. ^^^4- of doctrine in 

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries with great ^^^ protestani. 

thoroughness, but not without retaining something of Churches, 
the scholastic spirit and of polemical bitterness. 

The effort was finally made, from the stand-point of science 
(Calixtus), and especially from that of practical life (Spener and 
Pietism), to return to the simple faith of the Scriptures, and to di- 
rect attention to properly religious needs, in contrast with a dead 
orthodoxy. When Pietism began to lose its savor at the beginning 
of the eighteenth century, philosophy gave it polemical support. 
Wolfianism, having been preceded by Descartes and influence of the 
Leibnitz, brought into theology a new (mathematically ^^y on^theoil 
demonstrative) formalism, and though still wearing an ogy. 
orthodox garb, prepared the way for rationalism, which was still 
further supported by the critical tendencies of Semler and others 
in the second half of the eighteenth century. 

"Dogmatics" was confined within increasingly limited bounds 
and became more and more undecided in its bearing, while exegetical 
beginning with Ernesti, and historical theology from the time of 
Mosheim, acquired a more independent position. Extraordinary 
changes in the other departments of life (e. g., the awakening of ^ 
German literature in Lessing, modern pedagogics, philanthropism) 
exercised both an inciting and enlightening, a levelling and a secu- 
larizing influence upon the life of the Church. The WolfenbUttel 
Fragments threatened injury not only to the doctrines The woifen- 

of the Church, but also to the historical basis of Chris- f^tei assault 
' ^ on nistoncal 

tianity. " Apologetics " showed itself embarrassed, and Christianity, 
allowed outwork after outwork to be taken. At this juncture Kant 
appeared and marked out the limits of reason, within which a re- 
ligion that renounced all knowledge of the supersensual and con- 
fined itself to the morality of the categorical imperative was 
obliged, with its practical ideas of God, liberty, and immortality, 
to content itself for the time. The speculative pressure of Ger- 
man philosophy, in Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, soon again made 
that its real object, which others, like Jacobi, reserved for a 
faith based on the feelings. Schleiermacher was as earnestly en- 
gaged in the work of separating theology from the philosophy of 
the schools, as in penetrating all its branches with a philosophic 
glance and in pointing out the germs of their life. From that time 
5 



66 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

it has been the task of modern theology, before all else, to compre- 
hend its own nature in the light of history, and to secure a clear 
idea of its relation to the present age. There is no lack of persons, 
however, who ignore the whole of the historical development of 
theology, and believe it necessary to reconstruct every thing anew 
from the beginning; while others still desire to conjure up the 
theology of the seventeenth century much rather than that of the 

sixteenth.^ 

SECTION IV. 

THEOLOGY AS BELATED TO THE PREPAKATOEY SCIENCES (PROPiE- 

DEUTICS). 

Theology, like every other positive science, presumes a strictly 
scientific school-training, since it treats the pure sciences as in part 
» preliminary to its work, and on the other hand continually employs 
them as auxiliaries. 

A distinction may be made with Bertholdt, between preliminary 
Distinction be- knowledge (propaedeutics) and auxiliary sciences (boe- 
tween the pre- thetics). The former gives to every person the neces- 
the auxiUary sary qualification, and indicates his fitness for entering 
sciences. upon one of the university courses ; the latter are, in 

addition, special aids to the study of theology. A study is fre- 
quently at once preparatory and auxiliary, e. g., Latin, Greek, and 
history. The Hebrew language — even where it is taught in gym- 
nasia — is included among the ordinary branches of the school-cur- 
riculum solely for the sake of theology; we therefore reserve its 
consideration, in common with that of biblical philology in gen- 
eral, until the discussion of properly theological studies, where 
auxiliary sciences will receive attention. 

SECTION V. 

THE PREPARATORY SCIENCES. 

Among pure sciences the languages and history hold the first 
place with regard to their application to theology, and mathematics 

^ In this historical resume we have had reference primarily to German theology, and 
more particularly to that of Protestantism. Roman Catholic theology, wherever it 
was living, passed through the same phases, especially in Germany. All that in other 
lands (in either the Protestant or the Roman Catholic Church) has acquired reputation 
as theological science (which alone is here referred to, and not the practical church- 
life), is more or less closely connected with the course of development in Germany. In 
recent times a change has certainly taken place. The conflicts of German theology 
have been shared by other lands more and more fully as time progressed, and the lib- 
eral tendency in particular, or even the negative, has found representatives in England, 
France, and Holland. With reference to England, comp., among others, Mackay. 
" The Tubingen School and its Antecedents of the History and Present Condition of 
Modern Theology." London, 1868. Also, the "Essays and Reviews," Colenso, etc. 



DIVISIONS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. 67 

and the natural sciences the second — and this both in a formal 
and a material aspect. We therefore observe, that a Theoiopricai 
liberal classical culture forms the only assured basis for oT^^^fassicai 
a sound, Protestant, Christian theology. t)asis. 

" Like him who leaves his country in his youth, so the departing 
student looks back over the course of studies pursued while in the 
school."' Without taking philosophy into consideration for the 
present (comp. § 7), we may place the remaining mass of empiri- 
cal knowledge in two principal divisions, the one of which presents 
to us the world of bodies in space, and the other the Djyjsions of 
world of spirits, or the moral world as it is developed knowledge— 

rri T /. 11 1 1 • • philosophy, na- 

m time. To the former belong the natural sciences m ture, and ms- 
their entire extent, together with mathematics, which ^^^y- 
constitutes their formal side; to the latter belong history and its 
formal medium and organ, language.^ While medicine, among the" 
applied sciences, is based upon the conditions of nature, jurispru- 
dence and theology rest upon an ethical and historical basis (comp. 
§ 1). Without desiring to reconcile here the pedagogical dispute 
about humanism and realism,^ we may say, without hesitation, that 

' .* Herder, Anwendung dreier akad. Lehrjahre (Werke zur Eel. u. Theol., x, p. 164). 
Upon this entire section comp. vol. i of Noesselt's Anweisung (Niemeyer's ed., 1808, 
Svo), which, however, leaves much to be modified in accordance with the present con- 
dition of the science. 

" The French apply the term sciences to the so-called exact sciences, but class phi- 
lology and history with "lettres," a distinction that is well-founded, although such 
designations are misleading, and rest upon too realistic an idea of science. It is, of 
course, understood that an absolute separation between the different sciences is im- 
possible, because they stand organically connected, and the transitions from one into 
the field of another are frequent. Thus geography (both physical and mathematical) 
must be classed with natural sciences, and is seen to be most intimately related to 
several of them, e. g.^ geology ; but it forms, at the same time, the basis of history, 
and is connected with ethnography and statistics. The conditions of nature are, sim- 
ilarly, also the first conditions of language ; and orthoepy may be connected with 
physiology. From this point of view J. Grimm called attention to the mysterious 
laws that control our organs of speech ; to demonstrate these laws is the office of nat- 
ural science. Comp. the preface to the Deutsches Worterbuch, p. iii. W. Wacker- 
nagel, in his preface to his work, Voces Variae Animantium, a contribution to natural 
science and the history of language, 2d ed., Basle, 1869, likewise refers to this inti- 
mate connection of the sciences with each other. It may be added, too, that history 
has its mathematical side, in chronology, etc., and that its first beginnings (inquiries 
respecting the primeval world) are wholly lost in the investigations of natural history, 
e. g.y concerning the lake-dwellings. Nor can even the most recent history be properly 
comprehended without duly estimating the revolutions in natural science, and their 
influence upon civilization. 

' Comp. F. J. Niethammer, Der Streit des Philanthropismus u. Humanismus in der 
Theorie des Erziehungsunterrichts unserer Zeit, Jena, 1808 ; A. Rauchenstein, Bem- 
erkungen iiber den werth der Alterthumstudien, Aarau, 1825 ; F. Thiersch, Ueber ge- 



68 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

a classical, liberal culture/ which is of advantage to the medi- 
cal scholar also, is yet of peculiar service to the jurist and the 
theolos^ian. 

On a detailed review of the preparatory studies, the first rank 
Philology the will be occupied by philology^ which possesses great im- 
pSltory^^stMl poi'tance for the cultivation of the mind, irrespective of 
ies. all inherent value. The whole work of instruction is 

based upon the power of the word ; and for this reason the study 
of the mother-tongue alone is important. The power of language 
to cultivate the mind does not become manifest, however, until 
the ability to compare several languages with each other has been 
acquired. That especially the Greek and Latin, the (by way of 
eminence) so-called ancient languages, are adapted to perform this 
service, by reason of their wealth of forms and their definiteness, 
is conceded by scholars. The style of classical expression reacts 
uj)on the mother-tongue to purify and strengthen it;^ and it is 

lehrte Schulen, etc., Stuttgart, 1826, 2 vols. ; A. W. Rehberg, Sammtliche Schriften, 
Hanover, 1828, i, p. 238, ^qq.] F. W. Klumpp, Die gelehrten Schulen nach den Grund- 
satzen des wahren Humanismus u. den Anforderungen der Zeit, Stuttgart, 1829; L. 
Usteri, Rede am Schulfeste 1829, Berne, 1830; Selections from German Literature, 
Edwards & Park, Andover, 1839. 

* " The humanities, indeed, took a much wider range with ancient Roman writers, 
and included every kind of science that could contribute to human culture. See the 
passage in Gellii noctt. Att. xiii, 15, and J. A. Ernesti, Prol. de finibus humaniorum 
studiorum regendis, Lips., 1Y38, 4to. But since knowledge among the Romans was 
really acquired by the reading and through the influence of good authors, and in more 
modern times the whole of science was restored and started on its course by the same 
means, that view gave way to the more limited sense in which polite literature or the 
humanities is now taken." Noesselt, i, p. 106. 

"^ Luther well illustrates the formal as well as the instrumental value of the ancient 
languages in the following : " Let us cling to the languages as earnestly as we love the 
Gospel. . . . And let it be remembered that without the languages we could not well 
receive the Gospel. The languages are the sheath in which this sword of the Spirit 
is contained. They are the casket in which this jewel is confined. Should it ever 
come to pass, which God forbid, that the languages should escape our careless grasp, 
we should not only lose the Gospel, but finally reach the condition of being able to 
speak and write in neither Latin nor German. Let us be admonished by the wretched, 
horrible example of the high schools and monasteries, in which not only has the Gos- 
pel been lost, but also the Latin and German tongues have been corrupted, so that 
the miserable people have been reduced almost to the level of brute beasts, unable to 
speak and write either German or Latin correctly, and almost deprived of natural 
reason itself." " Where the languages are cultivated there is animation and energy, 
the Scriptures are examined, and faith continually derives new inspiration from other 
and still other words and works." See the address, An die Rathsherren aller Stadte 
Deutschlands, dass sie christliche Schulen aufrichten und halten sollen. Werke, 
Walch's ed., x, p. 538, sqq. Similar passages occur in Zwingle; see Werke, Usteri 
and Vogeli's ed., Zurich, 1819, 1820, ii, pp. 255, sqq., 268, sqq. 



THE STUDY OF ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 69 

therefore necessary that the talent for philology should be devel- 
oped and the intellect be strengthened by the study of ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ 
the classical models themselves rather than by that, for ancient classic 
instance, of later ecclesiastical writers. Nothing but '^^^"^^^^• 
narrow-mindedness can discover danger to Christianity in this.' 
Besides a formal value for the cultivation of the mind, however, 
the theologian finds the languages, and particularly the ancient lan- 
guages, to be of practical utility, a point upon which but little need 
be said, as it is self-evident. 

The study of the ancient languages will of itself lead to the study 
of history, for which reason modern philology combines The study of 
in itself both linguistics and historical inquiry.^ It be- f^^Q^y pMioi- 
comes absolutely necessary for the theologian to attain ogy. 
to a clear idea of the ancient world, if it were only to enable him 
to contrast it with Christianity.^ But, in addition, the habits of 

* The Church-fathers already questioned how far the reading of heathen authors 
might be beneficial or injurious to Christians ; comp. the celebrated dream of Jerome 
(Ep. xxii, ad Eustochium), the oration of Basil, llpof Toiig viovg, oTvug av h^ e7ikr]VLKCjv 
ix^eXolvro Adywv (published separately by Sturz, Gera, l^Ql ; in German, by F. G. Uhle- 
mann in Hlgen's Hist, theol. Zeitschr., part ii, p. 88, sqq.^ and by F. A. Nueszlin, Mann- 
heim, 1830). The monks in the time of the Reformation branded all Greek learning as 
heretical ; but their opponents likewise doubted whether heathen antiquity could sup- 
ply the Christian theologian with the most healthful food ; comp. the letter of Felii 
Myconius to Zwingle (0pp. vii, 1, p. 258). In modern times the value of classical 
studies has also been abundantly debated. Comp. E. Eyth, Classiker u. Bibel in den 
niedern Gelehrtenschulen, Basle, 1838, 8vo. Per contra^ K. Hirzel, Die Classiker in 
den niedern Gelehrtenschulen, Stuttgart, 1838. With more direct reference to theol- 
ogy: C. H. Stirm, De Classicis, quos dicunt, scriptoribus in usum theol. christ. legendis, 
in den Studien der Wiirtemb. Geistlichkeit, Stuttgart, 1838, a'oI. x, No. 2; L. Baur, Die 
Classiker u. deren Einfluss auf den Geistlichen, ibid, ii, 1, p. 127, sqq. ; J. G. Krabinger, 
Die Class. Studien u. ihre Gegner, Munich, 1853; K. L. Hundeshagen, Die Natur u. 
geschichtl. Entwickelung der Humanitatsidee, in ihrem Verhaltniss zu Kirche u. Staat, 
an oration, Berlin, 1853; J. E. Erdmann, Das Heidnische im Christenthum, Berlin, 
1854; S. Hirsch, Humanitat als Religion, etc., Treves, 1854; J. G. Miiller, Verhaltniss 
der Classiker zum Heidenthum, in Gelzer's Prot. Monatsbl., 1856 ; E. Yoigtherr, Der 
Humanismus, a synodal oration, Glogau, 1857; F. C. Kirchhoff, Die Christhche Hu- 
manitat, an oration, Altona, 1859; G. Yoigt, Die Wiederbelebung des Class. Alter- 
thums, od. das erste Jahrhundert des Humanismus, Berlin, 1859; A. Boden, Ver- 
theidigung deutscher Classiker gegen neue Angriffe, Erlangen, 1869. 

2 Schiller, What Means and For What Purpose do we Study Universal History ? 
Works, vol. ii., pp. 346-352, Phila., 1861 ; J. G. Miiller, Briefe lib. das Studium d. 
wissenschaften, besonders der Geschichte, Ziirich, 1817; E. B. Riihs, Entwurf einer 
Propaedeutik des hist. Studiums, Berlin, 1811 ; W. Humboldt, Die Aufgabe des 
Geschichtschreibers, in werke, 1841, 1; Gervinus, Introduction to History of Nine- 
teenth Century, Lond., 1866 ; Droysen, Grundziige der Historik, Leips., 1868. 

^ Christianity is assuredly appointed to overcome the world, including the heathen 
world, and therefore what remains in us of pre-Christian culture. This subjugation, how- 



70 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

thought presented in the Bible and Christianity, so contrary to 
those of heathenism, can only be appreciated by him who has 
come to understand the spirit of antiquity. It is necessary to have 
regard, not only to the history of the Greeks and Romans, but 
also to the history of Oriental peoples in its relation to the 
Bible ; and likewise to that of the Middle Ages and more recent 
times, without which Church history cannot be understood. But 
history and the attention given to it are not only of material value, 
as making us acquainted with matters of fact ; there is also a f or- 
tnal, fashioning element, the quickening of the historic sense, which 
must not be overlooked. History should not, therefore, be consid- 
ered simply as dealing with nations and states, but, in the spirit 
of Iselin and Herder, as comprehending in its province the entire 
human race. In harmony with this conception, the history of man's 
spiritual culture should be made prominent as its subjective feature. 
While the study of languages and history thus forms the real 
Uses of mathe- basis for theological study, mathematics and the natural 
maticai^knowi- gdences are not without value to its prosecution. The 
theologian. formative value of mathematics is unquestioned; it af- 
fords the test of the mind's demonstrative power,^ and is some- 
times called a practical logic, like the science of language. Its 
philosophical value has, however, been overrated. Mathematical 
modes of thought are as unsatisfactory in theology as juridical. 
Mathematics has to do with mensurable and calculable quantities 
(form and numbers), while the immeasurable nature of ideas cannot 
be forced into circles and equations. The wonderful blending of 
spiritual and intellectual life, the numerous and various shades of 
thought, which often elude the grasp of the most flexible and skil- 
ful language, cannot possibly be compressed into an expression like 
a-\-h. ISTot unfrequently that which, when broadly considered, is 
entirely true, becomes an untruth when the attempt is made to fix 
it and to grasp it with an unimaginative and ideal-less understand- 
ing. Many misconceptions have arisen in this way. ^ A notion that 

ever, is not to be an expulsion, as if of demoniac powers which must be cast out to make 
, way for the Divine Spirit. If we have recognized the connection running through the 
\different stages of development in the human history of the past, Ave can regard as the 

ultimate task nothing else than the reconciliation in us of the contrast between the two 

spiritual powers which may be termed the leading factors in the history of civilization, 

viz.^ Hellenism and Christianity." Curtius, in Gclzer's Monatsbl., August, 1858, p. 85. 
^" Hence," says Herder (Sophron., p. 89), "that which Pythagoras inscribed upon 

a hall of learning, ' Without geometry let none enter here,' might properly be written 

on the doors of the higher classes in gymnasia." 

'Goethe remarks (Farbenl, ii, p. 158), "A great portion of what is commonly called 

superstition has its origin in an erroneous application of mathematics." Let memory 



USES OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES. 71 

meets with special favor among cultivated laymen, is that astron- 
omy sustains a near relation to theology, because each is a science 
of heaven. But the astronomical heaven is not that of Astronomy not 
theology, nor does " the sublimity we seek " in the world j^eTTJ'tLot 
of morality and religion, dwell even in infinite space; ogy- 
for not all the evidences of the stars are able to lead to the star 
of Bethlehem. This was acknowledged by Lalande when he had 
measured the entire heavens without finding God. The knowledge 
of the starry heavens will, nevertheless, adorn the theologian as 
well as other cultivated persons, and the two sciences, however 
they may diverge in other respects, may meet in a poetical trans- 
figuration in the symbol of Urania. The natural sciences in their 
whole extent lie nearer to the theologian than does astronomy as a 
distinct science. 

These sciences were formerly considered from a theological point 
of view as supports to theology; while, in recent times. Acquaintance 
they are often compelled to do duty as sign-boards of ^^^^ sciences 
infidelity, as though their progress could no longer important. 
harmonize with the theistic belief in God and immortality, nor yet 
with the more distinctively Christian faith in the truths of Revela- 
tion. It will be found that they whose understanding of the sub- 
ject is least perfect appeal most frequently to such progress, while 
many who are ignorant are afraid of ghosts. ^ With regard to the 
Bible it is necessary first of all to comprehend its relation to the 
natural sciences (which belongs to apologetics), and afterward to 
secure a thorough understanding of the matter in question, partic- 

recall, for instance, the mathematical figures with which Gerbert (Sylvester ii) sought 
to demonstrate the doctrine of transubstantiation in the eucharist. Similar attempts 
were made in ancient times in connection with the trinity. Franz Baader, and even 
Hegel, toiled mightily for a time, to apply triangles and squares to the doctrine of the 
trinity ; comp. Rosenkranz in life of Hegel, pp. 101, 102. " Mathematics," says 
Bengel, " affords useful aid in certain directions, but it dethrones the understanding 
in relation to truths that are wholly foreign to its forum. The desire for only definite 
conceptions is fatal to living ones. There are different organs for different concep- 
tions ; the eyes will not sers'^e for hearing, nor the ears for seeing," etc. Burk, Leben 
Bengels, p. 71. Comp. also the passage from Melanchthon, infra^ § 81, note 10. 

^ A single word of Goethe's : " Let intellectual culture continue its progress, let the 
natural sciences increase more and more in extent and depth, and the human intellect 
expand to the utmost of its desire — they will never pass beyond the sublimity and 
moral culture of Christianity, as it appears in the Gospel." Eckermann, Conversa- 
tions with Goethe, p. 568. Fr. Fabri, Briefe gegen den Materialismus, Stuttgart, 1856 ; 
Bohner, Naturforschung und culturleben in ihren neuesten Ergebnissen, etc., Hanover, 
1859. A pecuhar attempt to illustrate the Bible by the book of nature, and to inter- 
pret the latter by the former, is made by Zockler, in Entwurf einer system. Natur- 
theol. vom offenbarungsglaubigen Standpunkte aus, Frankfort, 1859. 
G 



73 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ularly with reference to the primeval world and its relation to the 
Mosaic history of creation. ^ 

SECTION VL 

THEOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO THE ARTS AND GENERAL CULTURE. 

An artistic preparation, the habit of regarding life in its ideal 
aspects, and of engaging in original efforts, particularly in the field 
of language is required in addition to the preliminary scientific 
training ; a Christian culture resulting from religious instruction 
previously imparted, is presupposed. 

This artistic preparation is still too greatly neglected. More at- 
usesof sesthet- tention should be given to stimulating the sense of the 
ic culture. beautiful in early youth, for an imagination nourished 
by poetry is as necessary a condition for the theologian as is an 
understanding practised in history, language, and mathematics.' 
Early practice in written as well as oral expression, and also in free 
discourse, will especially be of inestimable value to the future 

* Comp. William Buckland, Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to 
Natural Theology, London, ISSY, 2 eds., 2 vols. ; Philadelphia, 1 vol. 12mo, and in 
Bohn's Library, 12mo; Fr. Pfaif, Die Schopfungsgeschichte, Frankf. on the Main, 1855; 
Bohner, Die freiforschende Bibeltheologie u, ihre Gegner, Zurich, 1859; the review by 
P. Kind (in the Swiss Ministerial Association, 1863, and the subsequent discussions); 
Reusch, Bibel u. Natur, etc., Freiburg, 18*70; Zollman, Bibel u. Natur in der Harmonic 
ihrer Offenbarungen, 3 ed., Homburg, 1871 ; Jos. Huber, Die Lehre Darwin's, kritisch 
betrachtet, Munich, 1871 ; and the English and American reviews of Darwinism. 

The theological works of Paley, Sander, Bonnet, Reimarus, Brougham, and the 
Bridgewater Treatises, nevertheless contain much that is stimulating ; but far supe- 
rior to these is Humboldt's Cosmos. Bengel, I. c, observes : " It is not right that the 
study of physics is so neglected, and that such a parade should be made of a sublime, 
metaphysical comprehension of the universe. But it was likewise true of the an- 
cients that the general ideas of philosophers were made a cloak to conceal their igno- 
rance." In our day the neglect of certain theologians to acquaint themselves with 
natural science is especially inexcusable. In the face of the ignorance that results, 
unbelief will be able to appeal more shamelessly and defiantly to the progress of 
those sciences. To close the eyes against facts, and, Bible in hand, to fight against 
infidelity, or to meddle in a desultory way with a science which is but superficially 
understood, can only serve to make theology ridiculous in the eyes of specialists ; and 
if the attempt result from a well-meant apologetic purpose it will produce more harm 
than good. 

^ It may be boldly asserted that a lack of poetic apprehension, for which precocious 
speculation is no substitute, has led to thousands of orthodox and heterodox absurdi- 
ties. The secret of Herder's theology and its refreshing influence lies in this poetic 
vein, which the most learned minds so often miss. On the pedagogical value of the 
fine arts comp. Herder, Sophron, pp. 32, sqq., 80, sqq. ; concerning the improvement 
of the vernacular, ibid., p. 197, sqq. How unjust is the charge of Staudenmaier that 
Herder pursued theology in the spirit simply of an sesthetical coquetry ! (Comp. his 
Dogmatik, vol. i). He was simply no scholastic. 



PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 73 

theologian. Rhetoric and poetry in the field of art are parallel with 
philology and history in that of science. A practical acquaintance 
with the plastic arts may not be required of the theologian, but his 
mind should not be indifferent to painting, sculpture, and archi- 
tecture, more than it should be closed to the charms of nature. 
The great importance of art will become apparent in connection 
with liturgies. Architecture holds the same relation to the theo- 
logian in the domain of art that astronomy does in that of science, 
without regard to the historical relations sustained by art toward 
the history of saints and the Church. Music, especially, which 
stands midway between the oratorical and the formative arts and 
is closely allied to poetry, is truly theological, and was cultivated 
by Luther.^ The skilful fingering of an instrument is not the 
principal object to be desired, but much more the cultivation of 
singing and of acquaintance with the nature of music. Without 
the latter knowledge the theologian will be debarred from entering 
on an essential department of Christian worship. Inasmuch, how- 
ever, as all theology stands related to religion, and can school and 
only be comprehended through that relation, it will be of "reiiSus^^ 
necessary that the incipient theologian should not only feeling, 
possess religious feeling in a general way, but that he should have 
acquired religious culture in the preparatory schools. Much, in this 
connexion, depends of course upon the character of the religious in- 
struction imparted in such schools, which, though not designed for 
future theologians alone, may nevertheless be very stimulating and 
adapted to their needs.'^ To these must be added, moreover, the 
influence of the Christian home, and the impression of Christian fel- 
lowship which is produced by the worship of the sanctuary. How 
many an excellent theologian, especially among the older men, was 
first impelled to consecrate himself to this calling by beholding the 
shining example of some distinguished preacher. The first guiding 
impulse came from thence, not from the school, which can only for- 
ward the development. 

* Luther judged " that next to the word of God nothing is so deserving of esteem 
and praise as music, for the reason that it is a queen over the heart, able and mighty 
to control its every movement, though such emotions often rule and control man as if 
they were his master. ... I therefore desire that this art be commended to all per- 
sons, and especially the young, and that they be admonished to love and cherish this 
precious, useful, and joyous creature of God." Werke, Walch's ed., part xiv, p. 407. 
" Music is a beautiful, glorious gift from God, and near to theology " (in Table Talk). 

^ Comp. Hagenbach, Bedeutung des Religionsunterrichts auf hohern Lehranstalten, 
Ziirich, 1846. 



74 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP.EDLi. 

SECTION VIL 

THE RKLATTOXS OF THEOLOGY TO PHILOSOPHY. 

P. K. Sohuli, S^lbst*t5m1l.firkelt und Abhanjrtffkolt, Oder Plillosonhie und Theologie In ihrem 
.Ct»irvmseitUren Vorhaitniss l>otraolitet, Giossen. 1823; K. Ph. Ftsolior. ilber den nojrriff der Phl- 
K^^ptiio, rabtUiriMi, 183t>, 8; Hoinr, Sohmld. QIxt dii* Verluiltniss der Thoolojrie zur Philos<iphie, 
In der OpiKViitionssi'lirift. eilittni by Sohmid. Friess, n. S^'lmHer, vol. i. 1; J. H. Fiohte, flber 
(rt>vrensjU^. Wendepunct und Ziel heutljrer Phlle*iophie, HeldeU>er?, 1836; A. Gtmjrder, flberdas 
Verhaltniss der Tluvlojfie zur Philos^n^hie. Landshut. 1806 ; G. A. Gabler, de Vera Philosopliiae 
enra UelUrioneni Ohristianani PleUUe. Berl.. 18:W: K. Steffeusen, da* Meuscliliehe Herz und die 
PhlKi^\1phie an Gelzer's Pi\nt»st. Monat«5biattern\ 1854. p. 385, sgy. ; L. P. Hlokock, Theology 
and PliiU^^phy in Contliot. Anierioan I^resb. Review, vol. xii, SJiU ; e. Hitclieock, The Philoso- 
pher and the Theolc^ian, Bib. Sacra., vol. x. 1C6. 

Philosophy should be the constant companion of theology, but 
, „ each is to retain, without interohanQ:e or confusion, its 
comv>anion of owii peculiar field. Its work does not consist in the 
^'^^' merely logical process of connecting thoughts together 

(arrangement), nor in the exercise of an occasional criticism (rea- 
soning) ; but rather in combining the great variety of matter 
into a higher unity for the consciousness. This can only be 
done after the material has been furnished from without, by ex- 
perience and history. Philosophy can neither invent the needed 
material in the exercise of its own authority, nor destroy or make 
it other than it is through a pretended transformation or idealizing 
process. 

We purposely designate philosophy as the companio?i of theol- 
ogy, in opposition to the view that the study of philosophy may 
be finished before that of theology begins, which affords the surest 
way to disgust the theologian with philosophy. The application 
of philosophy to theology has been the subject of controversy 
from the beginning. A warning against false philosophy occurs 
Relations of as early as Col. ii, 8. Irenanis and Tertullian opposed 
n!S^o^vtratxS ^^^^ Gnostic, speculative tendency in theology, while 
historically. other Cliurcli fathers, the Apologists, Alexandrians, 
and especially Origen made use of it. The quarrel between the 
schoolmen and the p^ositive theologians, Roscelin, Abelard, with 
Bernard of Clairvaux, turned especially upon the relations of phi- 
losophy to theology, and the pihilosophical dispute (realism and 
nominalism) between the schoolmen themselves likewise reacted on 
theology. 

The perversion of philosophy by the scholavStics, and the mistaken 
habit of relying on authorities, which served to poison philosophy 
in its inmost nature, gradually led from dogmatism to scepticism. 
A point was reached where it appeared necessary to distinguish 
between philosophy and theology in such a way as to admit of 



PHILOSOPHY IN OERHANT. 75 

tnith in (Mther Rcioncc becoming tmtruth in the other. It in not 
HurpriHing that, an the roHult, philoHophy again declined in favour, 
and that (^nipiriciKm wan oppoHed to it slh being the only tru8t- 
worthy ifi(-lh(}<\ of rctaHoning (Iloger I>aeon). i'hiloHOphy waH Htill 
in itH decline when the J Reformation came, and the iteformation 
did not at all favour what then panned for philoHophy; for itH 
own origin was not due to the dcHire for a better philoHophic HyH- 
tern, but to the hanging to pOHHe«« the true »ource« of salvation 
which were found in the ScripturcH. Luther employed , , , 
even viol(;rit language to oppone the philo.'K^^hy of Arin- K\wmt/>ptiikAh 
totle and "old Madam Weathercock, the reawon ;^ but ^'^^'^' 
not 8o Zwingle, who made uhc of philosophy in a peculiar manner 
(hi« relation to PicuH of Mirandola). '^I'he dogmatical works of 
Calvin and M(;lanchthon give evidence that they, too, were not un- 
aequainted with philosophic thought; but in the Lutheran Church 
many, nevertheless, accepted Luther's opinions in opposition to 
philosophy.' 

In the Roman Catholic Church the .Tansenists opposed and the 
Jesuits favor(;d philosophy; but which one was the Jesuitical phi- 
losophy? After the Reformation Aristotle was more Phik^ophy in 
favorably regardcjd in the Protestant Church, and at ^^''[^^'''^i!!^. 
the beginning of the seventeenth century Martini, in matJon. 
his " Vernunftspiegel," defended the use of philosophy against the 
Magdeburg centuriators.'"' When Descartes (loGO-lOoO) appeared, 
powerful voices were raised against him in the Church, and disputes 
about this matter took place in the Netherlands. The populace 
applied the name of "Globenichts" (believe nothing) to the great 
Leibnitz, and the zealous clergy gave their approval. Spinoza stood 
alone, identified with no w^clesiastical communion. 

When, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Wolf lectured 
on a modified Leibnitzian philosophy in his strictly demonstrative 
method, he was opposed in Ilalle by the Pietists and expelled (in 
172'^), but afterwards recalled (in 1740). Philosophy now received 
recognition, at least in its formal aspects, and its proofs were n-- 
garded as supports to orthodoxy, until Kant (1724-1804) de- 

* Bugenhagen, too, was accustomed to write in family albums : " Si Chriatum 
discis, eatis est, si cetera nescis ;" but he added, " Hoc non est philosophiam et 
artes liberales ecclesiae et scholia necessarias contemnere, sed sine Christo nihil pro- 
desse." 

' Vemunftspiegel, i. e., a statement of what Reason, together with its product Phi- 
losophy, is, its extent, and especially its use in religious matters, in opposition to all 
assailants of Reason and slanderers of Philosophy, but especially in opposition to 
some uncouth libels which have gone out of Magdeburg these two years. Wittenb. 
1618. 4. 



76 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

stroyed these supports. The progress of philosophy could not 
Influence of henceforth be ignored by theology, without degradation 
Kant on phi- to its own Scientific character. The one-sided influence 
osop y. ^£ ^Y^^ Kantian philosophy upon theology was clearly 

apprehended by men like Herder; but the age, nevertheless, be- 
came rationalistic, possessed neither of a speculative nor of the 
more profound religious spirit. It was reserved for Fichte's ideal- 
ism, Schelling's doctrine of the absolute, and Hegel's doctrine 
of the immanent spirit, to exalt the profound life-issues of Christ- 
ianity, which Kant imagined he had disposed of by the introduc- 
tion of a one-sided morality, into speculative questions of philos- 
ophy. Others, as F. Jacobi, Fries, etc, Avho laid stress upon the 
distinction between faith and knowledge, assigned to subjective 
feeling what the philosophers already named (particularly Hegel) 
sought to elevate into demonstration through the energetic action 
of thought ; while Herbert and his followers assumed indifference 
schieiermach- ^^^^^^^^ theology. Schleiermacher, who was by no means 
er's aim as to averse to really profound speculation, and who was the 
p losop y. most skilful dialectician of his day, yet desired that 
philosophy and theology should remain distinct, though he applied 
philosophy to the treatment of theological questions. His simple 
object was that theology should no more be lost in speculation, than 
religion, which he regarded as an affair of the feelings, should be 
lost in thinking. The Hegelian school was divided into 
of the Hegeii- two wings after the master's death, one of which (the 
an School. right) took sides with Christianity, and the other against 
it, sinking even to the level of common freethinking (nihilism).* 
The speculative tendency served, on the other hand, to stimulate 
certain parties to attempt an independent philosophy of Christianity 
and to seek its reconciliation with theology. A period of exhaust- 
ion and suspicion with reference to speculative thought was, how- 
ever, gradually introduced among theologians, which, in the end, 
resulted in the serious alienation of the two connected sciences 
from each other, if not in placing a gulf between them. Under 
the influence of the natural sciences a systematic scepticism was 
developed, which, on its religious side, passed over into Buddhism 
(Arthur Schopenhauer). 

In England, the Deism which appeared in the time of Charles I., 
and was represented by a succession of writers until Hume 
(1776), profoundly affected the development of apologetic theology. 
Hobbes (1588-1679) resolved all politics into absolutism and relig- 
ion into statecraft. He held it to be the business of the king to 
* Comp. J. W. Hanne, Der Moderne Nihilismus, Bielefeld, 1842. 



PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 77 

prescribe the religious faith of his subjects. His atheistic opinions 
were attacked by Cudworth (1617-1688), particularly his denial of 
free-will and the immutability of moral distinctions. Lord Herbert 
of Cherbury (1581-1648) attempted to fix the principles of univer- 
sal religion, which he made to be five, and denied all of Christianity 
not included under these. Locke's (1632-1704) "Essay on the Hu- 
man Understanding " confirmed the disposition to apply the so-called 
principles of reason to the judgment of Christianity ; he remained 
himself a devout believer. Toland (1669-1722) carried the devel- 
opment of rationalism still further in his " Christianity not Myste- 
rious." He denies that there is any mystery in Christianity. An- 
thony Collins (1676-1729) in his "Discourse on the Grounds and 
Reasons of the Christian Religion," is the first English writer to 
accept the title of Free-thinker. He examines the historic founda- 
tions of Christianity, and asserts, as Strauss has asserted in oar 
day, that Christianity is only ideally true. Lord Shaftesbury (1671- 
1713) argued from his doctrine of innate ideas (in opposition to 
Locke) and the disinterestedness of virtuous conduct that a super- 
natural revelation is superfluous. Matthew Tindal (1657-1733) in 
his " Christianity as Old as the Creation; or. The Gospel a Republi- 
cation of the Religion of Nature," tried to show that natural relig- 
ion is complete in itself and has, therefore, no need of supernatural 
additions. Thomas Morgan (f 1743) in his "Moral Philosopher" 
makes moral law the test of religion, and finds reason therefrom 
for rejecting Christianity. These philosophers of the deistical 
school were thoroughly met by numerous Christian apologists. Dr. 
Samuel Clarke (1675-1729), besides his attempted a priori demon- 
stration of the being of God, wrote on the " Truth and Certainty 
of the Christian Revelation." Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753) used 
his system of philosophic idealism sis a means of establishing the 
truth of the existence of God. Bishop Butler (1692-1752) 
summed up the replies of the Christian apologists to the deistical 
writers of his age in his immortal Analogy. This work still 
holds its place as one of the most complete defences of Christianity 
ever written. 

Hume (1711-1776) by his essay on "Miracles" and his "Dia- 
logues concerning Natural Religion " gave the sceptical philosophy a 
new impulse. His objections to miracles received more replies than 
can be here named; his objection to the idea of causality, as usually 
received by philosophers, awakened the mind of Kant, and led the 
latter to work out his " Critique of the Pure Reason." Philosophic 
thought, as applied to Christianity, in our time has been greatly in- 
fluenced by James Mills and Coleridge, the one a representative of 



78 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

the sensational, the other of the intuitional school. Each has had 
numerous successors. 

In America speculation received its first impulse from Jonathan 
Philosophic E<iwards (1703-1758), who framed a theory of the 
speculation in human will as a philosophic basis for the Calvinistic 
menca. theolosry. His principles were further developed by 

his son, Jonathan Edwards the younger (1745-1801), Samuel Hop- 
kins (1721-1803), Nathanael Emmons (1745-1840), and Timothy 
Dwight (1752-1817). Some of these followers pushed the opinions 
of their master to extreme conclusions. Among the opponents of 
Edwards's theory of the will may be named Henry P. Tappan 
{Review of Edwards' Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will), and 
D. D. Whedon (The Freedom of the Will). Dr. James M'Cosh 
has applied the inductive method to the examination of the divine 
government with a view to the reconciliation of nature and revela- 
tion (The Method of the Divine Government, Physical and Moral). 
Theodore Parker elaborated an absolute religion, intuitional in its 
character, but subversive of historical Christianity. The denial of 
Theism has been conabated by various writers, among whom may 
be named Laurens P. Hickock (Creator and Creation), Asa Mahan 
(Natural Theology), and Borden P. Bowne (The Philosophy of Her- 
bert Spencer; Theism). The denial of all philosophy by Comte has 
also received much attention from metaphysicians in the United 
States. 

Thus far the historical review. It shows that theology has never 
Fact demon- been able to separate itself from philosophy, but that, 
historfca^^ re- ^^ *^^ other hand, no lasting union between the two, or 
view. rather, between theology and any particular philosophy, 

has been practicable. To give no attention to philosophy would 
be the simplest expedient, but also the most objectionable, and 
impossible; for in this age no one can have the hardihood to pur- 
sue a theological (dogmatical) discussion without a preliminary 
training in philosophy, which, moreover, must not be confined to 
the ancient and wholly formal logic of the schools. The necessity 
of formal logic has always been understood, although its scien- 
tific value has been variously estimated ; but the conviction has 
been reached that the arrangement of a system and the line of evi- 
dence to be adopted, are themselves dependent on the intellectual 
point of view from whence the system is controlled. The main 
matter is to secure the point of view. The reliance upon so-called 
sound common sense, with which, no doubt, many seek to supply 
the lack of philosophical acquirements, is likewise misplaced in the 
field of science; eclecticism is of little benefit to the student who 



LlMITxVTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY. 79 

is misinformed about the things among which he is to choose.' It 
thus becomes absolutely necessary to undertake the study of phi- 
losophy; and since it can rarely be reached in the preparatory 
schools, it is desirable that students of theology should begin phi- 
losophy in the first period of their course, in order to be nourished 
by it into strength, before they approach dogmatics, the heart of 
theology. ** Philosophy is simply a clear recognition by the mind 
of its own constitution, and all sound philosophy should take its 
rise in that recognition, or, in other words, in legitimate r^he object of 
thinking upon the ultimate grounds of all thought.^ It ^^^ puiiosophy. 
should aid every student in attaining to a clear understanding of his 
own nature, and thus place him in a position to easily comprehend 
the organic connection of the different departments of knowledge, 
w^hich is the objective goal of philosophy." Unfortunately, many 
students are more confused at the end of a course in philosophy than 
they were at its beginning ; like the pupil before Mephistopheles, 
they feel as if a mill-wheel were revolving in their heads. 

In view of this danger, the choice of a teacher and the method 
to be adopted are deserving of consideration. At this point the 

^ "Philosophy is most of all opposed to that intellectual barrenness, which general- 
ly ventures to assume the name of enlightenment. The elevation of the ordinary 
understanding to the position of arbiter in matters of the reason^ will, as its necessary 
consequence, bring about an ochlocracy in the domain of the sciences, and, sooner or 
later, the further consequence of a general revolt on the part of the rabble." Schelling, 
Methode des akadem. Studiums (comp. Anthologie aus Schelling's Werke, p. 112.) 

^ Schleiermacher (Ueber IJniversitaten, p. 78) held that all students, even the non- 
theological, should be engaged simply with philosophy during the first year of their 
university career. What he exacts of all is demanded at least of theologians by 
Rosenkranz, Encykl., Pref., xx: "The student of medicine or law, if thorough in 
other matters pertaining to his specialty, may be pardoned for indifference or aversion 
to the study of philosophy ; but it is required of the theologian that, in addition to 
his special studies, he should pursue as thorough a course in philosophy as may be 
practicable." Similarly Schenkel, Christl. Dogmatik, ii, p. 3 : "A thorough philo- 
sophical training is certainly essential to the theologian, and the punishment for its 
neglect will be the more bitter, as great effort becomes necessary to recover in later 
years what has been lightly regarded before." 

2 " The recognition of self," says the younger Fichte, " is the sole substance of all 
(philosophical) perception, and its highest perfection is accordingly the real goal of 
every philosophy that understands itself, and that has thereby attained to maturity." 
Idee d. Personlichkeit u. d. Individ. Fortdauer, Elb., 1834, p. 42. 

* " Every person who aims to understand a particular science in its connexion with 
the whole of knowledge and in its ultimate grounds, is engaged in philosophical in- 
vestigation, whether he be called a student of nature or a theologian, or be employed 
more especially upon the works of man. Every question that proceeds beyond the 
presumptions postulated by the several sciences, leads him who pursues it into the 
domain of philosophy." Steffensen, p. 303. 



80 GENERAL THEOLOGlCx\L ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

incomprehensible terminology, which can scarcely be avoided un- 
The hard terms der the existing methods of treating philosophy, should 
sbouw'nofbe neither dazzle nor alarm the beginner. The Uacling oh- 
feared. ject in the Study of philosophy is, not so much the acquisitiooi 

of finished results, as of readiness in the art of philosophizing } The 
philosophical jargon which is especially patronized by persons who 
seek to cover the confusion of their minds with cheap fineries, 
should above all things be avoided.' Let the student endeavor to 
express in his own language what he has heard. It would be no 
unprofitable exercise to engage in philosophical disputations from 
which certain catch words (e. g. subject, object, etc.) should be 
banished at the outset. But let there be an equal unwillingness to 
stamp as nonsense whatever is incomprehensible by reason of the 
student's insufficient preparation or practice, or worse still, to repeat 
the childish dictum that men like Hegel failed to understand them- 
selves. Let philosophy not receive exclusive attention, without 
Philosophy providing real and positive food for the mind, espe- 
sued^^n^ coni ^^^^^^ through the continuous pursuit of historical and 
nexion with linguistic studies. The counsel given by Pelt,^ that 
other studies, ^j^^ student should thoroughly examine some system of 
philosophy (Plato, Aristotle, Spinoza, Leibnitz, Kant, Hegel), if 
possible in its original sources, is likewise greatly to be commended. 
The mind should accustom itself to regard each system in its rela- 
tion to its own time, and the current tendency of that time, as well 
as in the relation of its parts to each other. Care should be taken 
from the first that the judgment be not biased by the influence of 
some one system, when matters of fact are under discussion, or 
when the exegetical or historical investigation of some fact is in 
progress, or when it is sought to comprehend some doctrine that 

*This was Kant's desire, comp. Anthropologie, p. 167: "He insisted, again and 
again, in his lectures to his students, that they were not to learn philosophy of him, 
but how to philosophize." Kuno Fischer, Kant's Leben, p. 25. 

"^ "It is childish to wear the ornamental rags and patches of others while we are 
able and expected to provide an entire garment of our own and fitted to our person. It 
is madness to destroy the eye or impair its vision for the purpose of learning to look 
through the glass of others." Herder, Sophron., p. 213. The Frenchman, Edgar 
Quinet, addresses a similar warning to his countrymen who are not in other respects 
unduly speculative : " Empechez une nouvelle scolastique de naitre. J'entends par la 
les embiiches de mots, dans les quels I'instinct de la vie reelle, de la verite politique 
est sacrifie a une logomachie puerile qui n'a que I'apparence et point de corps. Com- 
bien d'ames droites sont deja dupes de cette scolastique et s'y embarassent a plaisir! 
Combien surtout d'ames serviles s'abritent aujourd'hui sous ce masque. (Revolution 
religieuse au 19 siecle. 1857, p. 113). 

^ Encyclopadie, p. 40. 



PHILOSOPHY CANNOT ORIGINATE DOCTRINE. 81 

has come down from former generations. Philosophy can invent 
nothing ; could it hear the grass grow, it would yet be Phiiosophycan- 
unable to produce a single blade. As natural philos- J^^eoiofficSdo^ 
ophy is incompetent to originate an order of plants or trine, 
a gas, so the philosophy of history is unable to necessarily deduce 
an historical fact.^ It is true that reason contains the general laws 
by which a substance surrounded by contingencies is freed from its 
accidental elements and raised into the category of the universal; 
but in this regard also care is needed, in order that the very pe- 
culiarity of the concrete phenomenon, and the fragrance resting 
upon it, be not destroyed in the process of generalization. 

Let an illustration suffice. A profound speculation seeks to 
apprehend the idea of the God-man as a necessary one, The inability of 
and as required for the completion of both the ideas oSaS^do^ 
God and man^ since God most effectively demonstrates ma illustrated. 
his Divinity in man, and man attains his true manhood only in 
God; but the truth that the Divine life has been manifested and 
actualized in a human form, in the determinate person Jesus of 
Nazareth, is not derived from philosophy. It cannot prove that 
precisely this person was needed for the most perfect manifestation 
of God in human nature; nor can it employ authoritative dicta, 
such as that nature does not usually lavish all her gifts upon a single 
person, to destroy an historical fact which is necessary to explain 
the existence of the Church. In like manner philosophy may be 
permitted to show that the abstract idea of unity is not Another mu&- 
adequate for the more profound recognition of the na- tration. 
ture of God, and that only a God who knows himself as God in 
God, and is known by God as God (the Being that loves, the Being 
that is loved, and the love that forms the bond of union between 
them=God), can satisfy the religious consciousness.^ The Christ- 

^ Luther called reason (philosophy) the old weather-maker ; it cannot, however, 
make, but only observe, or at the most, foretell the weather; and, even in this, it is 
often wrong. "The philosopher should know that without theology he can know 
nothing of the ' city of gold and precious stones,' and of the * pure river of the water 
of life,' which St. John saw. A system of truths that must seem necessary to the nat- 
ural mind, can never wash away the fear of death from the heart or beget heavenly 
affections in the place of beastly lusts, more than it can remedy a nervous fever, or 
remove the smell of decaying matter from the atmosphere of a death-chamber." 
Steffensen. We also adduce the maxim of Picus of Mirandola, " Philosophia quaerit, 
theologia invenit, religio possidet veritatem." 

"^ Thus Augustine and all the more profound Christian thinkers. It is to be ques- 
tioned, however, whether the speculative dcA'elopment of the Trinity is the proper 
task of philosophy. " We cannot, upon the whole," says J. H. Fichte (Idee d. Person- 
lichkeit, p. 86), "avoid the confession that the introduction into philosophy of this 
Christian dogma, which has become almost the favourite question of the day, parlica- 
6 



82 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ian doctrine of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is not to be con- 
ceived as a mere actualizing of the speculative idea, but rather as 
the historical development of the Christian revelation, from which, 
in connexion with ideas previously extant in the world, the specu- 
lative conception was itself developed, and to which it now assumes 
a relation similar to that of the philosophy of art to an actual work 
of art, or of natural philosophy to one of the products of nature. 
This consideration will indicate the measure of truth in the state- 
ment that philosophy stands outside of or above religion (Schleier- 
macher, § 38). The above is not to signify superiority, but simply 
the objective character of its point of view.* 

SECTIOJN^ VIIL 

THEOLOGY NOT BOUND TO ANY ONE PHILOSOPHY. 

The diversity of philosophical systems should not be permitted 
to mislead us. I'he truth is, that despite such diversity, every sys- 
tem of philosophy, which in any way permits a distinction between 
God and the world, spirit and matter, freedom and necessity, may 
be applied to theology. 

larly at this time, has produced no little confusion, not only by destroying the bound- 
aries between the mere a -priori knowledge of God and a positive revelation, but even 
more by giving rise to the thoroughly inopportune appearance of a superficial coinci- 
lence of Christianity with the prevalent philosophy of any particular time." "To 
combine metaphysical and theological arguments with each other for the purpose of 
demonstrating that a religious tradition is metaphysical truth, or that speculative de- 
velopments have a Christian or orthodox character, is a deceitful process. In this way 
many now attempt to construct a metaphysical trinity out of three attributes of the 
Divine nature, and to substitute this arbitrary union of three such attributes for the 
original Christian doctrine of Father, Son, and Spirit." Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, p. 28 L 
* Lord Bacon expresses himself strongly against the confounding of philosophy and 
theology with each other, De augment, scientiae, ix, 487 : Quemadmodum enim theo- 
logiam in philosophia quaerere perinde est ac si vivos quaeras inter mortuos, ita e 
contra philosophiam in theologia quaerere non aliud est quam mortuos quaerere inter 
vivos. On the impropriety of subordinating either philosophy or theology to each 
other, and on the necessity for making them co-ordinates, see Rosenkranz, Encykl., 
p. 12. Comp. Fritze, Ideen zur TJmgestalt. d. evang. Kirche, Magdeb., 1844, p. 11: 
"Theology is not the mistress of philosophy, nor ought it to become the servant of 
any particular philosophical system." Kym, Weltanschauungen, p. 33: "Although 
philosophy serves as the handmaid of a particular science, e. g. theology, it is not in 
the way of supporting the train of some gracious lady, but in the way of going before 
it to afford a light that shall conduct the science home, to its origin." On the rela- 
tion of religion to philosophy and its several branches comp. Steffensen, in Gelzer, 1853, 
p 109: "They who fancy that religion will ever prostrate itself before philosophy and 
transfer to it the keys of the kingdom of heaven, are certainly very silly. Nor would 
philosophy accept the office if it were offered. . . . But it is equally certain that the 
spectacle will not be seen in our age, of philosophers subordinating their thinking to 
airthorities in whose behalf the pious people of different denominations demand faith." 



^ THEOLOGY INDEPENDENT OF PHILOSOPHY. 83 

The objection to philosophy derived from the variety of systems 
is as shallow as an attempt to argue against revelation jjq g^jj^^j ^^j. 
on the srround of the number of positive relisrions/ jection to pw- 

losophy froni 

Nor do we mean that all philosophies are equally valu- the variety of 
able, so that one or another may be preferred at pleas- *^® systems. 
ure. Only a single one can be the true philosophy, and to it, the 
absolute truth, all should strive to attain; but the more genuine 
the desire to attain to the truth the less hasty will the mind be in 
coming to a conclusion. Inasmuch too, as any particular system 
can present only relative truth, it will always be necessary to com- 
bine the truths of different systems into a higher truth, and to 
avoid their errors. Such an undertaking is not, however, adapted 
to the powers of a single mind, and should therefore be entered 
upon in and with the school, rather than outside and irrespective of 
it. Until the student has become a master, he will attach himself 
with preference to some particular school. Which one he shall 
select is not without importance with respect to both philosophy 
and theology; but it is a less serious matter in its bear- rj^eoiogy does 
ings upon the latter, for the reason that theology is not not stand or fail 
so dependent on any system of philosophy as to stand system of pM- 
or fall with it. A theologian of the Kantian school, for losophy. 
instance, might give evidence of more thorough theological acquire- 
ments, having grown beyond the limits of his system, than one 
belonging to the school of Hegel, for this, among other reasons, 
that the Christian consciousness, which is independent of all philo- 
sophical systems, is the principal qualification for a theologian. 

While, therefore, allowing freedom to speculation, we direct at- 
tention to the breakers, which threaten to shipwreck faith unless 
a competent hand is at the helm. It is self-evident that a philos- 
ophy which annihilates God, and denies the existence of spirit and 
moral freedom, a bald inaterialism, in short, (sensation- Both sensation- 
alism), must be excluded." But the spiritualistic philos- ^Jj^ unciSsI 
ophy (idealism), which stands opposed to materialism, tian. 
which regards God and spirit as the only realities, and accordingly 
denies the existence of matter and the world, and which teaches 
an unbounded, absolute liberty by deifying the Ego, is likewise 

* Thus, it is well known that Schiller would identify himself with no religion out of re- 
gard for religion, and with none of all the philosophies out of regard for philosophy; but 
the polemical point of an epigram cannot serve as the foundation of a solid edifice. 

' In opposition to the materialism of modern times, against which theology is called 
to contend, and whose representatives are Moleschott, Karl Vogt, and Biichner, comp. 
the works of Jul. Schaller, F. W. Tittmann, J. Frohschammer, J. G. Fichte, and F. 
Fabri, the last named in Herzog., Encykl., ix, s. «., Materialismus. 



84 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPjaDIA. 

planted in an untheological position. A god without a world is 
not the God of theology; a spirit without flesh to subjugate is 
not the Christian spirit; liberty that does not involve the feeling 
of dependence is not the liberty of the children of God. The 
Bible everywhere presupposes a dualism, or rather parallelism, of 
God and the world, heaven and earth, spirit and flesh, etc., not 
as rigid and irremediable, but yet as an actual contrast to be 
overcome by the might of Christianity. In this way two other 
tendencies are obviated, the one of which regards such contrasts 
as rigidly immovable and out of all relation to each other, while 
the other, instead of reconciling them in thought, simply destroys 
them by an authoritative decision, while aiming to remove them. 
Deism and pan- The former tendency is deistiCy the latter pantheistic. 
theism ^^^'^"^ The former was the current adversary of an earlier age, 
ian theology, the latter is the antagonist of the theology of to-day. 

The term deism is applied to a conception of the world which 
not only distinguishes between it and God, but separates God from 
the world, holding that the only God who exists is an extra- and 
supramundane Being, who once created the world, but has now 
left it to the operation of its established laws. This God enters 
into no vital relations with man ; he stands over against him, in- 
deed, as lawgiver and judge, but does not enter into human na- 
ture, nor communicate himself thereto. The deistic conception of 
the relation between spirit and matter, as resembling that of two 
laths glued together,^ is in harmony with the separation of God 
from the world, and equally rigid. Nature, too, is considered a 
lifeless mechanism; and the tendency of deistic morality is to make 
every thing promote the self-glorification of the reason. This phi- 
losophy denies the power of the inclinations, the profound influ- 
ences of natural conditions on the one hand, and the vital connexion 
of the spirit with God on the other; it is therefore unable to appre- 
^ , hend the nature of sin or of redemption and s^race, the 

Deism incapa- ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ . . 

bie of Christian mysteries of religious communion, or the significance 
^ ^^' of prayer, the sacraments, etc. Over against Deism 

stands the philosophy of identities^ which unites the contrasts in 
question. It has much that is attractive to the imagination and 
natural feeling, but is unable to afford durable satisfaction;'* for 

* Following an expression that is applied by the Formula Coneordiae to the two na- 
tures in Christ, Carriere appropriately remarks that " spirit and matter should neither 
be separated nor identified, but distinguished and combined." 

' Tzschirner's Briefe on the confessions of Reinhard (Leips., 1811), are instructive 
upon this point. Comp. p. 47 sgq., where the author speaks of the impressions made 
on himself by the then current nature-philosophy of Schelling. The hideous charac- 



WHAT IS A CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY? 85 

inasmuch as it assumes the character of pantheism with reference 

to the relation of God to the world, it either loses God in the world 

and sinks into materialism, or it resolves the world into God and 

becomes idealism. In the same way spirit is reduced ^ , _, , ^ 

•^ ^ , Theological and 

to matter (emancipation of the flesh) or matter is con- moral outcome 
sumedby spirit (false asceticism), while moral freedom ^^ P^^i^^^ism. 
becomes a mere phantom. Upon this teaching sin becomes a nat- 
ural necessity, and redemption a divinely contrived ingenious drama, 
while the deity attains to consciousness only through the evolutions 
of the human mind, and exhausts itself in time, through the endless 
process of the immanent development of thought. 

It follows that only that philosophy can make a league with the- 
ology which recognizes a living personal God,^ who is neither 

ter of pantheism is admirably described by Lamartine (Dernier chant du pelerkiage 
d'Harold, p. 18):— 

Le Dieu, qu'adore Harold, est cet agent supreme, 
Ce Pan mysterieux, insoluble probleme, 
Grand, boi'ne, bon, mauvais, que ce vaste univers 
Revele a ses regards sous mille aspects divers; 
Etre sans atributs, force sans providence, 
Exergant au hasard une aveugle puissance; 
Vrai Saturne, enfantant, devorant tour a tour, 
Faisant le mal sans haine et le bien sans amour; 
N'ayant pour dessein qu'un eternel caprice, 
Ni commandant ni f oi, ni loi, ni sacrifice ; 
Livrant le faible au fort et le juste au tr^pas, 
Et dont la raison dit: Est-il? ou n'est-il pas? 

With this comp. a poem by Schelling, published in the Zeitschrift fiir spec, Physik, 
1800, and continued in the Anthologie aus Schelling's Werke. (Berl., 1844), p. 98. 
Much, however, may seem to be pantheism from the stand-point of abstract deism, 
that is not so in reality. Bunsen remarks : " The immanence of God in the world is 
by no means equivalent to pantheism ; for the life of God and his continuance in it 
may be conceived without excluding the self-origination of God as the idea and will 
of the world, and the independence of the self-centred blessed Deity, as a necessary 
result." Gott in der Geschichte, p. 5. 

* The word "personal" may, of course, be erroneously explained, so as to involve 
the nature of God in human limitations ; but it has become one of the tasks of modern 
philosophy to settle this very idea of personality. It is of primary importance that 
the distinction between the ideas person and individual should be preserved. God is 
not an individual (though so eminent a thinker of former years as Hamann employed 
this designation) but person — not a person, but person in the eminent sense — absolute 
personality. The historical development of the doctrine of the Trinity in unity, illus- 
trates, though in hieroglyphics, the difficulty of the problem to be solved. An idea is 
not to be rejected as unthinkable, simply because it is involved in difficulties to our 
thought ; precisely the inexpressible demands the most energetic efforts of the noblest 
of our powers and thought. Comp. (in addition to the younger Fichte) the treatise of 



86 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

excluded from the world nor included in it, and who both transcends 

^ ,.,, the world and is immanent in it; and which furthermore 
The conditions . ' 

of a Christian conceives of the human soul and body as organically 
philosophy. related, refusing to make of spirit merely sublimated 
matter, or of matter the precipitate of spirit, and acknowledging 
both personal freedom and a free personality created for eternal 
ends. We designate such a philosophy as theistic^ in contrast with 
both the deistic and the pantheistic, and accordingly observe that 
the only system that may be applied to Christian theology is that 
The only pos- of pure theism. Whether philosophy can of itself for- 
pWktsophyS i^ul^te this theism, or, renouncing the attempt, whether 
istic. it shall devolve the task upon the practical reason with 

Kant and Herbart, or upon feeling with Jacobi, or upon faith 
and presentiment with Fries, is a matter of little consequence ; 
for we are not concerned to clearly demonstrate the idea of person- 
ality in a scientific light, which task may be properly reserved for 
philosophy. But theology can never strike friendly hands with a 
philosophical conception of the world, which eliminates man's per- 
sonal relation to God and consequently destroys religion, the basis 
of all theology itself.'' NTor would we venture to assert, without a 
preliminary understanding^ that the philosophy must be "Christ- 
ian." How is the word to be understood ? If in a historical sense, 
The sense in it appears that all modern philosophy, having come 
ophy^must^^he ^^^^ being through the influence of Christian ideas, is 
Christian. Christian; and this is true of such philosophies as are 

unchristian in their results, in so far as they have passed through a 
Christian development. But if it be made to signify that the doc- 
trines of Christianity should constitute the subject-matter of the 
philosophy, that, for instance, it should undertake to develop the 
atonement or the person of Christ, the result is that a demand is 
made upon philosophy for which its power is inadequate.^ Finally, 

Deinhardt, Begriff der Personlichkeit mit Riicksicht auf Strauss (in Beitrage, p. 85 
sqq^ and Schenkel, Idee der Personlichkeit in ihrer Zeitbedeutung fiir d. theoi. Wis- 
senschaft, etc. Schaifh., 1850, and also id,, Dogmatik, i, p. 29 &qq. 

^ It must be conceded that these terms are arbitrarily applied ; but they are em- 
ployed hi harmony with the current usage. Comp. Deinhardt, Kategorie des christ- 
' lichen Theismus, in Beitrage, p. 67 sqq. The word theism is still used, however, aa 
synonymous with deism, by some authors (as Kym, I. c). 

" Lotze somewhere makes the appropriate remark, that " the truly real, which is and 
is to be, is not matter and still less idea, but the living and personal Spirit of God and 
the world of personal spirits which he has created." Theology will doubtless be able 
to content itself with this philosophical result. 

' Van Oosterzee presents the distinction between the material of philosophy and 
that of theology in a very satisfactory manner. This distinction once accepted, the 



SUBDIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY. 81 

if its ideas are to be derived from other sources, e. g.^ from the 
Bible (the thought has expression in talk about a Biblical philos- 
ophy), it must cease to be philosophy and lose itself in dogmatics. 
A different judgment must be formed of the so-called philosophy 
of Christianity^ which does not attempt an a priori explanation of 
the Christian Revelation, but regards it as existing, and seeks to 
comprehend it in harmony with the fundamental principles of rea- 
son. It is accordingly a part of the general philosophy of religion, 
or also of the philosophy of history, and may as readily be under- 
taken from an unchristian as a Christian point of view.^ 

SECTION IX. 

VALUE OF THE SEVERAL BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY. 

No single department of philosophical inquiry can be made at will 
to possess special prominence for the theologian, since philosophy is 
an organic whole; but the field of ethics — moral philosophy and the 
philosophy of religion — will more particularly come into relations 
with theology, in addition to the formal elements of philosophy 
(logic, dialectics) and its general bases (psychology, anthropology). 

In recent times the encydopmdia of philosophy has been included 
among the subjects usually presented in academical Branches of pM- 
lectures; and its study should be urged upon the the- i''r^^^mp^rtaS 
ologian, as of primary importance.' Ordinary logic, as to theology. 
it was occasionally taught in preparatory schools or more generally 
in the first stages of the university course, had temporarily lost 
much of its significance for many students, in view of the entire 

confusion of philosophy and theology is readily avoided : " Theology is distinguished 
from speculative philosophy in this, that while the latter takes the pure human con- 
sciousness as its starting point, theology, on the contrary, must, above all, take ac- 
count with an historical fact, with the belief of the community in a divine revelation. 
It makes the subject and ground of this belief the material for its investigation, in 
order to purify the idea, to develop it, and when necessary to defend it. It is 'une 
philosophic, dont la base est donnee ' (Yinetj, and thus, as a science, sustains a two- 
fold character. It proceeds from that which is given, not in order to leave it as it is 
given; it reasons and philosophizes, but not in the abstract. Its material is an his- 
torical product, but it must treat this in a Christian philosophical (really critical) 
method." (Christian Dogmatics, Amer. ed., v. i, p. 2). 

^ Comp., however, Pelt, Encykl., p. 541 sqq., and J, P. Lange, Phil. Dogmatik. 

' Herbart, Troxler, and Hegel published philosophical encyclopaedias. Oppermann, 
Encykl. d. Philosophic, Hanover, 1 844 ; F. C. Callisen, Propaedeutik d. Phil., Schleswig, 
1846; K. Ph. Fischer, Grundziige des Systems d. Philosophic u. Encykl. d. Phil. Wis- 
senschaften, Erlangen, 1848-52 and 55, 3 vols. ; K. Rosenkranz, System d. Wissen- 
schaften, etc, Konigsberg, 1850; H. Ritter, Encykl. d. phil. Wissenschaften, 3 vols. 
Gottingen, 1862-64. Comp. L. Tobler, Phil. Propaedeutik auf Gymnasien in the 
Neue Schweiz. Museum of Ribbeck, Kochly and Fischer. 1861, No. 4. 



88 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

transformation of philosophy ; but as the paroxysm wore off, the 
reaction caused a more zealous return to logical sobriety, without 
which all philosophizing becomes simply a tumultuous confusion. 

Psychology, which for a period of considerable length had been 
moving in abstract categories, presenting the life of the soul apart 
from the conditions of physical life, was, after the return from this 
exclusive spiritualism, drawn more and more into the field of the 
physical sciences and brought into connexion with physiology — as- 
suredly an advantageous change for science. This change involved 
the danger, however, of losing the soul-life in that of the body, and 
Importance to of thereby passing from spiritualism into materialism. 
SlinTps^choi- ^ *^'^^ philosophy of religion will always be dependent 
ogy. on a thorough psychology, a genuine philosophical ex- 

position of the nature of the soul and its various manifestations 
(anthropology). An illustration is found in the relation between 
faith and knowledge, to determine which is the office of philosophy, 
but whose demonstration depends essentially upon psychological pos- 
tulates. The old, Socratic maxim, " Know thyself," forms the under- 
lying basis of all knowledge. A further question arises, however, 
concerning the extent to which even an objective apprehension of 
" the thing in itself " is possible to speculative philosophy — the great 
question to which various answers have continued to be returned 
since the days of Kant. This leads into fields which are often des- 
ignated by the names of ontology and metaphysics. The names have 
been exchanged for others, indeed ; but the departments to which 
they apply will constitute the field of so called speculative philosophy . 

If we recur to the ancient Platonic and Aristotelian division of 
philosophy into physics, ethics, and dialectics, we obtain an ana- 
logue to the different branches of study treated of in § 5, which 
are also designated as philosophical studies in the broad sense. 
Logic (dialectics) will correspond to philology and mathematics, 
physics to the natural sciences, and ethics to history. If we apply 
the modern terminology, we have on the one hand a phenom- 
Phiiosophy di- enology of nature, and on the other a phenomenology 
S^ mature* aM ^^ mind ; on the one hand natural philosophy, on the 
that of mind, other moral philosophy (the metaphysics of morality) 
and the philosophy of law (natural justice), of religion, and of his- 
tory. It must be left to philosophy itself to determine the relation 
sustained by the philosophy of nature to empirical natural science, 
or by the philosophy of religion to religion and its historical mani- 
festation in actual life. We likewise referred to the arts, in addi- 
tion to the sciences ; and we here find available a philosophy of the 
beautiful also — cesthetics the philosophy of art. 



PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION— LITERATURE. 89 

The history of philosophy is necessary to the study of philosophy 
itself ; but as an auxiliary to the history of religion, Church, and 
doctrine, its consideration is referred to another place. 

PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

1. The Philosophy of Religion in its Strict Sense. 

Bacon, Thomas Scott. The Beginnings of Religion. An Essay. 12mo, pp. xv, 519. 
London, 1887. (The origin of all religion is claimed to be in direct and explicit 
revelation from God.) 

Balfour, Arthur James. A Defence of Philosophic Doubt. Pp.355. London, 1879. 

Bascom, John. A Philosophy of Religion; or. The Rational Grounds of Religious 
Belief. 12mo, pp. 566. New York, 1876. (This is largely a work on the The- 
istic Controversy. It finds the proof of the being of God in man's capacity for 
spontaneous action, which has its ground in his moral nature. Finite sponta- 
neous power argues infinite spontaneous power. The usual arguments for The- 
ism, cosmological, teleological, etc., are, therefore, criticised as insufficient for 
their purpose. The discussion extends to Revelation, Inspiration, Miracles, etc.) 

Bray, H. Truro. Essays on God and Man; or, A Philosophical Inquiry into the 
Principles of Religion. 12mo, pp. ix, 270. St. Louis, Mo., 1888. 

Caird, John. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Rehgion. 8vo, pp. 358. New 
York, 1880. (The author finds the basis of religion, (1) In man's capacity of 
transcending his own individuality. (2) In the latent or implied consciousness 
in us of the absolute unity of thought and being, or of an absolute self -conscious- 
ness on which all finite knowledge and existence rest. The cosmological, tele- 
ological, and ontological arguments are criticised as inadequate to prove all they 
aim to prove.) 

Clarke, James Freeman. Ten Great Religions. An essay in Comparative Theology. 
8th ed., 8vo, pp. 528. Boston, 1871. 

Drummond, Henry. Natural Law in the Spiritual World. 12mo, pp. 414. London, 
1883. (As an argument for the Analogy between Natural and Spiritual Law this 
book follows ill the line of Bishop Butler; but the plain teaching of the New 
Testament is that eHects produced in the kingdom of Christ are, as to their ori- 
gin, supernatural.) 

Gould, S. B. The Origin and Development of Religious Belief. New York, 1870. 
(Ascribes religious beliefs to a process of natural evolution.) 

Hardwicke, Charles. Christ and Other Masters. The chief Parallelisms between 
Christianity and the Religious Systems of the Ancient World. Londoa and 
Cambridge, 1863. 2 vols., pp. 383, 461. Also, 8vo, pp. xviii, 592. London, 
1875. (A Contribution to Comparative Theology.) 

Hedge, Frederick Henry. Reason in Religion. 8vo, pp. iv, 458. Boston, 2875. 
(Makes all the argument for religion intuitional as distinguished from historical.) 

Lotze, Hermann. Outlines of Metaphysic. Outlines of the Philosophy of Religion. 
Dictated Portions of the Lectures of Hermann Lotze. Translated and Edited by 
George T. Ladd, Professor of Philosophy in Yale College, Boston. (Finds in 
faith the ultimate basis of both religion and scientific cognition.) 

Mansell, H. L. The Limits of Religious Tb.ought. Boston, New York, and Cincinnati, 
1860. (Mansell claims that " our knowledge of God is relative and not absolute. 
We may know that an Infinite God exists, but not ivhat he is as infinite." "We 



90 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

must be content, therefore, "with those regulative ideas of the Deity which are 
sufficient to guide our practice; which tell us not what God is in himself, but 
how he wills that we should speak of him.") 

McCabe, Lorenzo D. Divine Nescience of Future Contingencies a Necessity. 12mo, 
pp. 306. New York, 1881. (Maintains that " Divine Nescience is a necessity in 
the necessities of things." This principle is elaborated in a series of propositions, 
such as, Divine Nescience of future contingencies is necessary to the interpreta- 
tion of Scripture, to a satisfactory Theodicy, etc.) 

McCosh, James. Certitude, Providence, and Prayer. Pp. 46. New York, 1883. 

McCosh, James. A Criticism of the Critical Philosophy. (Philosophic Series, No. 
YIL) Pp. 60. New York, 1884. 

McCosh, James. Diverse Kinds of Truth, as Opposed to Agnosticism. Being a 
treatise on applied logic. New York. (In Nescience and in Nihilism the au- 
thor finds the most dangerous types of infidelity.) 

McKinney, S. B. C. The Science and Art of Religion. 8vo. London, 1888. 

Moffatt, James C. A Comparative History of Religion. Parts I and II, 2 vols. 
12mo. New York, 18T4. 

Morell, J. D. The Philosophy of Religion. 12mo, pp. 359. New York, 1859. 
(Following Schleiermacher, grounds religion on feeling — the feeling of depen- 
dence. Claims, also, that the feeling of dependence, " seeking its ol»ject through 
all the stages of human consciousness," finds that object in the absolute Being.) 

Morris, Geo. S. Philosophy and Christianity. A series of Lectures delivered in 
New York in 1883, on the Ely Foundation of the Union Theological Seminary. 
New York, 1884. (Shows that religion is the living apprehension of that which 
philosophy aims to comprehend.) 

Mulford, Elisha. The Republic of God. An Institute of Theology. 8vo, pp. viii, 
261. Boston, 1881. 

Miiller, F. Max. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated in 
the Religions of India. 12mo, pp. 382. New York, 1879. (Holds that relig- 
ion is a natural growth.) 

Miiller, Max. Lectures on the Science of Religion. With a paper on Buddhist Niliil- 
ism. 12mo, pp. 300. New York, 1872. (Rejects revelation and finds the prim- 
itive religion in man's nature.) 

Miiller, Max. Chips from a German "Workshop. 4 vols. 12mo. New York, 1869. 
(The first volume treats of the " Science of Religion.") 

Pressense, E. De. A Study of Origins ; or, The Problems of Knowledge, of Being, 
and of' Duty. Translated by Annie Harwood. 4th edition, pp. 513. Lon- 
don, 1883. 

Renouf, P. Le Page. Tlie Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the 
Religion of Ancient Egypt. Hibbert Lectures for 1879. 12mo, pp. 270. New 
York, 1880. (Holds that religion is a natural growth.) 

Salter, "W. M. Ethical Religion. 12mo, pp. 3,332. Boston, 1889. (Most of the 
lectureawere delivered before the Society for Ethical Culture of Chicago.) 

Smyth, Newman. The Religious Feeling. 12mo, pp. vii, 191. New York, 1877. 

Smyth, Newman. Old Faiths in New Lights. 12mo. New York, 1880. 

Tulloch, John. Modern Theories in Philosophy and Religion. Edinburgh. (In- 
cludes an essay on " Religion Without Metaphysics ; or. The Modern Religion of 
Experience," in which the author contends, in opposition to Matthew Arnold, 
tjiat righteousness is as much a metaphysical idea as personality, and that the 
dogma of the personality of God is neither more nor less metaphysical than the 
idea of the righteousness of God.) 



PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION— LITERATURE. 91 

Upham, Thos. C. Absolute Religion. A view based on Philosophical Principles and 
Doctrines of the Bible. 12mo, pp. 312. New York, 1873. 

Whedon, D. D. The Freedom of the "Will as a basis of Human Responsibility and a 
Divine Government- 12mo, pp. 438. New York, 1869. (^Argues that the "doc- 
trine of Necessity is incompatible with any valid theory of religion.") 

2. Theism. — Tiie Proof of the Being and Attributes of God. — Natural Theology. 

Ackermann, C. The Christian Element in Plato and the Platonic Philosophy. Svo^ 
pp. 280. Edinburgh, 1861. 

Alliott, Richard. Psychology and Theology; or, Psychology Applied to the Inves- 
tigation of Questions relating to Religion, Natural Theology, and Revelation. 
12mo. London, 18C5. 

Argyll, the Duke of. The Reign of Law. Fifth edition. 12mo, pp. xxvii, 462. 
London, 1868. (A work which has been widely read. Much of it is directed 
against Darwinism. The author finds " Law " to be tlie authoritative expression 
of a human "Will enforced by Power," and adds, " The instincts of mankind 
have not failed to see that the phenomena of nature are only really conceivable 
to us as, in like manner, the expressions of a Will enforcing itself by Power." 
The topics treated are: the "Supernatural," "Law," " Contrivance a necessity 
arising out of Law," etc.) 

Arthur, William. On the Difference between Physical and Moral Law. The Fern- 
ley Lecture of 1883. 8vo, pp. 244, London, 1883; New York, 1884. (The 
author's object is to rescue freedom and responsibility from a materializing and 
fatalistic philosophy.) 

Aydelott, B. P. The Great Question. The Sceptical Philosophy Examined. 16mo. 
Cincinnati, 1868. 

Bell, Sir Charles. The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing 
Design. Ith edition, revised, 8vo, pp. xxxv, 260. London, 1860. 

Berkeley, George. Principles of Human Knowledge. With Prolegomena, and with 
Annotations, select, translated, and original, by Charles P. Krauth. 8vo. Phila- 
delphia, 1874. 

Blackie, John Stuart. The Natural History of Atheism. 12mo. New York, 1882. 
(A very readable book, full of Professor Blackie's characteristic vigor.) 

Boston Lectures. Christianity and Scepticism. 12mo. Boston, 1870. 

Bowen, Francis. Application of Metaphysical and Ethical Science to the Evidences 
of Religion. Lowell Lectures. Pp. 465. Boston, 1849. (Lectures YIII and 
IX present the argument from Design.) 

Bowne, Borden P. Philosophy of Theism. 8vo, pp. 269. New York, 1887. (An 
examination of the Yalidity of the Theistic Argument. The author's con- 
clusion is that " Theism is the fundamental postulate of our total life ; " that if 
" we say that it is proved by nothing, we must also admit that it is implicit in 
every thing.") 

Bowne, Borden P. Studies in Theism. Pp. vi, 444. New York and Cincinnati, 1879. 
(Against Atheistic theories. The scope of this book can be best understood 
from two sentences of the Introduction : " The Theist does not claim to demon- 
strate the existence of God, but only that the problem of the world and life 
cannot be solved without God. He does not assume that all order is designed 
order ; but he insists that the actual order, which of course includes man, cannot 
be understood, except as the outcome of design." Some of the topics of the chap- 
ters are: Knowledge and Scepticism, Knowledge and Belief, Mechanism and 
Teleology, Theism and Pantheism, etc.) 



92 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Bowne, Borden P. The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer. Being an Examination of 
the First Principles of his System, 12mo, pp. 283. New York and Cincinnati, 
1874. (Deals vigorously with Spencer's Atheism.) 

Bradin, Clark. The Problem of Problems; or, Atheism, Darwinism, and Theism. 
12mo, pp. 480. Cincinnati, 1877. 

Breckinridge, R. J. The Knowledge of God. 2 vols. 8vo. Yol. I : Objectively 
Considered. Yol. H: Subjectively Considered. New York, 1858-59. 

Bremen Lectures (The) on Fundamental, Living, Religious Questions, by Yarious 
Eminent European Divines. Translated by D. Heagle. "With an introduction 
by Alvah Hovey. 12mo. Boston, 1871. 

Brown, John. A Compendious Yiew of Natural and Revealed Religion. 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1817. 

Brown, Robert. The Gospel of Common Sense ; or. Mental, Moral, and Social Science 
in Harmony with Scriptural Christianity. 12mo. London, 1864. 

Buchanan, James. Analogy as a Guide to Truth and as an Aid to Faith. Pp. 126. 
Edinburgh, 1864. (Part HI discusses the Natural Proofs of Theism.) 

Buchanan, James. Modern Atheism under its forms of Pantheism, Materialism, 
Secularism, Development, and Natural Laws. (A work of much merit.) 12mo, 
pp. iv, 423. Boston, 1867. 

Buchanan, James. Faith in God and Modern Atheism, Compared in their Essential 
Nature, Theoretic Grounds, and Practical Influence. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1857. 

Burr, E. F. Pater Mundi ; or, the Doctrine of Evolution. First and Second Series. 
Boston. Second Series, 1873. 

Burr, E. F. Ecce Terra; or, The Hand of God in the Earth. Pp. 320. Philadel- 
phia, 1883. (Aims to show the grounds of our faith in ?l personal God.) 

Calderwood, Henry. Philosophy of the Infinite. A Treatise on Man's Knowledge 
of the Infinite Being. In Answer to Sir "William Hamilton and Dean Mansel. 
2d ed., enlarged. 8v>. pp. 539. London, 1872. 

Candlish, J. S. Metap] cs. A Study in First Principles. Pp.534. New York, 
1882. (A defence of Theism.) 

Candlish, Robert S. Reason and Revelation. 12mo. London, 1867. 

Chadbourne, P. W. Natural Theology. Lectures before the Lowell Institute. 12mo. 
New York, 1867. (The author holds that the argument for Theism from design 
is conclusive, and adduces the adaptations of organized beings to their environ- 
ment as proof of the existence and character of God.) 

Chalmers, Thomas. Natural Theologj'. 2 vols. 12mo. New York. 

Chalmers, Thomas. The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intel- 
lectual Constitution of Man. 12mo. New York, 1880. 

Child, G. C. Benedicite. Illustrations of the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, 
as Manifested in his "Works. 12mo. New York, 1870. 

Christianity and Modern Thought. 12mo, pp. 394. Boston, 1881. (Essays of Mar- 
tineau. Hedges, etc.) 

Christlieb, Theodore. Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. A series of Apologetical 
Lectures, addressed to earnest seekers of the Truth. 8vo, pp. 549. New York, 
1874. (The discussion in this work takes a wide range. Tlie first lecture treats 
of the existing breach between Modern Doubt and Christianity ; the next topic, 
""Whence do we derive our knowledge of God?" introduces Natural Theology, 
Supernatural Theology, and the relations between the two. Modern non-bibli- 
cal conceptions of God are next considered. Much space is given to modern 
anti-miraculous accounts of the Life of Christ and the Modern Critical Theory 
of Primitive Christianity.) 



PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION— LITERATURE. 93 

Clarke, James Freeman. Steps of Unbelief; or, Rational Christianity Maintained 
against Atheism, Free Religion, and Romanism. 12mo, pp. 311. Boston, 1870. 

Cocker, B. F. Christianity and Greek Philosophy; oFj The Relation between Spon- 
taneous and Reflective Thought in Greece and the Positive Teachings of 
Clinst and his Apostes. 8vo, pp. 531. New York, 1870. (An argument for 
Theism.) 

Cocker, B. F. The Theistic Conception of the World. An essay in opposition to certain 
tendencies of modern thought. Svo, pp. x, 426. New York and Cincinnati, 1875. 

Cook, Joseph. Transcendentalism. ]2mo. Boston, 1880. 

Cooke, Josiah P. Religion and Chemistry ; or, Proofs of God's Plan in the Atmos- 
phere and its Elements. 8vo, pp. 348. New York, 1864. (A contribution to 
Natural Theology.) 

Cudworth, Ralph. The True Intellectual System of the Universe ; wherein all the 
Reason and Philosophy of Atheism is Confuted. 2 vols., Svo. Andover. New 
York, 1837. 

Cunningham, William. Theological Lectures on subjects connected with Natural 
Theology, etc. 8vo, pp. 625. New York, 1876. 

Diman, J. Lewis The Theistic Argument as affected by recent theories. A course 
of lectures, delivered at the Lowell Institute in Boston. 12mo,. pp. 390. 
Boston, 1882. (An admirable example of perspicuous reasoning clothed in tlie 
choicest language. Tlie chapter on the Relativity of Knowledge is h rapid survey 
of the chief modern theories of human knowledge. Other chapters are : Cause 
and Force, The Argument from Order, The Argument from Design, Conscience 
and a Moral Order, etc.) 

Dix, Morgan. Lectures on the Pantheistic Idea of an Impersonal Substance — Deity 
as Contrasted with the Christian Faith concerning Almighty God. 12mo. New 
York, 1864. 

Dodge, Ebenezer. The Evidences of Christianity ; with an Introdirction on the Exist- 
ence of God and tlie Immortality of the Soul. 12rao, pp. 244. Boston, 1869. 

Dove, P. E. The Logic of Christian Faith. Being a Dissertation on Scepticism, 
Pantheism, etc. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1856. 

Dyer, David. Tests of Truth. Replies to Letters of a Sceptical Friend on the 
Teachings of Natural and Revealed Religion. 12mo. New York, 1866 

Ecce Coelum. A Parish Astronomy. Six Lectures by a Connecticut Pastor. 
Boston, 1857. (The last lecture is on the question, "Is there an Author of 
Nature ? ") 

Elwes, R. H. M. The Chief Works of Benedict de Spinoza. Translated from the 
Latin, with an Introduction. 2 volo., pp. 387, 420. New York. 

Ferrier, James F. Institutes of Metaphysics. The Theory of Knowing and Being. 
12mo. Edinburgh, 1856. 

Fisher, George P. The Grounds of Theistic and Cliristian Belief. 8vo, pp. 488. New 
York, 1 883. (The volume discusses the Personality of God and Man ; the argu- 
ments for the Being of God ; tlie Principal Anti-Theistic Theories — Pantheism, 
Positivism, Materialism, Agnosticism.) 

Fisher, George P. The Nature and Method of Revelation. New York, 1890. (Dis- 
cusses the relation of Revelation to the Biblical record; the progressive charac- 
ter of Revelation ; the relation of the tvvo sections of Revelation to each other; 
and the relation of Revelation to faith.) 

Fisher, George P. Discussions on History and Theology. Contains Essay on " The 
Unreasonableness of Atheism." New York, 1880. 

Fisher, George P. Faith and Rationalism, with Short Supplementary Essays on 



94 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Related Topics. 12mo, pp. 188. New York, 1879. (The second Essay is en- 
titled The Doctrine of Nescience respecting God ; tlie third, The Doctrine of 
Evokilion in its Relation to tl)e Argument from Design, in both of which the 
Theistic argument is defended.) 

Fiske, John. The Idea of God as Affected by Modern Knowledge. Boston, 1885. 

Flint, Robert. Theism. Tlie Baird Lecture for 1876. Second edition, Edinburgh, 

1878. 12mo, pp. 432. (Among the topics discussed is: *' The Nature, Condi- 
tions, and Limits of Theistic Proofs." The Appendix gives incidentally some 
excellent notices of the literature of Tlieism." 

Flint, Robert. Aiiti-Tlieistic Theories. The Baird Lecture for 1877. Edinburgh, 

1879. I'imo, pp. 555. (Discusses Atheism, Materialism, Secularism, Positiv- 
ism, Pessimism, and Pantheism, but purposely omits Agnosticism.) 

Foster, Bishop Randolph S. Theism: Cosmic Theism; or. The Theism of Nature. 
8vo, pp. 450. New York, 1889. (This work is first an examination of moderq 
Antitheistic theories, and next an argument for the existence of God. In the 
latter part of the discussion the cosmological, the teleological, and the moral 
arguments are stated, as well as the arguments from universal belief. The argu- 
ments of the Antitheistic writers are stated with great fullness.) 

Gillespie, William Honyman. The Argument a pnon for the Being and the Attri- 
butes of the Absolute One, etc. Fifth edition. Timo, pp. 166. London, 1871. 

Gillett, E. H. God in Human Thought ; or. Natural Theology traced in Literature, 
Ancient and Modern, to th'e Time of Bishop Butler. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 416, 418. 
New York, 1874. 

Gillott, E. H. The Moral System, with an Historical and Critical Introduction. 
12mo. New York, 1874. 

Goodwin, B. Lectures on the Atheistic Controversy. 12mo. Boston, 1836. 

Guizot, M. Meditations on the Actual State of Christianity. 12rao, pp. 390. New 
York, 1867. (Examines the attacks of modern unbelief upon Christianity.) 

Hamilton, Sir William. Lectures on Metaphysics. 8vo, pp. xx, 718. Boston, 1859. 

Harris, Samuel. The Self-Revelation of God. 8vo, pp. 570. New York, 1887. 
(The discussion in this work is divided into four parts : I. God as revealed in 
Consciousness, as the object of religious faith and service. II. God revealed in 
the Universe as the absolute Being. In this part Atheism, Agnosticism, 
Pantheism, and Materialism are examined. III. God revealed in the Universe 
as personal spirit through the Constitution and Course of Nature, and the 
Constitution and History of Man. lY. God reveakd in Christ as the Redeemer 
of Man from Sin.) 

Harris, Samuel. The Philosophical Basis of Theism. An Examination of the Per- 
sonality of Man to ascertain his Capacity to know and serve God, and the Valid- 
ity of the Principles underlying the Defence of Theism. 8vo, pp. 564. New 
York, 1883. (Among the topics discussed are: Knowledge and Agnosticism ; 
the Criteria of Knowledge ; the Three Faculties of the Mind ; the Acts and Proc- 
esses of Knowing; what is known through Presentative Intuition; what is 
known througli Rational Intuition ; the Ultimate Realities of Hum.an Knowl- 
edge ; the Three Grades of Scientific Knowledge.) 

Haven, Joseph. Studies in Philosophy and Theology. 12mo, pp. 512. Andover, 
1869. (Contains an essay on Natural Theology.) 

Hedge, Frederick Henry. Ways of the Spirit, and other Essays. 1 2mo, pp. 367. 
Boston, 1877. (Essay VI is a critique of the proofs of the Being of God.) 

Hickock, Laurens P. Rational Cosmology ; or. The Eternal Principles and Necessary 
Laws of the Universe. Svo. New York, 1871. 



PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION— LITERATURE. 95 

Hickock, Laurens P. The Logic of Reason, Universal and Eternal. 8vo, pp. 292. 
Boston, 1874. 

Hickock, Laurens P. Creation and Creator. ISmo, pp. 3G0. Boston, 1872. (This 
work is divided into two parts: I. Knowledge of the Creator. II. Knowledge 
of the Creation. In Part I, after a criticism. of the human faculties, the author 
argues that the individual reason affirms the universal reason ; affirms that the 
universal reason is personal, absolute, etc. The recognition of absolute person- 
ality will give Theism and exclude Pantheism. The second part is devoted to a 
consideration of the knowledge which reason has of space and time, of force 
and life.) 

Hicks, L. E. A Critique of Design Arguments. A Historical Review and Examina- 
tion of the Methods of Reasoning in Natural Theology. Crown 8vo, pp. 417. 
New Tork, 1883. (A resume and Analysis of the views of writers on Natural 
Theology from Socrates to modern times.) 

Hicks, L. E. Faith and Rationalism, with Short Supplementary Essays on Related 
Topics. 12mo, pp. 188. New York, 1879. (The second essay is entitled The 
Doctrine of Nescience respecting God ; the third, The Doctrine of Evolution in 
its Relation to the Argument from Design, in both of which the Theistic argu- 
ment is defended.) 

Hill, Thomas. A Statement of the Natural Sources of Theology; with a discussion 
of Modern Sceptical Objections. Pp.139. Andover, 1877. 

Hill, Thomas. Geometry and Faith. A Supplement to the Ninth Bridgewater Trea- 
tise. Pp. 109. Boston, 1883. 

Hinton, James. Philosophy and Religion. Selections from the Manuscripts of the 
late James Hinton, edited by Caroline Haddon. 12mo, pp. xix, 288. Lon- 
don, 1881. 

Ingham Lecturts. (R. S. Foster, A. Mahan, and others.) On the Evidences 
of Natural and Revealed Religion. 12mo, pp. 365. New York and Cincinnati, 
1873. 

Jackson, William. The Philosophy of Natural Theology, etc. Prize Essay. Pp. 
xviii, 398. New York, 1875. 

Janet, Paul. Final Causes. Translated from the French by William Affleck, B.D. 
With a Preface by Robert Flint, LL.D , of the University of Edinburgh. Second 
edition, pp. xxii, 520. Edinburgh and New York, 1883. (The first part of 
Janet's work discusses the question, "Are there ends in Nature?" the 
second part, the question, " What is the ultimate cause or explanation of ends 
in Nature? " His rank in this discussion is very high.) 

Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. 12mo. New York, 1880. 

Kidd, J. On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man. 
8vo, pp. xvi, 332. New York, 1830. 

Lange, Frederick Albert. History of Materialism, and Criticism of its Present Im- 
portance. Authorized translation by E. C. Tliomas. 3 vols., Svo. Second 
edition. Boston, 1880. 

Lee, Luther. Natural Theology. The Existence of God demonstrated by arguments 
drawn from the Phenomena of Nature. 24mo, pp. 186. Syracuse, 1866. 

Leitch, Alexander. Ethics of Theism. A Criticism and its Vindications. Svo. 
Edinburgh, 1868. 

Lewis, Tayler. Plato against the Atheists ; or, The Tenth Book of the Dialogues on 
Laws. With Critical Notes, etc. New York, 1859. 

Lord, Charles E. Evidences of Natural and Revealed Theology. Svo. Philadel- 
phia, 1869. 



96 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Mahan, Asa. The Science of Natural Theology ; or, God the Unconditioned Cause 
as Revealed in Creation. 12 mo. pp. 399. Boston, 1867. 

Manning, J. M. Half Truths and the Truth. Lectures on the prevailing forms of 
Unbelief. 12mo, pp. 398. Boston, 1872. (Traces Modern Unbelief to Spinoza.) 

Martineau, James. Essays, Philosophical and Theological. 12mo, pp. 424. Bos- 
ton, 1866. 

Masson, David. Recent British Philosophy. A Review with Criticisms. 12mo, 
pp. 335. New York, 1866. (The Criticism is Antitheistic.) 

M'Cosh, James, and Dickie, George. Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation. 
8vo, pp. 539. New York, 188L (Order and Adaptation are the phases of design 
recognized in this work, which is a review of creation as a whole.) 

M'Cosh, James. Christianity and Positivism. A series of lectures to the times 
on Natural Theology and Apologetics. 12mo, pp. 369. New York, 1871. A 
reply to Spencer and Darwin, and by no means out of date. (The first series of 
the lectures treats of Cliristianity and Physical Science, and the argument from 
design as affected by modern discoveries. The second series treats of Chris- 
tianity and Mental Science. In this part the relativity of knowledge is acutely 
discussed. The third series treats of Christianity and historical investigation. 
The gaps in the theory of development are well exhibited in the first 
Appendix.) 

M'Cosli, James. Energy, Efficient and Final Cause. 16mc, pp. 55. New York, 1883. 

Mead, C. M. An Essay concerning the Basis of the Christian Faith. Lectures 
on the L. P. Stone Foundation, delivered at Princeton Theological Seminary. 
Pp. 469. New York, 1889. (Discusses Theism, Revelation, Miracles, and Inspi- 
ration.) 

Millf John Stuart. Three Essays on Religion. (The third essay is on Theism, and 
admits, with qualifications, the argument from design.) 8vo, pp. xii, 302. New 
York, 1874. 

Modern Scepticism. A Course of Lectures Delivered at the Request of the Christian 
Evidence Society. With an Explanatory Paper, by C. J. Ellicott. 12mo. New 
York, 1871. 

Murphy, Joseph J. The Scientific Basis of Faith. 8vo. London, 1873. 

Naville, Ernst. The Heavenly Father. Lectures on Modern Atheism, translated 
from the French by Henry Downt'-n. 12rao, pp. x, 375. Boston, 1866. (A 
popular treatise, in confutation of Atheistic theories.) 

Naville, Ernst. The Life Eternal. From the French. 12mo, pp. 253. London, 
1867. (An argument against materialism.) 

Paine, Martyn. Physiology of the Soul and Instinct, as Distinguished from Mate- 
rialism. 8vo. New York, 1872. 

Paley, William. Natural Theology. London and New York. Many editions. 

Parsons, Theophilus. The Infinite and the Finite. 12mo. Boston, 1872. 

Physicus. A Candid Examination of Theism. Crown 8v6. Boston, 1880. 

Pirie, W, R. Natural Theology. An Inquiry into the Fundamental Principles of 
Religious, Moral, and Political Science. 12rao. Edinburgh, 1867. 

Porter, Noah. The Human Intellect. Pp. 693. New York, 1869. (Chapter Y, 
Part lY, treats of Design or Final Cause.) 

Porter, Noah. Science and Sentiment, with other papers, chiefly Philosophical. 
Pp. 506. New York, 1883. 

Potter, Alonzo. Religious Philosophy ; or. Nature, Man, and the Bible Witnessing 
to God and to Religious Truth. Lowell Institute Lectures for 1845 and 1853. 
8vo. Philadelphia. 



PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION— LITERATURE. 97 

Questions of Modern Thought; or, Lectures on the Bible and Infidelity, by Drs. 
MeCosh, Thompson, and others. 8vo, Philadelphia, 1871. 

Raby, William. Natural Theology. New York, 1 824, and often. 

Bandies, Marshall. First Principles. 12mo, pp. 308. (Part I discusses the 
various kinds of Tiieistic Evidence; Part II, the Doctrine of Causality; Part 
III, Theistic Evidence ; Part IV, the Tiieistic Argument as affected by the 
advance of science and philosophy ; Part Y, Relation of Natural to Revealed 
Theology.) 

Rogers, Henry. The Eclipse of Faith; or, A Yisit to a Religious Sceptic. 12mow 
Boston, 1860. 

Rogers, Henry. A Defence of the Eclipse of Faith. 12mo. Boston, 1854. 

Row, C. A. Christian Theism. 12mo, pp. viii, 318. New York, 1890.. (A popu- 
lar exposition of the argument for Theism.) 

Saisset, Emile. An Essay on Religious Philosophy (with an essay by the English trans- 
lator). 2 vols., 12mo, pp. vi, 310, 273. Edinburgh, 1863. (A series of his- 
torical essays, followed by a series of meditations. Beginning with the 
Theism of Descartes, the author analyzes Pantheistic theories from Spinoza ta 
Hegel.) 

Samuelson, James. Views of the Deity. Traditional and Scientific. A Contribu- 
tion to the Study of Theological Science. 12mo. London, 1871. 

Schmid, Rudolph. The Theories of Darwin and their Relation to Philosophy, Relig- 
ion, and Morality, translated by Gr. A. Zimmerman, Ph.D. 12mo, pp. 410. Chi- 
cago, 1883. (Holds that revealed religion and theories of development may be 
harmonized.) 

Sexton, George. Theistic Problems. Being Essays on the Existence of God and his 
Relationship to Man. 

Shairp, J. C. Culture and Religion in Some of their Relations. 16mo, pp. 197. 
New York, 1871. 

Shedd, William G. T. The Ontological Argument for the Divine Existence. Pp. 1 5. 
The Presbyterian Review, 1884, p. 213. 

Smith, Richard Travers. Man's Knowledge of Man and God. The Donellan Lect- 
ures for 1884-85. London, 1888. (Shows the force of the analogy between 
the principles which control human nature, and those which we judge must 
exist in God, who made human nature what it is.) 

Somerset (The Duke of). Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism. I6mo. New 
York, 1872. 

Spinoza, Benedict de. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. A Theological and Polit- 
ical Treatise. Showing under a series of Heads that Freedom of Thought 
and of Discussion may not only be granted with safety to Religion and the 
peace of the State, etc. From the Latin. Second edition, 8vo, pp. viii, 360. 
London, 1868. 

Still ingfleet, Bishop Edward. Origines Sacrae ; or, A Rational Account of the Grounds 
of Natural and Revealed Religion. 2 vols., 8vo. Oxford, 1836. 

Taylor, George. The Indications of ihe Creator; or. The Natural Evidences of Final 
Cause. 12rao. New York, 1851. 

Thompson, Robert A. Christian Theism. The Testimony of Reason and Revelation 
to the Existence and Character of the Supreme Being. 12mo, pp. xxii, 477. 
New York, 1855. 

Ward, William George. Essays on the Philosophy of Theism. Reprinted from the 
Dublin Review. 2 vols., pp. 390, 349. London. (The aim of the essays is the 
" philosophic establishment of Theism " from a Roman Catholic standpoint.) 
7 



98 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP^DLi. 

"Wharton, Francis. A Treatise on Theism and on the Modern Sceptical Theories. 
Piiiladelphia and Loudon, 1859. 12mo, pp. 395. (A discussion by a distin- 
guished lawyer.) 

"Wilson, A. Cliapters on Evolution. With 259 Illustrations. 8vo, pp. 370. Lon- 
don, 1882. 

Wilson, W. D. The Foundations of Religious Belief. The Methods of Natural The- 
ology Yindicated against Modern Objections. One of the Bishop Paddock Lect- 
ures, founded in 1880. Pp. xi, 386. New York, 1883. 

Wright, G. Frederic. The Logic of the Christian Evidences. (Second part discusses 
the Evidences of Theism.) Andover, 1880. 

Young, John. The Province of Reason: a Criticism of the Bampton Lecture on 
"The Limits of Religious Thought." Pp.305. 

3. The Pidlosophy of the Christian Religion. 

Bowen, Francis. Modern Philosophy, from Descartes to Schopenhauer. New York, 
1877. (Treats modern philosophy both historically and analytically from the 
orthodox Christian point of view.) 

Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural as Together Constituting the one 
System of God. New edition, 8vo, pp. 534. New York, 1867. 

Butler, Bishop. The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution 
and Course of Nature. Edited, with an analysis, by J. T. Champlin. 12mo, 
pp. 194. Boston, 1860. Although the debate of Christian faith with unbelief 
has undergone a change of issue the masterly work of Butler is still indispen- 
sable for the training of the theological student. The conflict of faith is now 
with atheism and agnosticism, rather than with deism. Butler's argument, 
however, in proof of a moral government of God should not be missed, for it is 
always available. The editions are many, and some of these have valuable 
introductions and analyses. That edited by Bishop Wilson, of Calcutta, has had 
a wide circulation. (12mo, 7th edition. Glasgow, 1841.) Professor William 
Fitzgerald, of Dublin University, published in 1849 an edition with Notes, and 
also the fullest life of Bishop Butler we have yet had. (8vo, pp. xcv, 370.) A 
systematic analysis of Part I of the Analogy was issued by Henry H. Duke, with 
an appendix of considerations upon certain of the arguments. The American 
editions have been many. The first appeared in Boston, 1809 (8vo, pp. 58, 422), 
and contained the life by Dr. Kippis, and the preface of Bishop Samuel Halifax, 
of the Diocese of Gloucester. Another edition is that of Dr. Howard Malcolm, 
President of the University of Lewisburg, Pa. This is furnished with an intro- 
duction, notes, and a valuable index. (12mo, 1857, Philadelphia.) An edition 
frequently reprinted is that of Robert Emory and G. R. Crooks, and contains 
Notes and a life drawn from the material supplied by Professor Fitzgerald's in- 
vestigations. (12mo, New York, 1852, and years following.) A good edition 
is also to be had in one of the volumes of the Bohn Library, and another in 
the School District Library of Harper and Brothers, New York, 1844. Atten- 
tion may also be directed to two works upon the value of Butler's Course of 
Argument: Bishop Hampden's Essay on the Philosophical Evidence of Chris- 
tianity (8vo, London, 1827), and Matthew Arnold's Bishop Butler and the 
Zeit-Geist (Last Words on the Cimrch and Religion, New York, 1877). Mr. 
Arnold concludes that " the great work on which such immense praise has 
been lavished is, for all real intents and purposes, now a failure ; it does not 
serve." But the Analogy is still read and cherished, Mr. Arnold to the contrary 
notwithstanding. 



GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 99 

Delitzsch, Franz. A System of Biblical Psychology. Revised by Robert Ernest Wallis. 

8vo, pp. 585. Edinburgh, 1867. (Aims to show the harmony of the psychol- 
ogy of the Bible with modern science and philosophy.) 
Huntington, F. D. The Fitness of Christianity to Man. Bohlen Lectures. 12mo, 

pp. 127. New York, 1878. 
Leifchild, John R. The Higher Ministry of Nature Yiewed in the Light of Modern 

Science, and as an Aid to Advanced Cliristian Philosophy. 8vo. London, 1872. 
Peabody, A. P. Christianity the ReUgion of Nature. 12mo, pp. 256. Boston, 1864. 

(Aims to show that Christianity has a foundation in the human constitution.) 
Reid, Rev. John. Yoices of the Soul Answered in God. 12mo, pp. 374. New York, 

1865. (A philosophy of Christianity.) 
Shuttleworth, Philip W. The Consistency of Revelation with Itself and with Human 

Reason, 18mo. New York, 1856. 
Smith, Henry B. Faith and Philosophy. Edited by George L. Prentiss. 8vo, pp. 496. 

New York. 1877. (The first essay is upon the reconciliation of philosophy with 

Christian faith.) 
Walker, James Barr. Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. With an Introduction 

by Calvin E. Stowe. 12mo. Chicago, 1874. 
Walker, James Barr. Doctrine of the Holy Spirit; or, Philosophy of the Divine 

Operations in the Redemption of Man. 12mo. Chicago, 1873. 



100 ge:nekal theological encyclopedia. 

SECTION X. 

THE PREVAILING TENDENCIES OF THEOLOGICAL THOUGHT. 

The estimate to be formed of the various theological tendencies 
and the choice of a position with regard to them, are naturally con- 
nected with the determination of the relation of philosophy to the- 
ology, though not dependent on it alone. A characterization of 
these tendencies becomes necessary at this point, because their in- 
fluence makes itself felt throughout the entire science; but this is 
by no means designed to lead to a definite conclusion, which is 
rather to be attained through the medium of theological study 
itself. 

The history of the subject enables us to recognize in the early 
^^ , . ,, Clmrch two tendencies which came into frequent con- 

Theological ten- rj \ mi 

dencies in the flict With each Other (comp. § 3). ihe one was more 
early Church, particularly inclined to hold fast to the legal, literal, 
traditional; the other, more independent, tended to pass beyond 
these limits. A Petrine and a Pauline tendency were manifest even 
among the primitive Christians. The earliest heresies took the 
form of Ebionitism on the one hand, and of Gnosticism on the 
other; but transitions from the one to the other (Clementines), or 
modifications of them (Montanism as a modification of Ebionitism?), 
took place even at this stage. The same contrast was repeated 
within the pale of the catholic orthodox Church, J ustin, Irenaeus, 
and Tertullian being on the one side, and Clement and Origen on 
the other. The succeeding controversies in the Church likewise 
presented the two opposing tendencies, though yet undeveloped 
and unconscious, in contrast with each other, until in a later day 
they assumed the forms of rationalism and supernaturalism. The 
strict Arians (Eunomius), for instance, insisted that Divine things 
could be comprehended, while the great defenders of orthodoxy in 
that age sought to guard their incomprehensible and mysterious 
character by the development of awe-inspiring formulas. In like 
manner, Kestorius, and with him the school of Antioch, represented 
a sober, intelligently discriminating tendency, pervaded by the 
breath of a mild piety, while Cyril of Alexandria and his party 
comprehended religious ideas in compact forms of expression cal- 
culated to challenge contradiction on the part of reason, e. g., God 
has died, and similar expressions. The same contrast appears in 
the practical field, where Pelagius gave the first place to human 
liberty, while Augustine assigned the first place to the grace of God. 
In the domain of ethics, the former is an atomist, and the latter 



THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE REFORMATION. 101 

a dynamist. Farther on, in the Middle Ages, the sacramental con- 
troversy shows an inclination on the part of some (Ra- Theological 
tramnus, Berenojarius) toward intelligent reflection, pendencies in 

^ . ° the Middle 

while others (Paschasius Radbertus, Lanfranc) hold fast Ages. 
the transcendental and incomprehensible even in outward things, and 
endeavor to embody it to the senses. John Scotus Erigena, a phe- 
nomenal character, but isolated and unappreciated, combined in 
himself both rationalistic and mystical elements. Among scho- 
lastics, Abelard, Gilbert of Poitiers, and Roscelin, although not 
absolute rationalists, yet belong to the class of rational theologians, 
while Anselm emphasizes faith, at the same time, however, striving 
to apprehend it by the reason. Bernard of Clairvaux supported 
strictly the positive doctrines of the Church by the weight of his 
personal influence. The mystics sought to intensify and give depth 
to the doctrines of the Church, but in their hands the positive was 
often transformed into the ideal, and history, as in the case of 
Origen, became a symbol and an allegory. They were thus uncon- 
sciously borne in the direction of rationalism. It is worthy of note 
that in the last period of scholasticism the prevalent nominalism 
introduced a sceptical spirit, which was counterbalanced by a pure- 
ly external supernaturalism, based, however, on authority. The 
relation between faith and knowledge thus became unnatural, the 
renunciation of scientific apprehension on the part of faith resulting 
in blind credulity, while irreverent thought and speculation degen- 
erated into frivolous unbelief. 

The Reformation cannot be regarded as exclusively the precursor 
of rationalism or the founder of supernaturalism. Least of all was 
it the precursor of rationalism in its broad manifesta- rnjeoiogicai 
tion and its immediate results. Luther was decidedly spirit of the 
opposed to all subtleties (comp. § V). Erasmus mani- 
fested far more rationalistic tendencies. Many have attempted to 
class Zwingle with the founders of rationalism, but certainly with- 
out cause, if the language is employed in the absolute or even the 
popular sense. It cannot be denied, however, that Zwingle, who 
combined soberness of judgment, ^\ith all his impulsive energy, and 
sympathized with the classical humanism of the Erasmian school, 
stands, at first sight, more nearly related to rationalism, than the 
realistic and positive Calvin, with his leaning toward strict super- 
naturalism; but the latter was, at the same time, by no means in- 
ferior to his opponents in the critical spirit, nor even averse to the 
employment of such weapons as rationalism subsequently used in 
its conflict with the orthodoxy of the Church (comp. his dispute 
on the Lord's Supper with Westphal). The rationalistic principle 



102 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

was clearly manifested, on the other hand, by the antitrinitariana 
and their open and concealed friends, and it finally became settled, 
although as yet not fully developed, and combined with a formal 
supernaturalism, in Socinianism. Seb. Franck, Schwenkfeld, and 
Theobald Thamer, the latter especially, combined rationalistic ele- 
ments with their mystical and theosophic tendencies. 

In the Reformed Church Arminianism broke through the limits 
Theological of strict Orthodoxy in the seventeenth century; and the 

tendencies of influence of English Deism soon after the beginning of 

the 17th cen- ® i . 

tury. the eighteenth, led Christian apologists to grant many 

concessions to the spirit of the age. A system of natural (rational) 
theology took root beside the revealed (positive, Scripturally eccle- 
siastical), while the demonstrative method (beginning with Wolf, 
comp. § 7). drew the meshes of rationalistic categories through the 
substance of orthodoxy. Pietism, which had formerly been at odds 
with orthodoxy, now entered into a league with it for the defence 
of Biblical supernaturalism, which was being shattered by the at- 
Theoiogyinthe tacks of Criticism (Lessing, Semler). This continued 
18th century, ^ntil the appearance of Kant, who unravelled all that 
had hitherto been woven, discharged the pure reason from all par- 
ticipation in theology while assigning to the practical reason the in- 
herited doctrines of God and immortality, and assigned to morality 
the categorical imperative as its basis. The more definite use of 
the terms rationalism and supernaturalism dates form that period 
(more particularly from the issue of the work, Die Religion inner- 
halb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft, 1793). Kant makes a 
sharp distinction between rationalism and naturalism, which should 
always be observed.^ German rationalism, as it was developed 
through the tendencies of that age, though not through 
modern ration- the direct influence of Kant, is, in its formal character, 
^' distinguished from supernaturalism chiefly in that it 

considers as identical with the demands of reason, what the latter 
conceives to be a supernatural revelation, and in that it consequent- 
ly endeavors to explain away by tricks of interpretation all that is 

' A distinction similar to that between radicalism and liberalism in the field of 
politics, although they often pass into each other. Comp. Kant, Rel. innerhalb d. 
4 Grenz. d. bloss. Vernunft, p. 216 sq. The designation "rationalist" is, however, of 
earlier date. The terms Rationistse and Ratiocinistae were employed as early as the 
beginning of the seventeenth century, during a controversy at Helmstedt between the 
orthodox and the humanists (comp. Henke, Georg Calixt, p. 248). A sect whose ad- 
herents denominated themselves "rationalists," existed in England in 1646; and 
Sucro, during a disputation in A. D. 1706, classed " Rationalistae, Naturalistae, Liber- 
tini, Sceptici, quin imo Athei " together. Comp. Lechler, Gesch. des englischen Deis* 
mus, p. 61, and Tholuck, Verm. Schriften, ii, p. 26. 



INFLUENCE OF HERDER AND SCHLEIERMACHER. 103 

supernatural in the Scriptures, or else seeks to obviate its force as be- 
ing merely the opinion of the time and people in question. It holds 
fast chiefly to the ethics of Christianity. This formal difference nat- 
urally implies the material, with reference to the specifically Christian 
doctrines of the person of Christ, the Trinity, original sin, the merits 
of Christ, redemption, eschatology, etc. Frequent approximations of 
the two systems to each other became apparent, however. Approaches of 
at an early day. Biblical supernaturalism departed in gu^^erMtuT m"^ 
many respects from the ancient orthodox doctrine of to each other. 
the Church, and often agreed with Socinianism in simply retaining 
the merely formal idea of a revelation, so that the controversy turned 
not so much upon the contents of doctrine as upon the way by which 
it had been reached. Rationalism, on the other hand, sought to 
demonstrate its agreement with the Bible in essential points, and 
established itself as Biblical rationalism, in opposition to doctrines 
of the Church as developed beyond the Scriptures, as well as to the 
more recent speculations. Mutual concessions led to a rational 
supernaturalism and a supernatural rationalism. Meanwhile, the 
active intellect of theologians like Herder, had already j^^^ direction 
solved the contradiction in the last century, by regarding given to theoi- 
Revelation, not as an abstractly imparted doctrine from and schieier- 
God to men, but as a Divine and human fact, to which macher. 
the Bible gives a living testimony, without attempting to place 
in the hands of the systematic theologian a finished corpus' doc- 
trince. Kleuker, too, insisted upon the recognition of the divine- 
ly given facts, while entertaining freer views respecting the inspir- 
ation of the Scriptures which had been identified with revelation 
itself.' 

But it was reserved for Schleiermacher, more than all others, 
to allay the conflict between rationalism and supernaturalism,^ 
by making the historical manifestation of Christ, and acknowl- 
edgment of him as the Saviour of the world, the criterion by 
which to judge. The contrast between sin and grace, which had 
received a superficial treatment at the hands even of many Biblical 
supernaturalists, was again apprehended in its profound significance, 

' Compare S. Ratjen, Johann Friedrich Kleuker und Briefe seiner Freunde, Gottin- 
gen, 1842. 

' " I, for my poor part," says Schleiermacher, " begin to feel uncomfortable as soon 
as I listen to the on-rush of the * ra-, irra-, and supra-,' because to my mind this ter- 
minology simply serves to increase the tangle of the confusion," (Zugabe zu Schreiben 
an Herrn Ammon, Berlin, 1818, p. 14). Concerning the influence of Schleiermacher 
on the development of modern theology, comp. K. Schwarz Gesch. d. neuesten Theol- 
ogie, p. 29 sqq., 1st ed 
8 



104 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

and the proper manifestation of God was seen to be his manifesta- 
tion in Christ for the redemption of the world. Subsequent specu- 
lation likewise rendered material aid to the introduction of a more 
spiritual conception of the idea of .revelation, and the whole of 
recent theology — to whose development, in addition to 
ti^eroT^he're- Schleiermacher, de Wette, Marheineke, Daub, Nitzsch, 
cent theology, ^westen, Hase, Ullmann, Jul. Muller, Dorner, Al. 
Schweizer, Schenkel, Liebner, Martensen, Rothe, and Lange con- 
tributed, though occupying very different points of view— must be 
considered as having passed beyond the ancient controversy be- 
tween rationalism and supernaturalism. It does not follow, how- 
ever, that the antagonism has been removed, but merely that it has 
entered on a new stage. For, 

1. The more modern tendency, generally speculatively mediat- 

. . .. inff, is suspected by both the older rationalistic and the 
The old stnfe =" ^ -^ , „ . . 

in its newer older supernaturalist schools of imposing a new sense 

forms. ^^ ^-^^ ancient teachings of the Church, and of using 

words to conceal dishonest practices. At this point everything 
depends upon a correct apprehension of the relation of the undevel- 
oped to the developed, the immediate contents of the Scriptures to 
what has been historically and intellectually inferred, as also upon 
a proper distinction between the religious element and the ever- 
changing forms of scientific expression. 

2. It cannot be denied that the pantheistic spirit has often 
donned the garb of superior orthodoxy in an insulting compar- 
ison of itself with rationalism, although the latter honestly de- 
nied what it believed itself compelled to deny, while, at the same 
time, it decisively retained a belief in God and immortality ac- 
cording to the theistic view.* The reproaches of pantheism do 
not apply in every case, however; and, for itself, rationalism has 
often found it difficult while opposing pantheism, to deny the charge 
of sheer deism and naturalism. The vulgar rationalism, having 
fallen behind in the march of progress, is, with all its understand- 
ing and practical thoroughness, deficient in intellectual mobility 
when engaged upon details, and is deficient also in a profound ap- 

* "It should be credited to the memory of rationalism, that it did not reject the 
idea of personality, nor teach an impersonal God, an impersonal Christ, an impersonal 
human soul, i. e., one incapable of existing after death. In its more noble representa- 
tives, at least, the disciples and successors of Kant, it displays the praiseworthy am- 
bition to secure dogmatic recognition for an absolutely perfect, personal God, who 
governs the world in the interests of moral ends, an ethically perfect Christ, who is 
educating the world for moral purposes, and a human personal soul, which is capable 
of endless moral perfection, and is being trained on earth by Christianity for the here- 
after." Schenkel, Idee der Personlichkeit, p. 6. 



THE POSITION OF PIETISM. 105 

prehension of the nature of religion and Christianity, while, despite 

its praiseworthy morality, it also lacks the devout disposition in 

which all religious inspiration has its rise. This applies also, though 

in a different manner, to the older Biblical supernaturalism, which 

rests upon a more solid foundation, indeed, but without deriving an 

adequate benefit from this advantage. 

In the current conflict modern pietism has taken the place of the 

older supernaturalism. The earlier pietism ' contrasted 

VT, J.V. ^1, J J' -^ .' ' \ . The position of 

With the orthodoxy of its time, m that it represented pietism in the 

the independent, active principle in the Church, and ^^"^^«*- 
the interests of practical Christianity (Spener, Francke). It as- 
sumed a weaker position after the days of the Wolfian philosophy, 
and often assailed science at improper points (the pietistic opposi- 
tion at Halle against Wolf). Pietism joins the older supernatural- 
ism in holding strongly to the Scriptures; but what was a dead 
form with the latter, has become a living body with the former. It 
regards the Bible as the word of life, and like the later theology, 
it attaches great importance to the contrast between sin and grace, 
with the difference that it rejects the speculative element and con- 
fines itself wholly to the practical. It is only too prone, however, 
to commit the error of confounding dogmatic Christianity with 
practical, in its zealous defense of the letter, or to be led astray, 
while striving to be piously intelligent, into insipidity and arbitrari- 
ness. To this must be added a fondness for dabbling with philos- 
ophy and natural science without honestly examining their claims, 
or, in case it renounces every pretence to scientific character, a dis- 
position to vaunt itself in pious phraseology, which naturally assumes 
the appearance of cant. 

^ The name, as is well knowTi, came into current use in the time of Spener and 
Francke. At that time the pietists (as liberals) stood opposed to the strictly orthodox. 
Their buoyant and pious spiritual life soon, however, gave way to ascetic formalism. 
This was pietism on its practical side (affected piety) ; our concern is with dogmatic 
pietism. The latter clings emphatically to the fundamental doctrines of Protestant- 
ism, both the formal, as involved in the principle of the authority of the Scriptures, 
and the material, of sin and justification, in which connexion it strongly emphasizes 
the natural corruption of man and his moral inability Avhen not aided by grace (comp. 
von Colin and Bretschneider in the passages cited below). In these respects it can- 
not be justly charged with sectarianism ; it has, on the contrary, alwaj'S appealed to 
its orthodoxy, when brought into comparison with rationalism. But its devotion to 
the letter is not yet a proof of the Protestant spirit; and the words will apply here, 
"Duo cum faciunt idem, non est idem," and, "C'est le ton, qui fait la musique." 
Luther's energetic nature certainly wrought out the doctrine internally Avith different 
results, and gave to it a different outward bearing, from what a sickly languishing 
pietism is able to furnish. The entire life-conception of the Reformation was sound- 
ly pious, but far from being morbidly pietistic. 



106 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

Mysticism/ which has been improperly confounded with pietism, 
presents a more attractive appearance. It is more an- 
dency In theoi- cient than pietism, being as old as the Church, and 
^^^* even older. It is really religion itself in the exact 

sense, as the latter appears when restricted to its immediate self 
and not aided by intelligent knowledge, or when, guided by the im- 
agination, it wanders off into the labyrinths of theosophy, while in 
the practical field it either gives way to the contemplative inactivity 
of quietism or manifests itself as enthusiasm. Mysticism is super- 
naturalism, inasmuch as it rests on the assumption of an immediate 
enlightening influence from above and of an actual communion of 
the Divine with the human; it can never, therefore, come to terms 
with the vulgar rationalism.' But it differs from the formal Bibli- 
cal supernaturalism in not limiting revelation entirely to the writ- 
ten word, listening rather to the internal word, and evincing a strong 
inclination to convert the positive features into allegory, and the 
historical facts into ideal vagaries. It has this tendency in com- 
mon with the idealistic rationalism, as may be seen, e. g,, in Swe- 
denborg. 

Another new form of supernaturalism is the ecclesiastical posi- 
Ecciesiasticai tivism and confessionalism, which again asserts itself 
confessionaiism. ^j^h power. This tendency, not content with Bibli- 
cal orthodoxy, lays stress upon assent to the teachings of symbol- 
ical books as the necessary criterion of a correct belief, and aims 

* The derivation is from fiva, fivarTjg, fxvcjT^piov, fivariKoc. The examination of 
what is mysterious involves neither praise nor blame, aside from other considerations. 
Inasmuch as religion is itself the mystery of godliness, it will involve a mystical char- 
acter to the apprehension of the average human understanding ; and it was not, there- 
fore, wholly an error, to distinguish between a true and a false mysticism, as some 
have done. The corruption of mysticism has been designated by many as fanaticism 
(from f3.num, f anaticus) ; but there are fanatics of every kind, even rationalistic ones. 
The characteristic traits, of a fanatic are a cold heart and a hot head. Enthusiasm is 
sometimes substituted for this term; but common usage attaches a more innocent 
idea to that word. The enthusiast is capable of martyrdom in the d'efense of his 
principles ; the fanatic erects the stake. (Bretschneider describes fanaticism as the 
paroxysm of enthusiasm). Nitzsch remarks, in entire correspondence with our view, 
that " f anaticiism is, in its inner nature, unqualifiedly cold ; every fanatic is, in his in- 
most being, a cold nature; whatever heat he has is superficial; a passionate bearing 
within the limits of the external and the empirical, is cultivated as a compensation 
for his coldness and indifference.'* Akadem. Vortrage liber Christl. Glaubenslehre, 
p. 28. 

^ "In the meantime," says Hase (Theol. Streitschriften, No. 3, page 90), "it would 
not harm rationalism, if it were to receive into itself as much of mystical unction as 
it could contain without injury to its sound common sense ; and mysticism likewise 
»\rould not necessarily suffer the loss of its vessel of grace, were it to receive on board 
a measure of good sense, as ballast, if not as a compass." 



COURSE OF THEOLOGY IN ENGLAND. 107 

in Germany to destroy the existing union between Protestant 
denominations. 

England in the latter part of the seventeenth century was pro- 
foundly stirred by the Trinitarian controversy, which began with 
the publication of tracts on the Unitarian side, by Thomas Firmin, 
a wealthy London merchant. Dr. John Wallis defended the Atha- 
nasian Creed, in his Letters on the Trinity (1690). In the same year 
Dean Sherlock contributed A Vindication of the Doctrine of the 
Holy and Ever-blessed Trinity, in which he approached tritheism, 
and was answered by Dr. South (1693) and Dr. Wallis. Bishop 
Bull's Defensio Fidei Niceanae (1685), collected the testimonies 
of the Fathers to the pre-existence of Christ and his divinity. In 
1694 appeared his Judgment of the Catholic Church, in which he 
justified the anathema of the Nicene Creed. In Primitive Chris- 
tianity Revived (1711), and the Council of Nice Vindicated from 
the Athanasian Heresy (1713), Professor Whiston, of Cambridge, 
set forth semi-Arianism. Whitby's Disquisitions criticised Bishop 
Bull's argument from the ante-Nicene Fathers. Dr. Samuel Clarke 
followed in the same line of argument, although he refused to be 
called an Arian. These works elicited Waterland's Vindication of 
Christ's Divinity ; Defence of the Divinity of Christ ; Critical His- 
tory of the Athanasian Creed, etc. (1719-1724). After this contro- 
versy had run its course the attention of English theologians was 
directed to the Deistic controversy, already noticed (pp. 76, 77). 

A marked change in the tendencies of theological opinion in 
England may be dated from the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. The Wesleyan revival led to a concentration of rpj^goio-ig^i 
thought upon the atonement, justification by faith, tendencies in 
and the work of the Holy Spirit in the heart of ^^^^^°<*- 
man. The effects of the revival were felt throughout the Eng- 
lish Church in the rise of the evangelical party, and beyond 
the Church in the general diffusion of Wesleyan theological 
ideas. At the same time the attack upon the internal contents of 
Christianity passed on to its external evidences and called forth 
a corresponding apologetic literature. In this literature Lardncr 
(1684-1768), Leland (1691-1766), Paley (1743-1805), and Lyttleton 
(1709-1773), became conspicuous. Towards the close of the cen- 
tury English Deism became infected with the French spirit, of 
which Gibbon, the historian, and Thomas Paine are striking exam- 
ples. The evangelical movement having relaxed church principles 
and prepared the way for political liberalism, awakened a counter 
movement, which announced itself in 1833 in the issue of the first 
" Tract for the Times." From this series, which was finished in 



108 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

1840, the movement has taken the name of Tractarian. It maintains 
the regenerative efficacy of the sacraments, and the absolute au- 
thority of the Church over the individual. At the same time the 
penetration of the English mind by German culture has produced 
a rationalism which has run parallel with that of Germany. Liter- 
ary Rationalism has found a brilliant representative in Thomas 
Carlyle, who, while urging his countrymen to give heed to the 
moral order of the universe, seems to deny the possibility of at- 
taining to distinct theological conceptions. The disciples of Cole- 
ridge have endeavored to adjust modern philosophical thought 
and the creed of the Church of England to each other, and have 
.produced a Broad Church party. The critical rationalistic spirit in 
the State Church is represented in the " Essays and Reviews," and 
the attacks of Bishop Colenso on the Credibility of the Pentateuch 
and the Book of Joshua. Two of the theological tendencies of the 
age are well typified by the lives of the brothers, John Henry and 
Francis William l^ewman, one of whom passed from the evan- 
gelical school, through Tractarianism to Rome, and the other, from 
the same starting-point, through Unitarianism to a religious idealism 
which denies all historic Christianity. During the past few years a 
call has been made among the Non-conformists of England and 
Scotland for a revision of Church standards. 

In the United States the Wesleyan revival spread more widely 
than in England, and created a theological tendency corresponding 
with its distinctive religious ideas. The Unitarian movement, 
which dates from the time of Stoddard's proposal of a "half-way 
covenant," obtained fresh importance under the leadership of Will- 
iam Ellery Channing (1780-1842). Since the time of Channing it 
has shown both a conservative and a radical tendency, the radical- 
ism going to the length of wholly destructive criticism (Theodore 
Parker and O. B. Frothingham). The Tractarian movement has 
also been repeated in the United States, but without the vigor 
which has marked its progress in England. The Churches of the 
Reformed faith, under the leadership of the American Presbyte- 
rians, have formed an alliance, which has secured a collation of all 
the Reformed creeds. 

As one extreme, however, always calls forth the other, rational- 
The modern ^^m, which was supposed to have been forever buried, 
rationalism. j^ag again arisen, but in a different form, and, in conse- 
quence, assumes the designation "modern." It is remarkable that 
the same philosophical school to which the defenders of modern 
supernaturalism belong, originated the speculative rationalism, which 
agrees with its older brother in denying the supernatural and the 



THE STUDENT'S RELATION TO DOUBT. 109 

miraculous, but in other respects is materially different, inasmuch 
as it denies with emphasis the very doctrines which the earlier ra- 
tionalism energetically maintained, viz., the doctrines of a personal 
God and a personal immortality, to which it adds incessant effort 
to undermine the historical basis of Christianity. Although this 
rationalism considers spirit a reality only as it attains to conscious- 
ness in man, it has yet often been confounded — by both friend and 
foe, and not always without its own fault — with the other tendency 
which ends with wholly denying the existence of spirit, and passes 
over into bald materialism and nihilism, theories which manifestly 
constitute the negation of all theology. 

SECTION XI. 

RELATION OF THE STUDENT TO THESE TENDENCIES. 

The pupil will find no scientific charm, by the use of which he 
may avoid these opposing influences, and escape the mental conflict 
they naturally excite. On the other hand, let none who are con- 
scious of being governed by upright intentions in the sight of God, 
permit mere theoretical doubts to frighten them from the study of 
theology. A pious disposition will be strengthened by ,j.jjg jj^^ j^ 
the continued study of the Holy Scriptures as con- which these 
nected with the Church and its history, by acquaint- dencies should 
ance with the great heroes who stood for the truth, ^enaet. 
and who, in the midst of the most diverse complications, strove 
to secure the one thing needful, by sincere prayer to God. Love, 
which knows how to bear with divergent tendencies and how to ap- 
propriate to itself all that is good in any form, will increase with 
the growth of faith, and faith will hold fast the truth which has 
been secured; and wherever a living faith and love are found, hope 
in the full triumph of the truth will not be wanting. 

Many approach theology with false expectations; either they 
have retained an unthinking faith, or they are affected by doubts 
conceived in the course of their preliminary studies. The former 
are easily disturbed in this study, when its critical processes threat- 
en to destroy what they have hitherto cherished with devoted love. 
The latter become impatient when knotty doubts become still more 
involved, instead of giving way. Shall hard questions be concealed 
from sight, and the untenable be represented as admitting of de- 
fense? Shame on the science which would lend its aid ^^^^ method 
to the attempt! Others advise, on the contrary, that of dealing with 
persons who cannot keep from doubting should leave 
the study of theology untouched. They urge that believing theo- 
logians are needed, particularly in this age. The latter is certain 



110 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

ly true ; but we prefer a faith that has been tested m the conflict, 
to the dullness of spirit which is often confounded with a believing 
disposition. Accordingly, eminent theologians, possessing the most 
loyal faith, have always valued courage in youthful aspirants. So 
Bengel,^ who expresses the idea that "all doctrinal ten- 
great theoiogi- ets must needs pass through a conflict, and their truth 
*°^' be won afresh." Harms, the man of robust faith, re- 

marked while standing by the grave of a rationalistic student, " He 
who doubts religiously, has the true religion." ^ Neander is said to 
have expressed an analogous sentiment, with reference to a young 
theologian who died before the age of youthful doubts had passed, 
to the effect that he died in his calling, and that to die thus is to 
die well. But let the questioning be in a religious spirit, and with 
a holy determination of heart which consents to part with every 
thing for the sake of securing a single pearl of truth. 

An earnestly religious character, even if it exists only in its most 
SouMtbe(*^- g^'^^i'^l form, will assuredly become more positively 
leal ^«dy wiu Christian under the influence of a sound course of the- 
ological study. A vivid apprehension of Christ, even 
in his human nature alone, w^ill, if joined with enthusiasm for the 
ideal, erelong beget in the heart faith in his Divine character, al- 
though the intellect may yet be struggling to find a satisfactory 
expression of its views. Such idealism ^ is at all events, better than 
the dry prosaic disposition of a mind wholly given up to the influ- 
ence of ordinary outward realities, which, precisely because of un- 
belief, demands that every thing shall be signed and sealed and 
trebly hypothecated, and which prefers to confine its attention to 
what lies on the surface, to the end that its sleep may be undis- 

* See Leben Bengel's, by Burk, p. 1'7, and comp. the Gottingen Memorial, TJeber die 
gegenwartige Krisis des kirchlichen Lebens (Gott., 1854), p. 18: "As in the field of 
morals importance attaches not simply to what is done, but even more to the reasons, 
purposes, and motives of our action ; so in the religious field the grea* question is in 
no wise chiefly, who believes, but more especially liow and why he believes;" and 
page 20 : " Inasmuch as the spiritual office, however important its relation to the or- 
ganism of the Church may be, does not ask to be considered a talisman before whose 
very appearance the diseases of our age must fly, it follows, that theological faculties 
will be required still further to impress upon the future servants of the Church, en- 
trusted to theu" guidance and care, to the utmost of their ability, the necessity for in- 
ward religious and moral culture rather than the mere memorizing of the tenets of the 
creed, in order that they may not merely attain to a correct belief, but also come to 
hold it in a correct manner, and that thus a clergy firmly established in the faith of 
our Church be perpetuated among us." 

'•See Rheinwald's Repertorium, xxx, p. 54. 

* Comp. Kahler, Christl. Sittenlehre, p. 23, where genuine ideality is emphasized, as 
against a mere giddiness of ideas. 



THE LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. Ill 

turbed. Let, therefore, the picture of a living Christ, adapted to 
compel the attention of every human soul struggling after God, be 
made the central feature of the theological school. It will then be- 
come speedily apparent that " to love Jesus is the true supernatural- 
ism, to comprehend Jesus the true rationalism, and to illustrate 
Jesus in personal character the true mysticism ; and that these three 
constitute true Christianity." ' 

Let the student remember, too, that the question of rationalism 
is largely a question of method. He who has, through a Christian 
experience, attained a clear Christian consciousness is fixed upon a 
rock from which he cannot easily be moved. Anselm has taught 
us that we must believe in order to understand, and has also reminded 
us that we are negligent if, " after we are established in the faith, 
we do not seek to understand what we believe." ^ We may be ra- 
tional and yet not rationalistic ; inquiring and yet thoroughly believ- 
ing ; philosophical and yet not unchristian. In the spirit of Anselm 
Coleridge has pointed out that " in order to an efficient belief in 
Christianity a man must have been a Christian ; that this is the 
seeming argur)ientur)i in circulo incident to all spiritual truths, to 
every subject not presentable under the forms of time and space, as 
long as we attempt to master by the reflex acts of the understanding 
what we can only know by the act of becoming." " Christ's words 
will furnish the student a sure clue through the tangled thicket of 
rationalism : " If any man will do his will, he shall know of the 
doctrine whether it be of God." 

Respecting the extent to which the theological school may con- 
tribute to the cultivation of a right disposition, comp. § 22. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
1. On the side of Rationalism. 

Arnold, Matthew. Literature and Dogma. An Essay toward a better appreciation 

of the Bible. 12mo. New York, 1874. 
Arnold, Matthew. God and the Bible. Review of Objections to Literature and 

'Dogma. 12mo. New York, 1875. 
Bellows, Henry "W. Restatements of Christian Doctrine. In Twenty-five Sermons. 

12mo, pp. 434. Boston, 1882. 
Channiug, W. E. "Works. 3 vols. Boston, 1874. 
Clarke, James Freeman. Orthodoxy: Its Truth and Errors. 12mo, pp. xi, 512. 

Boston, 1866. 
Clarke, James Freeman. Common Sense in Religion. A Series of Essays. 12 mo. 

Boston, 1880. 
Clarke, James Freeman. Essentials and Non-Essentials in Religion. Boston, 1878. 

' Kahler, tn/ra, p. 334. "^ Cur Deus Homo ? book i, chap, ii. 

* Biographia Literaria, chap, xxiv, p. 349. 



112 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Coleuso, John William. The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, Critically Examined. 
12mo, pp. 229. New York, 1863. (For answers to Colenso, see (2.) and also 
Hurst's History of Rationalism, pp. 599, 602.) 

Dewey, Orville. Discourses in Defence of Unitarianism. Works. 3 vols. New 
York, 1876. 

Dewey, Orville. Why I am a Unitarian. In Pitts St. Chapel Lectures. 12mo, pp. 
366. Boston, 1858. 

Eliot, Wm. G. Doctrines of Christianity. 12mo, pp. 168. Boston, 1882. 

Farley, Frederick A. Unitarianism Defined. The Scripture Doctrine of the Father, 
Son, and Holy Ghost. 12mo, pp. 272. Boston, 1882. 

Froude, John Anthony. Short Studies on Great Subjects. 12mo, pp. 534. New 
York, 1868. (Takes the rationalistic view of the authenticity of the gospels.) 

Furness, W. H. Jesus and his Biographers. Boston, 1838. 

Greg, W. R. Enigmas of Life. 12mo, pp. xix, 332. Boston, 1873. 

Greg, W. R. The Creed of Christendom. Its Foundation Contrasted with its Super- 
structure. 8vo. London, 1851. 2 vols., 8vo. Boston. 

Hedge, Frederick Henry. Reason in Religion. 12mo, pp. 458. Boston, 1865. 

Hedge, Frederick Henry, and Associates. Unitarian Affirmations: Seven Discourses 
given in Washington, by Unitarian Ministers, 12mo, pp. 175. Boston, 1879. 

Lamson, Alvan. The Church of the First Three Centuries ; or. Notices of the Lives 
and Opinions of some of the Early Fathers, with special reference to the Doc- 
trine of the Triuity. 8vo, pp. 352. Boston, 1860. 

Martineau, James. Rationale of Religious Inquiry. 12mo. Loudon, 1839. And 
8vo. 1845. 

Martineau, James. Lectures : Part of a Series in Answer to Lectures against Unitari- 
anism by Thirteen Clergymen of the Church of England. 8vo. London. 

Metcalf, Richard. Letter and Spirit. Winchester Lectures. 16mo, pp. 198. Bos- 
ton, 1882. 

Miller, John. Questions Awakened by the Bible. I. Are Souls Immortal ? 11. Was 
Christ in Adam? IIL Is God a Trinity ? Philadelphia, 1877. 

Newman, Francis Wm. Phases of Faith; or, Passages from the History of my 
Creed. 12mo, pp. 234. London, 1850. 

Newman, Francis Wm. The Soul: Her Sorrows and Aspirations. An Essay 
towards the Natural History of the Soul, as the Basis of Theology. 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1849, 1852. 

Norton, Prof. Andrews. Statement of Reasons for Not Believing the Doctrines of 
Trinitarians concerning the Nature of God and the Person of Christ. 12mo, 
pp. 550. Boston, 1882. 

Parker, Theodore. Discourses of Matters pertaining to Religion. 12mo. Boston, 
1853. 

Parker, Theodore. Sermons on Theism, Atheism, and Popular Theology. 12mo. 
Boston, 1853. 

Parker, Theodore. Speeches, Addresses, and Occasional Sermons. 3 vols., 12mo. 
Boston, 

Powell, Baden. The Order of Nature Considered in Reference to the Claims of Rev- 
elation. 8vo. London, 1860, 

Smith, G. Vance. The Bible and Popular Theology. A Restatement of Truths and 
Principles, with special reference to recent works of Dr. Liddon, Lord Hatherly, 
the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, and others. 12mo, pp. 340. Boston, 1882. 

Strauss, David Friedrich. The Old Faith and the New Faith. A Confession. From 
the German. 12mo. New York, 1874. 



THE LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 113 

Tempfe, Frederick, and Associates. Recent Inquiries in Theology: being Essays 

and Reviews. Second American edition, with Introduction by F. H. Hedge. 

12mo, pp. xiv, 498. Boston, 1861. 
Ware, Henry. Letters to Unitarians and Calvinists. 12rao. Cambridge, 1820. 
Wilson, John. Unitarian Principles Confirmed by Trinitarian Testimonies. 12mo, 

pp. 520. Boston, 1882. 
Worcester, Noah. Bible News; or. Sacred Truths relating to the Living God, His 

Only Son and Holy Spirit. 12mo. Concord, 1810, 1812, and 1825. 

2. Against Rationalism. 

Auberlen, Carl August. The Divine Revelation. An Essay in Defence of the Faith. 
From the German. 8vo, pp. 441. Edinburgh, 1867. 

Bushnell, Horace. God in Christ. Three Discourses delivered at New Haven, Cam- 
bridge, and Andover. (Properly a mediating work; the second essay offers 
Sabellianism as a ground of union between Unitarianism and Trinitarianism.) 

Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural as Together Constituting the One 
System of God. 12mo, pp. 528. New York, 1864. 

Cairns, John. Romanism and Rationalism, as Opposed to Pure Christianity. 12mo. 
London, 1866. 

Dorchester, Daniel. Concessions of Liberalists to Orthodoxy. 16mo, pp. 343. 
Boston, 1878. 

Fisher, George P. Faith and Rationalism, with Short Supplementary Essays on 
Related Topics. 12mo, pp. 188. New York, 1879. 

Fisher, George P. The Supernatural Origin of Christianity, etc. 8vo, pp. 586. 
New York, 1866. 

Hare, Edward. The Principal Doctrines of Christianity Defended against the Errors 
of Socinianism. 12mo, pp. 396. New York, 1837. 

Maurice, F. D., and Associates. Tracts for Priests and People. By Various Writers. 
American edition. 12rao, pp. 372. Boston, 1862. (A Broad-School reply to 
Essays and Reviews.) 

Oxford, the Lord Bishop, Editor. Replies to Essays and Reviews, with a Preface by the 
Lord Bishop of Oxford. American edition. 12mo, pp. 443. New York, 1862. 

Parkinson, Richard. Rationalism and Revelation ; or, The Testimony of Moral Phi- 
losophy, the System of Nature, and tlie Constitution of Man to the Truth of the 
Doctrine of Scripture. Hulsean Lectures for 1837. 8vo, pp. 223. London, 1838. 

Scott, W. A. The Christ of tlie Apostles' Creed : the Yoice of the Church against 
Arianism, Strauss and Renan, with an Appendix. 12mo, pp. 432. New York, 
1867. 

Thompson, William, Editor. Aids to Faith. A Series of Theological Essays by sev- 
eral writers, being a Reply to Essays and Reviews. American edition. 12mo, 
pp. 538. New York, 1862. 

Ulrici, Herman, Strauss as a Philosophical Thinker. A Review of "the Old 
Faith and the New Faith." From the German. ]6mo, pp. 167. Philadel- 
phia, 1874. 

Woods, Leonard. Letters to Unitarians, occasioned by the Sermon of Rev. W. E. 
Channing, etc. 8vo. Andover, 1820, 1822. 

Worcester, Samuel. Letters to the Rev. W. E. Channing, on Unitarianism. 8vo. 
Boston, 1815. 
Although Strauss, in his life of Jesus, first demolishes tlie rationalistic interpreta- 
tion of the gospels in order to prepare the way for his mythical theory, he has yet 
8 



114 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP^DLA.. 

been the occasion of tlie writing of lives of Christ in which the supernatural view of 
the person and work of our Lord is maintained, and which are therefore directed 
against rationalism. Among these are : 

Alexander, "Wm. Lindsay. Christ and Christianity. A Yindication of the Ciiristian 
Religion, founded on the historical events of the life of Christ. 12mo, pp. 314. 
New York, 1854. 

Bayne, Peter. The Testimony of Christ to Christianity. 12mo, pp. 195. Boston, 1862. 

Neander, Augustus. The Life of Jesus Christ in its Historical Connexion and Histor- 
ical Development. From the German by John M'Clintock and Charles E. Blumen- 
thal. 8vo, pp. 450. New York, 1848. 

Pressense, E, D. Jesus Christ: His Times, Life, and Work. From the French. 
12mo, pp. 496. New York, 1868. (The first chapter discusses the objections to 
the supernatural in the gospels.) 

Schaff, Philip. The Person of Christ: The Miracle of History: with a reply to 
Strauss and Renan, and a collection of testimonies of Unbelievers. 16mo, pp. 
375. New York, 1876. 

Tulloch, John. The Christ of the Gospels and the Christ of Modern Criticism. 
16mo, pp. 266. Cincinnati, 1865. (See, for other titles, p. 282.) 

Some replies to CoUnso : 

Benisch, A. Bishop Colenso's Objections to the Pentateuch and Book of Joshua 
Critically Examined. London, 1863. 

Briggs, F. W. The Two Testimonies, Being a reply to Bishop Colenso's Penta- 
teuch and Book of Joshua. London, 1863. 

Fowler, C. H. Fallacies of Colenso Reviewed. Cincinnati, 1864. 

Green, Wm. Henry. The Pentateuch Vindicated from the Aspersions of Bishop 
Colenso. 12mo, pp. 195. New York, 1863. 

Mahan, M. Spiritual Point of View; or, The Glass Reversed, Answer to Bishop Co- 
lenso. New York, 1863. See also Hurst's History of Rationalism. Pp. 599, 602. 
See Barman's Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. Pp. 215-219. 

3. Mysticism,. 

Tulloch, John. Henry More. Christian Theosophy and Mysticism: Chap. V of 
Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England, in the Seventeenth 
Century, Vol. II, 8vo- London, 1872. (See also Poole's Index to Periodical 
Literature, p. 890, for review articles on several branches of the subject.) 

Vaughn, Robert Alfred. Hours with the Mystics. A Contribution to the History 
of Religious Opinion. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 372, 383. London. 

4, History of Rationalism. 

Abbey, Charles J., and Overton, John H. The English Church in the Eighteenth 
Century. 2 vols., 8vo, pp, 621, 551. London, 1878. (Chapter IV of the first 
volume of this work contains an excellent summary of the history of Englisli 
Deism. The source of Deism is stated to be the influence of the philosophy of 
the seventeenth century upon the religion of the eighteenth. An attempt is 
also mUde to define the term Deism itself, which has certainly been used in a 
loose sense. A very important part of tliis chapter is the account of the influ- 
ence of English Deism upon Germany, and of the manner in which Deism became, 
in Germany, Rationalism. Chapter VIII describes the rise and progress of the 
Anti- Trinitarian Controversy in England, from the seventeenth century to the 



THE LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 115 

close of the eighteenth. The two controversies — the Deistic and the Unita- 
rian — are carefully discriminated; and the reader is reminded that Unita- 
rianism did not make itself felt as a force till " Deism proper was well-nigh 
extinct.") 

Allen, Josepli Henry, Our Liberal Movement in Theology, clwefly as shown in Kec- 
oUections of the History of Unitarianism in New England, being a closing 
course of Lectures given in the Harvard Divinity School. 8vo, pp. 220. Bos- 
ton, 1882. (Unitarianism is defined as "rationalism within the sphere of gen- 
eral Christian tradition.") 

Cairns, John. Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century as Contrasted with its Earlier and 
Later History. (Lect. Y treats of Rationalism in Germany.) 12mo, pp. 216. 
New York, 1881. 

Ellis, George E. A Half-Century of the Unitarian Controversy, with Particular Refer- 
ence to its Origin, etc. 8vo, pp. 536. Boston, 1857. 

Farrar, Adam Storey. A Critical History of Free Thought in Reference to the 
Christian Religion. Bampton Lectures for 1862. 12rao, pp. 487. New York, 
1863. (This valuable work is still serviceable to the student. Lect. I examines 
the causes of the conflict of free thought with Christianity. The four crises of 
the Christian faith are stated to be its struggles (1) with heathen philosophy, 
(2) with scholastic scepticism, (3) with literature at the Renaissance, (4) with 
modern philosophy. Lect. II discusses the opposition of heathenism against 
Christianity in the Early Ages. Lect. Ill, Free Thought in the Middle Ages, 
and at the Renaissance. Lect. lY, Deism in England prior to 1760 A. D. 
Lect. Y, Infidelity in France in the Eighteenth Century, and Unbelief in England 
after the year 1760. Lect. YI, Free Thought in the Tlieology of Germany, from 
1750 to 1835. Lect. YII, Free Thought in Germany subsequently to 1835, and 
in France during the present century. Lect. YIII, Free Thought in England in 
the present century. The final lesson drawn by the author from the history is 
that " in all ages of peril earnest men have found the truth by the method of 
study united to prayer.") 

Hagenbach, K. R. German Rationalism. Its Rise, Progress, and Decline. From 
the German. 8vo, pp. 405. Edinburgh, 1865. 

Hunt, John. Religious Thought in England, from, the Reformation to the End of the 
Last Century. A Contribution tothe History of Theology. 3 vols., 8vo, pp. 471, 
468, 445. London, 1870. (The author of this work says of himself : " My wish 
has been to write a history of theolc^y on the rigid principles of natural sci- 
ence ; to feel as if I were of no party, no country, no creed." Although the 
point of view is that of orthodoxy, the topics are treated in a wholly objective 
way. In Yolumes II and III the Trinitarian Controversy (which the author 
dates from 1660) and the Deistical Controversy of the Eighteenth Century are 
very fully exhibited. The author's conclusion from the entire history is that 
"from the struggles of all these parties — for each has had its martyrs and suf- 
ferers — we have obtained religious freedom, learned mutual toleration, and by 
the price that others have paid we sit under our own vine and our own fig- 
tree.") 

Hurst, John F. History of Rationalism. Embracing the Present State of Protestant 
Theology. 8vo, pp. 643. New York, 1865. 

Lecky, "W. E. H. History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in 
Europe. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 405, 386. New York, 1873. (Lecky's thesis is that 
the development of modern civilization is due to the influence of Rationalism. 
Among the triumphs of Rationalism are, the destruction of the belief in witch- 



116 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

craft, the suppression of religious persecution, the doubt of the Church's doc- 
trine of future punishment, the abolition of the belief in the guilt of error, etc. 
He, however, admits that Rationalism has destroyed, or is destroying, the spirit 
of self-sacrifice, which is the chief trait of the earnest Christian ages. In 
saying this Lecky virtually gives up his case; for it is the spirit of self- 
sacrifice which has created modern as distinguished from ancient civilization. 
The book is full of half-trutiis, but contains much material of value to the his- 
torical student.) 

Leland, John. A View of the Principal Deistical Writers that have appeared in 
England in the Last and Present Century. 8vo. London, 1836. 

Lichtenberger, F. History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century. Trans- 
lated and edited by W. Hastie. Svo, pp. xxxix, 629. New York, 1889. 
(Clearly written. Nearly a fifth of the work is given to Schleiermacher.) 

Mackay, R. W. The Tiibingen School and its Antecedents. A Review of the His- 
tory and Present Condition of Modern Theology. Svo, pp. xv, 390. London, 
1863. On the Tiibingen side of tlie controversy. Part I treats of the General 
Antecedents of the Tiibingen School ; Part II of its Special Antecedents ; Part III 
is entitled General Inferences of the Tiibingen Criticism. The author classifies 
the ordinary antagonists of Baur under three heads: " whiners, mystifiers, and 
arguers." In view of the collapse of the Tiibingen criticism, and the vindica- 
tion of the genuineness of John's gospel, this book furnishes decidedly inter- 
esting reading. The student should examine in connexion with it the masterly 
Bampton Lectures of 1890 by Archdeacon Watkins. 

Saintes, Amand. A Critical History of Rationalism in Germany, from its Origin to 
the Present Time. Svo, pp. x, 379. London, 1849. 

Saisset, Emile. Manual of Modern Pantheism. Essay on Religious Philosophy. 
2 vols., Svo, pp. vi, 310, 273. Edinburgh, 1862. 

Smith, Goldwin. Rational Religion and the Rationalistic Objections of the Bampton 
Lectures for 1858. Svo. Oxford, 1861. (A reply to Mansel's Limits of Relig- 
ious Thought.) 

Stephen, Leshe. History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century. 2 vols., Svo, 
pp. 466, 469. New York, 1881. (A work of broad scope, which includes, in 
its plan, Theology, Moral Philosophy, Politics, and Literature. Theology is 
treated wholly from the Rationalist point of view. It is assumed that the " tra- 
ditional orthodoxy" has been driven from the field; it is held, indeed, to be 
incompatible with philosophic thought. Evangelicalism, the author believes, is 
doomed to sterility, because it is wholly dissociated from philosophic ideas. 
The topics are, however, treated with abundant knowledge. The review of the 
history of the Deistic Controversy is especially full. The second volume closes 
with an account of the religious and literary reaction, in the midst of which the 
eighteenth century passed into the nineteenth.) 

TuUoch, John. Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the Seven- 
teenth Century. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 463, 500. Vol. I. Liberal Churchmen. Vol. 
II. The Cambridge Platonists. Edinburgh and London, 1872. 

For an account of the Dodwell Controversy on the Natural Immortality of the Hu- 
man Soul, and also the Literature of the Controversy, see Dr. Noah Porter's 
Appendix to Ueberweg's History of Philosophy. Vol II, pp. 371-375. See also 
Dr. Ezra Abbott's Literature of the Doctrine of a Future Life, Titles 2114-2129 
inclusive. 

For the Bibliography of the Unitarian Controversy in New England, see the Appen- 
dix to H. M. Dexter's Congregationalism as Seen in its Literature. The list of 



THE LITERATURE OF RATIONiSXISM. 117 

the titles extends to the year 1879. Chap. YI of 0. B. Frothingham's Transcen- 
dentalism in New England contains a brief account of the rise of New England 
Unitariauism. See also " Historical Introduction " in Sprague's Annals of the 
Unitarian Pulpit, and, for review articles on both sides, Poole's Index, pp. 1340, 
1341. 
On the Trinitarian Controversy in England during the last years of the seventeenth 
century and the first years of the eighteenth, see Hunt's History of Religious 
Thought in England from the Reformation, etc. VoL II, pp. 200-221, and 
Vol. ni, pp. 20-23. 



118 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 



APPENDIX TO PART FIRST OF THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 



THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THEOLOGICAL 

ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

F. Zyro, Revision der christl.-theologisch. Encycklopadik, in Stud. u. Krit., 1837, No. 3, p. 689, 
and Hagenbach's art. in Herzog, Eucykl., vol. iv. 

The encyclopaedia of a science as a whole can only come into 
being after the science has been rounded into a KVKXog ; and Theo- 
logical Encyclopaedia, accordingly, could not originate before the- 
ology had been an organism of various departments. The begin- 
nings of this science were apparent in the Church, however, at quite 
an early period, though rather in connexion with other branches of 
theological study, than as a distinct subject of inquiry. Their most 
natural expression was found in connexion with practical theology. 
The installation of a clergyman in his office, would involve, in ad- 
dition to remarks relating to its particular duties, the necessity of 
pointing out the kinds of knowledge and ability required. Chry- 
Beginnings of sostom (TTcpt LEQCjavvqg) already furnishes hints as to 
cyciopSml Tn w^^t would be proper qualifications for the servant of 
Chrysostom. God, in the matter of scientific acquirements, as well as 
with respect to his religious and moral character, adding many 
beautiful reflections on the manifold gifts required for a worthy 
administration of the spiritual office (Books v and vi).^ Augustine 
likewise (De doctrina Christiana) indicates the scientific acquire- 
ments needed for the exposition of the Scriptures and the duties 
Qualifications of the pulpit, among which he already places a knowl- 
ac(S-dS?'''S ^^g^ ^^ *^^ languages in which the Bible was originally 
Augustine. written; and he recommends, as helps, the use of the 
Septuagint and the old Latin (Itala) versions. He also insists that 
natural sciences, e. g.^ natural history, botany, etc., should be ad- 
mitted into the course of study, but only so far as they can aid in ex- 

* The passage in v, 5, is remarkable, as already distinguishing between the empiric 
and the cultivated minister, and between the diiferent degrees of obligation devolving 
on them, "Qore toI^ <TO(i>uTepoLg fidkT^ov ri rol^ af£a-&eaTFpoig fiei^uv 6 ivnvoq. Ov6t yap 
vizep Tcji> avTuv t/ ^rjfiia afieTiovai tovtoiq kukelvolc, d/l/la tooovtov avTij Tr?.eiuv, baov 
Koi Tf]C KTT/aecjc tKarepaq to (leaov. KaKeivoic fiev ovS' av kyKokeaeie Tig, fjrjdev u^iov 
Tioyov napixovGLV ovToi. 6e ei fiTf fiei^ova TTjg So^ijc^ rjg anavTeg exovGi irepl avTuv, aei 
Trpo<f>epotev, TToXXa napa TrdvTuv erreTai to. kyKTi^fiOTa, (ed. Tauchn., p. 66). Comp. 
Neander, Der heil. Chrysost., i, 57, sqq. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 119 

plaining the Scriptures. The writings of the Greeks and Romans 
should receive judicious attention, and dialectics should be mas- 
tered. Rhetoric, and its employment in sacred eloquence are con- 
sidered in Book iv, which may be regarded as an essay on Christian 
homiletics. The work of Ambrose (De Officiis Ministrorum), is, on 
the contrary, rather morally edifying than scientific. 

The work, De Disciplina Scholarium, which is attributed to 
Boethius (the pupil of Augustine, f 525), belongs to a later age; 
but the De Institutione Divinarum Literarum of M. Aurelius Cas- 
siodorus, which follows the precedent of Augustine in urging the 
study of the Scriptures, and indicating a method for that work, is 
deserving of attention (0pp., ed. G-aret, Rouen, 1679, and Venice, 
1729, 2 vols, fol., p. 537, sqq.). It also recommends the study of 
the Church Fathers, the decisions of oecumenical councils, and Jo- 
sephus and Eusebius, and attaches importance to a knowledge of 
natural science. 

A sort of general (real) encyclopaedia, in which a place was as- 
signed to theology, was undertaken by Isidore of Seville 
(sixth and seventh centuries), in the work, Originum paedia of isi- 
sive Etymologiarum libri xx. He also wrote instruc- °^^* 
tions for monks and clergymen, which, however, are, like those of 
Ambrose, of a more practical than scientific character. More, 
though still a very moderate, stress, is laid upon the scientific ele- 
ment, by Rabanus (Hrabanus) Maurus, the abbot of Fulda, in his 
work, De Clericorum Institutione, (in the first half of the ninth 
century); but even he was far in advance of his age.^ In the third 
book he urges the study of the Scriptures, and especially of their 
hidden meaning, and also familiarity with the liberal arts and with 
preaching, generally in harmony with Augustine. In the Middle 
Ages the mystic and schoolman, Hugo of St. Victor, (f 1141), 
published the Didascalion (Eruditio didascalica), a work ^^^ Bidasca- 
which obtained for him the honourable epithet of Did- iionofHugost. 
ascalus. The work was designed to embrace an outline 
of the whole circle of studies preparatory to the higher theology, 
and fell into two principal parts, the first of which (books i-iii) 
contained a methodology of the secular sciences (propsedeutics), and 
the second (iv-vi) an historical introduction to the books of the 
Bible and the ecclesiastical writings, besides a methodology of 
Scripture study." The Dominican sub-prior, Vincent of Beauvais, 
(Bellovacensis, f about 1264), did meritorious work for encyclo- 

* Comp. the biography by Kunstmann (Mayence, 1841), p. 55, sqq. 0pp., ed. Col- 
venerius, 6 vols., fol., Cologne, 1627. 

' See Liebner, Hugo von St. Victor, p. 96, sqq. 



120 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

psedia and methodology as a whole, in his Speculum Doctrinale, and 
added useful hints for the study of theology, generally agreeing 
with Augustine and the school of St. Victor.' Toward the close of 
the Middle Ages John Gerson (De Reforraatione Theologiae)^ and 
Nicholas of Clemange (De Studio Theologico) ' furnished practical 
hints on the study of theology. 

While encyclopaedia thus connected itself with practical theol- 
ogy, it could readily combine with the Introduction to the Study 
of the Bible. When, therefore, the latter regained in the time 
of the Reformation the independence of which the influence of 
scholasticism had long deprived it, the opportunity was given 
for discussing the new culture needed to adapt theologians to 
the character of the age. It was improved by Erasmus, in con- 
nexion with the publication of his New Testament. He pref- 
Erasmus's pref- aced the second edition of 1519 with his Ratio seu 

ace to his edi- j^gthodus Compendio perveniendi ad veram Theolo- 
tionoftheNew ^ ^ ^ t-» i \ • 

Testament. giam, an essay which was soon after (1522, Basle) given 

to the public, in a somewhat enlarged form, as an independent 
work,* and which after subsequent republications and revisions,' be- 
came the basis of similar undertakings. Erasmus determines the 
proper aim of theological study to be that the learning acquired in 
a pious spirit and with prayer should exercise influence upon the 
student's personal experience, and, so to speak, be moulded and 
transformed into life, hence, that the Christian and moral cul- 
ture should keep pace in all respects with the scientific. He speci- 
fies as particularly important the study of the Latin, Greek, and 
Hebrew, the latter of which had seemed necessary even to Augus- 
tine, though he was not personally well acquainted with it. Dia- 
lectics, rhetoric, arithmetic, and music are considered useful to the 
theologian; but also, for interpreting the Scriptures, natural phi- 
losophy, cosmography, and astronomy. On the other hand, he cen- 
sures an excessive regard for Aristotle and scholastic philosophy, 
however useful such studies might be for preparatory practice. 

AVith reference to dogmatic studies, he recommends that the 
student should personally make a collection of passages from the 

^ Comp. Schlosser, Yineenz von Beauvais, Frankfort, 1819, vol. ii, p. 240. The 
teachings of Vincent esp., p. 257, sqq. 

^ 0pp., T. I., with which comp, Epp. duae ad Studentes Collegii Navarrae, etc. 

' Tn d'Acherii Spic, i, 473, sg. (Staudlin, Gesch. der theol. Wissenschaften, i, pp. 
9-1 i). 

* See vol. v of his collected works, Basle, 1540. 

^ By Halbauer (1724) and Semler (1782). The work of Jacob Latornus of Lieven 
(De trium linguarum et studii theologici ratione, 1519), written against Erasmus, ex- 
perienced no such revivifications. 



THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE REFORMATION. 12J 

Scriptures and the Fathers, and arrange them into a definite sys- 
tem. The theologian should be thoroughly familiar with the Scrip- 
tures, so as even to be able to repeat them from memory; but this 
result will not be attained by a parrot-like rehearsing of passages; 
a living acquaintance with the Word and a profound penetration of 
its mysteries are necessary to this end. Many correct and sensible 
thoughts are added, relating to the method of study, the use of 
commentaries and other books, etc. He gives the first place among 
the Christian Fathers to Origen. The love of fruitless disputation 
is to be avoided ; for it is " not merely from the syllogism, but 
rather from the life, that the theologian receives his attestation." 
The work of Erasmus, however, is no longer adequate to the 
demands made upon encyclopaedia in the present age, 
beautiful and appropriate as much of its matter is work of Eras- 
found to be. It is impossible that it should be adequate, ^^' 
for the theology of which it furnishes a sketch, was itself only be- 
ginning to emerge from chaos and assume a definite shape. Under 
such circumstances the scholarly author named much that is no 
longer included in encyclopaedia, being relegated to the history of 
the canon, to patristics, to the life of Christ, to exegesis, dogmatics, 
or ethics. But despite this fact, the little book may still be read 
with profit. 

Among the reformers the learned Melanchthon would naturally be 
the first to feel moved by his own inclinations and the obligations of 
his station, to direct the adherents of the new school into the right 
course of study. His Brevis ratio discendse theologiae, 
limited to three folio pages,' breathes the Protestant of Meianch- 
spirit in recommending an intimate acquaintance with the ^^' 
Bible as of primary importance. With an almost undue preference 
Melanchthon places the Epistle to the Romans at the head of the list 
of exegetical studies, assigning to it the service of introducing the 
theologian to the body of St. Paul's teaching, which, in turn, is to 
conduct the learner back to the teachings of our Lord. The Gospel 
by St. John is to close the cycle as the Epistle to the Romans be- 
gins it, so that the doctrines of faith and justification may constitute 
the beginning and the end of the scriptural theology of Christianity. 
The New Testament is to be completed and its loci communes to be 
systematized, in order to throw light upon the contents of the Old 
Testament, the study of which is to follow. Melanchthon also 
recommends the study of the Fathers with that of the Bible, but 
assigns to Origen, whose allegorical mode of interpretation he con- 
demns, a much lower place than is allowed him by Erasmus, while 
* In the Basle ed. of his works (1541), vol. Hi. pp. 287-89. 



132 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

he exalts Augustine with a certain degree of favoritism. He de- 
mands, however, and with entire propriety, that practice shall be 
added to study, and makes the cultivation of style obligatory on the 
religious teacher, to which end the study of the classics is above all 
recommended. Nor should philosophy be slighted, as is customary 
with many who are ignorant of its character ; but care is to be 
taken that worldly wisdom be not substituted for the teachings of 
Christ, or the ethics of society (politics) for the ethics of Chris- 
tianity. 

Although the outward form of such guides gave them but little 
claim to the name of scientific encyclopaedias, they yet contained 
indications of a newly awakened scientific spirit, and involved the 
elements of an encyclopaedia which should be adequate for its needs. 
Accordingly, a pupil of Melanchthon, Theobald Thamer, who subse- 
quently separated from the evangelical Church, published an Adhor- 
The Adhort ^^^io ad theologisB studium in academia Marburgensi, 
tio of Theobald 1543, in which he welcomes the theology of Protestant- 

amer, -^^ ^^ ^ glorious product of the times, in contrast with 

the earlier fiaraioXoyla, and particularly recommends the study of 
the Bible, of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, and of the vernacular as 
well, the latter for the sake of preaching. To these he adds natural 
science, in order that the Bible may be correctly understood and 
applied, when it treats of the works of God in nature ; and eth- 
ics, rhetoric, dialectics, and history. He characterizes the study 
of theology as difficult, but encourages students not to be repelled 
from it on that account, but rather to make greater effort. (Com- 
pare A. Neander, Theobald Thamer, der Reprasentant und Vor- 
ganger moderner Geistesrichtung in dem Reformationszeitalter. 
Berlin, 1842.) 

The age immediately following the Reformation contented it- 
self with mechanically recapitulating, and constructing far-fetched 
expositions of, what its predecessor had provided, or with reviv- 
ing the former scholasticism, instead of seeking to rear an organic 
intellectual edifice upon the given basis and out of the existing 
materials. 

David Chytrseus at Rostock,^ a disciple of Melanchthon, and 
Jerome Weller," a pupil of Luther and inmate of his home, pub- 
lished instructions closely harmonizing with those of their great 

* Orat. de studio tlieol. recte inchoando, (15 57,) and Regulae studiorum seu de 
ratione discendi in praecipuis artibus recte instituenda. Lips., 1565. Comp. Schuetzii 
Vita Dav. Chytraei, (Hamb., 1720-28, 3 vols.,) lib. i, p. 171, sq. ; Pelt, Encykl., p. 51; 
Krabbe Chytraeus^ pp. 50, 51. 

• Consilium de theologiae studio recte constituendo, Norimb., 1565. 



LUTHERAN AND REFORMED ENCYCLOPEDIA. 123 

masters. In the seventeenth century the great dogmatical Johann 
Gerhard published an encyclopaedia, entitled Methodus ^^ 

. T- ^1 1 • • 11-. 1 • -1 • -. -r The Encyclo- 

studii tneologici publicis praelectionibus m acad. Je- paedia of John 
nensi a 1617 exposita, (1st ed., 1620, 2d ed., 1622, 3d ^^^^^^'i' 
ed., posthumous, Jena, 1654.) He demands adequate preliminary- 
studies in language and philosophy (Aristotle's especially), and af- 
terwards a theological course of five years, three of which should be 
devoted almost exclusively to the Holy Scriptures. In the third 
year attention should be directed to questions in controversy be- 
tween Roman Catholics and the Reformed, while the fourth should 
be divided between such studies and practice in preaching ; and not 
before the fifth (!) year were Church History and the writings of 
the fathers, the schoolmen, and Luther, to receive attention.' 

In the Reformed Church,'' Bullinger (f 1575) wrote a Ratio 
studii theologici, which is distinguished by sound practical judg- 
ment, and affords admirable methodological hints, reaching to the 
minutest details — among other things, to the diet of the student. 
The naturalist and man of multifarious learning, Conrad Gessner, 
published a general encyclopaedia, the last book of which is devoted 
to theology.^ Andrew Gerhard, of Ypres (Hyperius), professor at 

Marburor, also wrote a Theoloffus sen de ratione studii ^^ ^, , 

P . . , . ® The Theologus 

theologici (libri iv).* The latter work affords the first of Andrew 

indications of a future division into departments, the ^*^''^^^*** 

book treating first of exegetical, next of systematic, and finally of 

practical theology, the last in connexion with historical ; but no 

attempt is made to clearly distinguish the several branches from 

each other or give them suitable names, nor yet to apprehend and 

describe them in their relations to each other. The material already 

* Pelt, Encykl., p. 52. Among Lutheran writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries the following deserve mention : J. Andreae, Oratt. de studio sacrarum lite- 
rarum, Lips., 1567 ; N. Selnekker, Notatio de studio theol. et ratione discendi doetrinam 
coelestem. Lips., 1579. Abr. Calov, Isagoge ad s. theol., Vitemb,, 1652, 85; Das 
gute Leben eines rechtschaffenen Dieners Gottes von J. V. Andreae, (copied as a 
poetical supplement in Herder's Briefe.) A closer examination of the above works is 
found in Pelt, p. 53, sq. 

^ Many elements are scattered through the works of Zwingle, (the very history of 
his life is a living encyclopaedia.) Comp. his work, Der Hirt, etc., 1524, (ed. Schul- 
thess and Schuler, vol. i. p. 631.) Respecting Bullinger, comp. his letters to his son 
Henry (on the study of theology) in Pestalozzi, Heinrich Bullinger, p. 594, sgq. 

2 Pandectarum universaliura Conr. Gessneri liber ultimus de theologia, (Tiguri, 1549.) 
Comp. Hanhart, Conr. Gessner, (Winterthiir, 1824,) p. 160, sqq. 

* Balse, 1572, 82. The iSrst ed. (Basle, 1556) bears the title De recte formando 
theologiae studio. It should not be confounded with Methodus theologiae, etc., Basle, 
1567, the latter being a systematic theology and by no means a methodology, as the 
title would suggest. 



124 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

becomes unmanageable because of its abundance, the whole of bibli- 
cal and ecclesiastical dogmatics being discussed in the limited com- 
pass of the book, and likewise other matters, which belong more 
properly to criticism and hermeneutics. The work is, however, 
characterized by sound judgment, which looks upon learning as an 
aid to true piety, and directs attention to the connexion between 
theology and the Church. 

The dogmatist Joh. Heinr. Alsted, wrote a work in eight books 

^ , , entitled, Methodus sacrosanctae theoloajiae (Hanov., 
The Methodus ' . ^ t -r» • • ^ t 

of John Henry 1623, 4) ; to this he prefixed Praecognita m two books, 

Alsted, which afford a noteworthy review of the science, as 

wholly governed by a new scholasticism.^ The second book (De 
theologiae studio recte formando) alone demands notice in this 
connexion, as treating of the object of theological study, which 
is made to consist in the promotion of the glory of the triune 
God, and in the working out of man's salvation, together with the 
perfecting of his nature. A distinction is made between the the- 
ology of the schools and the practical theology of the Church, and 
the advice is given to students, " Scholasticam theologiam ex pro- 
fesso et semper evolves, et auctores, qui illam scriptis comprehend- 
erunt, tibi reddes quam familiarissimos." The period of study 
should be neither too extended nor too brief (although no limit is 
fixed), and special attention should be given to prayer, the study of 
the Scriptures, and a godly walk. Detailed prescriptions concern- 
ing this militia Christi are given. Among the requisite natural 
qualifications the author includes sound health, a clear and flexible 
voice, a well-organized brain, and a good bodily constitution, to 
which a good memory, etc., must be added. 

Among preparatory requisites he reckons acquaintance with the 
vernacular (" dicunt theologi nostri : a preacher should not make 
use of town-clerks' German") for the study of which he recom- 
mends, with assured judgment, Luther's version of the Bible ; and 
to the mother-tongue he adds Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The re- 
lation between philosophy and theology is stated to be such that 
they can never reasonably come into conflict with each other. Logic 
is considered a prime necessity, and after it physics and mathemat- 
ics (which are included under philosophy), and also metaphysics and 
practical philosophy ; nor should the theologian be ignorant of ju- 

* Mention is made, for instance, in the first book, in addition to the theologia falsa, 
of a theologia archetypa, (quae est sapientia indubitata rerum divinarum,) theologia 
ectypa, (in which the archetypa is actualized,) theologia unionis in Christo, theologia 
visionis in coelis, (which includes the theologia angelorum,) theoligia viatorum, (the 
theology of the present world,) etc. 



SCHOOLS OF SAUMUR AND BASLE. 125 

risprudence and medical science. Upon this follow a guide to the 
study of the Scriptures and a tabular view of the contents of the 
several books, together with the entire dogmatic locus de scriptura 
sacra ; farther, a grammar of the Bible, hermeneutics, and rhetoric 
(on the figurative language of the Scriptures), the whole in a very 
prolix and artificial style ; also history of the canon and other mat- 
ters pertaining to the science of Introduction, biblical topography, 
archaeology, chronology, and mingled with typology, a brief char- 
acterization of the different books of Scripture, and, finally, a few 
additional words on dogmatics (loci communes) and practical the- 
ology (paedia theologica, declamatio, disputatio theologica, and ex- 
ercitatio ecclesiastica). 

An Encyclopaedia philosophise (Herborn, 1630, 2 vols, fol.) and 
an Encyclopaedia omnium scientiarum (ibid., 1630, and Lugd. Bal., 
1640, 4 vols, fol.) by the same author are in existence, in which 
vol. ii. p. 1555, sqq.^ is devoted to theological (real) encyclopaedia 
(theologia naturalis, catechetica, didactica polemica, theol. casuum, 
theol. prophetica, and moralis). 

The school of Saumur was distinguished in the Reformed Church 
by the mildness of its spirit and its unbiassed judgment Th i ?i- 

in theological matters, as compared with the rigid dog- ans of saunmr 
matism and formalism of which Alsted was a represent- ^^ ^ ®* 
ative.^ It produced the dissertations of Stephen Gaussen,^ in which 
we occasionally observe an active, youthful disposition, joined to a 
manly energy sharpened by the salt of a biting wit ; mental quali- 
ties which render more enjoyable the heart-felt, childlike piety 
which is apparent. Much that is here laid down would still be ap- 
plicable in our day. 

The writings of the theologians J. L. Frei and Samuel Werenfels of 
Basle, in the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eight- 
eenth centuries, breathe a spirit kindred to that of the above work. 
The Meletemata de officio doctoris Christiani (1711-15, four disser- 
tations that deserve to be better known) by the former resolve the 
activity of the Christian teacher, both academical and parochial, 
into the three functions of interpreting the Scriptures, explaining 
the creed, and confuting opponents, thus dividing theological science 
into exegesis, dogmatics, and polemics. This work contains many 
correct ideas concerning the exposition of Scripture, the employ- 

* Comp. J. H. Heidegger, De ratione studiorum theol. Tur., 1690, 12mo., a mere 
reprint of Bullinger and of works on Introduction by various authors. 

^ Stephan. Gausseni dissertationes : 1. De studii theologici ratione; 2. De natura 
theologiae ; 3. De ratione concionandi ; 4. De utilitate philosophiae in theologia ; 
6. De recto use clavium. Ultraj., 16'?8; 6 ed. cur. J. J. Rambach, Hal. 1726. 



126 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

raent of reason on theological questions,' the relation of dogmatics 
to ethics, etc. The Opuscula of Werenfels,'' though he did not 
write an encyclopaedia in the proper sense, likewise present mucli 
that is adapted to lead the young theologian into the right way. 
This is especially true of the sixteenth dissertation, De scopo doc- 
toris theologi, which contains many a golden counsel, not only for 
the future teacher of theological science, but also for ministers of 
the word. 

Within the bounds of the Lutheran Church a twofold opposition 

was brought to bear upon the scholastic spirit which 
Encyclopaedia ^ /. i i ^ \ j^ ^ 

in the Luther- had again become powerful — on the one hand Irom the 

an Church. practically pious tendency of Spener, and on the other 
from the liberal scientific spirit whose representative was George Ca- 
lixtus. Both tendencies aided in introducing a new period for the- 
ological learning, and, accordingly, for theological encyclopaedia. 
In the Apparatus theologicus,^ which was designed to be a great 
theological dictionary covering the whole ground of the science, 
Calixtus leads theological study back to its exegetical and historical 
basis, from which it had again gradually removed, and endeavours 
to compose the quarrel of the humanists and the realists (gramma- 
rians and barbarians). Philip Jac. Spener wrote several works which 
come under our notice. The Pia desideria and the Theologische 
Bedenken frequently refer to the needs of the young theologian ; 
but his views upon this question are principally found in the preface 
to the tables compiled by him from Danhauer's Hodosophie, written 
in 1690, and published under the title De impedimentis studii 
theologici.* 

Among preparatory sciences, philosophy is rated far lower by 
spener's con- Opener than by other theologians, a prejudice that may 
tributions to be excused in view of the spirit that pervaded the phi- 
cyciopaedia. losophy of the time. This prejudice subsequently be- 

VComp. Smith's Hagenbach: Hist. Doctrines, ii, p. 464, Pelt. Encykl., p. 53, calls 
attention to the fact that the Reformed theologians especially discussed the application 
of philosophy to theology, and in that connexion elucidated many questions of import- 
ance to theological encyclopaedia. Comp. also Al. Schweizer, Glaubenslehre der 
evang.-ref. Kirche, Zurich, 1844. 

^ Sam. Werenfelsii Opuscula theolog., philosoph. et philologica. Balse, 1728, 
2 vols., 4to. ; 1782, 3 vols., 8vo. Also J. Ch. Beck (t 1785), who prefaces his Synop- 
sis institutionum imiversae Theologiae, Basle, 1765, with a brief encyclopaedia and 
methodology. 

^ Helmst., 1628, and by his son, enlarged from the MS., 1661, 4. Comp. Henke, 
Georg Calixt, und seine Zeit, p. 420, sqq. 

* Comp. Hossbach, Ph. J. Spener u. seine Zeit, i, p. 290, sqq. New ed. (Berlin, 1861), 
by Schweder, p. 211, sqq. 



THE WORK OF SPENER. 1S7 

came more apparent, in connexion with a pietistic empiricism, 
which falsely based itself on the authority of Spener. Philology, 
too, although its utility was recognized, was regarded by him from 
a too restricted point of view, in consequence of which he would 
not allow so wide and unrestrained a range to the study of so-called 
profane writers as was conceded by Erasmus and Melanchthon. Sa- 
cred philology alone, in its immediate bearing upon exegesis, 
received the recognition it deserved as an important auxiliary to 
theological science. He termed exegesis the "architect, who ar- 
ranges all the remaining parts, and from whom they derive 
nearly all their ground and material." Upoii the basis of exegesis 
dogmatics should be reared ; but in harmony with his mild practi- 
cal tendency he was less partial to scholastic quibbling and harsh 
polemics. He did full justice to Church history, though he recom- 
mended the thorough examination of its sources only to such stu- 
dents as might intend to reach the higher grades of learning. 

Ethics, Avhich he regarded as having the same importance as dog- 
matics, in this agreeing with Calixtus, should in like manner, he 
thought, be drawn from the holy Scriptures. Homiletics, on the 
other hand, whose deep foundations he suspected from the scriptural 
teaching, but which he was unable to clearly apprehend in a scien- 
tific way, seemed to him " one of the chief hindrances to theological 
study," while catechetics held a higher place in his estimation. At 
all events, to Spener belongs the inestimable honour of having not 
only restored to the science the union with the conditions of actual 
life, from which it had been separated, but also of hav- v^i-ue of spe- 
ing led the way to a new state of the science itself, ^®^'^ ^o^^- 
through his efforts to secure a connected course of exegetical study, 
which, contrary to the spirit of the Reformation, had again been ne- 
glected during an extended period.* 

J. J. Breithaupt,'"' A. H. Francke,^ and Joachim Lange,* followed 
in the footsteps of Spener. Of these, the first especially " combined 
genuine piety with elegant culture" (Pelt., p. 55), while the horta- 
tory element predominated with Francke, and a certain confusion 

* " Such exegetical lectures as were still sustained in the universities of that period, 
confined themselves simply to the philological or polemical treatment of the more dif- 
ficult or controverted passages." Hossbach, p. 304. 

' Exercitationes de studio theol. Hall,, 1702. 

' 1. Definitio studii theologici, etc. Halle, 1708 ; 2. Idea studiosi theologiae oder 
Abbildung eines der Theologie Beflissenen, ibid., 1717; 3. Methodus studii theologici, 
ibid., 1723 ; Timotheus, zum Fiirbilde alien studiosis theologiae. Comp. Guericke, 
A. H. Francke (Halle, 1827), p. 290, sqq. 

* Institutiones studii theologici literariae. Hal., 1723, and De genuina studii theolog. 
praecipue thetici indole ac methodo, ibid. 1712, 4:to. Comp. Staudlin ii, p. 309. 



128 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

of ideas is manifest in Lange. On the other hand the two able 
Encyciopsedia men, Christ. Matthias Pfaff, chancellor at Tiibingen, and 

as treated by j^j^^ Franz Buddaeus, at Jena, occupied an intermediate 
Praff and Bud- ^ ' , ' ^ 

daeus. position between Pietism and the learned theology of 

the schools, and their works present a more definite arrangement of 
the several branches, in their outward structure. Exegetical, dog- 
matic, historical and practical theology, and the subdivisions, polem- 
ical, thetical, patristic, etc., were distinguished by name, and their 
nature and relation to the whole of the science were described, 
though the order in which they are arranged is not the same with 
the two writers. Pf aff ' correctly assigns the first place to exeget- 
ical theology, while Buddaeus ^ places immediately after the pre- 
paratory studies, dogmatics, symbolics, patristics, ethics, ecclesias- 
tical law. Church-history, and polemics, and introduces exegesis at 
the end. The feature is common to both, however, that they com- 
bine with encyclopaedia an extended history of the literature which 
is stated on the title-page of Pfaff, certainly a meritorious feature, 
since it provided for an existing want. But encyciopsedia itself was 
thereby exposed to the danger of becoming a mere bibliographical 
guide, or at least of being so largely bibliographic that its leading 
object could no longer be conveniently accomplished; this, too, at a 
time when encyclopaedia had scarcely attained to a measure of in- 
dependence, after dissolving its accidental connexion with other 
branches of learning. The excessive importance attached to the 
department of literary history manifested itself, as was to be ex- 
pected, in the Einleitung in die Theologischen Wissenschaften, by 
J. G. Walch (Jena, 1753), and evidences of its presence have not 
been wanting in several valuable works of more recent times. 

The history of science reveals certain highly endowed spirits, 
whose rays stream forth in different directions in order to throw 
light upon the fields that lie extended to the view. Such was the 
Contributions Chancellor Lorenz von Mosheim,^ who became eminent 

of Mosheimand in the development of ethics and homiletics, no less than 
Sernler to en- • /^i i , • , , , , . , t 

cyciopsedia. ^ Churcn history, though less so with regard to ency- 

' Introductio in historiam theol. literariam, Tiibing., 1724, 3 vols., 4to. 

" Isagoge historico-theol. ad theologiam universara singulasque ejus partes, Lips., 
1727, 2 vols,, 4to. Hossbach, p. 382, says that this work "is the product of profound 
and comprehensive learning, and of enlightened and tolerant theological views, and 
far superior to all former works of this character." Comp. also Danz, p. 129; 
Staudlin, p. 311. 

^ F. Liicke, Narratio de Jo. Laur. Moshemio, Gott., 1837, 4to. It is to be observed 
that Mosheim, with his sound historical judgment, was the first to draw the line of 
distinction between the work of the scientific theologian and that of the preacher, 
though he may have gone too far in demanding a separate training for the two (p. 29).' 



THE INFLUENCE OF HERDER. 129 

clopaedia. The Kurze Anweisung, die Gottesgelahrtheit Vemiiuf- 
tig zu Erlernen (published by his son-in-law, Windheim, Helmst., 
1756, 63) illustrates the clear, benevolent, gentle mind of its author, 
but bears the marks of too great haste. In the arrangement of the 
several branches (e. ^., in placing dogmatics at the head), it rests 
too little upon thoroughly comprehended principles, to possess great 
importance in comparison with such predecessors as have already 
been mentioned. The higher merit of having introduced a new ele- 
ment, the critical, into theological science, and of having thereby put 
new life into encyclopaedia, which might otherwise have become a 
mere dead aggregate of bibliographical knowledge, belongs to John 
Solomon Semler. His criticism frequently degenerated into hyper- 
criticism, and his questioning spirit into scepticism; but it is certain- 
ly unjust to charge him with entertaining hostility to religion and 
Christianity. Theology is indebted to him for much of stimulating 
influence, if for but little of assured results. His works, encyclo- 
paedic and methodological, as well as others,' failed to receive a cor- 
dial reception however, because of their involved descriptions, and 
the author's difficult and heavy style in the use of both German and 
Latin. The essence of Semler's writings should be extracted into 
a monograph, and thus a correct estimate of his merits might be 
brought into a convenient form, within the reach of a frequently 
ungrateful posterity. A similar want of arrangement is apparent 
in the work of the Reformed theologian, S. Mursinna (f 1795),^ who 
first introduced the term "encyclopaedia" into theology, although 
it had been previously employed by jurists (Putter) and medical 
scholars (Boerhave) in connexion with their respective sciences. 
It was reserved, however, for the broadly cultured and versatile 

J. Gottfried Herder, to impress himself with incalculable „ , . ^ 

' ^ ^ Great influence 

energy upon the theological youth and the earnest men of Herder upon 
of his own and future ages, by the exercise of an influ- ^^ ^^^" 
ence which was stimulating in manifold directions, exciting to both in- 
tellect and feeling, every- where urging the attainment of the high- 
est ends, and as exalted above all meanness as it was free from the 
control of timid prejudice. A genuine supernaturalist and also 
rationalist, both orthodox and heterodox, or, if it be preferred, 

* Versuch einer nahern Anleitung zu nutzlichem Fleisse in der ganzen Gottesgelehr- 
samkeit, etc., Halle, 1857; Institutio brevier ad liberalem eruditionem theologicam, 
ibid., 1*765, 2 vols. ; Institutio ad doctrinam Christianam liberaliter discendam, ibid., 
1774 (rather a systematic theology than an encyclopaedia); Versuch einer freiern 
theologischen Lehrart, ibid., 1777. The title "Encyclopaedia and Methodology" came 
into currency at this time. It appears in an anonymous work (Leips., 1778) cited by 
Danz, p. 134, and somewhat earlier in the works of Mursinna, Kobert, Vogel ; comp. ibid. 

' Primae lineae encyclopaediae theol., Halle, 1784, ed. 2, 1798 ; comp. Pelt, p. 57. 
9 



130 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP^DLA. 

neither, versed in Oriental mysticism and likewise in the mysteries 
of human nature and of human history, grasping, with a magnifi- 
cent enthusiasm, every thing in which the genius of a pure human- 
ity is portrayed, and punishing with noble indignation all that is 
shameful, deceitful, vapid, or sickly — he was thoroughly fitted to 
aid the struggling and ambitious mind in reaching the path over 
which, with trusty staff in hand, it must pass. The remark has 
frequently been made that Herder's efforts were rather stimulating 
to others, than productive of assured gains which might be stored 
in everlasting garners. But this is precisely what was needed; and 
if much that, with too venturous courage, he sought to establish 
has been already overthrown, it is to be hoped that, God willing, 
the spirit of profound investigation, and the clear, independent 
habit of thought belonging to that more beautiful age — the flourish- 
ing period of " German manners and German art " — which he aided, 
in connexion with others, to introduce, shall nevermore be lost.* 

It must be confessed that the Letters upon the Study of Theol- 
DefectsofHer- ogy (Weimar, 1780; 2d ed., 1785, 4 vols.),' by no 
der's Briefe. means fulfil the scientitic purpose of a theological en- 
cyclopaedia in the strict sense. They adopt the light tone of social 
intercourse and friendly conversation; and the author enters too 
largely into the discussion of the different subjects themselves (e. g., 
of his favorite theme, Hebrew poetry), to admit of a clear demon- 
stration of the formal inter-connexion of the various branches. All 
that he says, however, tends toward that connexion, and serves to 
illuminate with color the picture which a stricter method places be- 
fore us in bare outlines. The smaller work by Herder, Anwendung 
dreier akademischer Lehrjahre, has more of the form of a proper 
methodology and introduction; and with this should be connected 
his Theophron, and his Gutachten tlber die Vorbereitung junger 
Geistlichen, as also the Provinzialblatter.^ 

In 1791, soon after the first publication of Herder's Letters (1785), 
Nusseit's Intro- ^^ ^^^ ^^^ thorough work by the judicious J. A. Nos- 
ductiontoThe- selt appeared, which has been improved by A. H. Nie- 
° ^^' meyer, and put into the form of a text-book, that still 

* Comp. J. G. Miiller, in the Herder Album (Weimar, 1845), and Bunsen, Hippoly- 
tus, i, p. 264: "Herder made the transition from Romanic negation to Germanic af- 
firmation, and began to build anew. Himself a theologian, he generalized Semitic 
tradition and inspiration into Japhetic science and philosophy. Religion and language 
are to him the original manifestations of the Divine life in man." Comp. also the 
work by Werner, adduced below (among the monographs). 

" In the Sammtliche Werke zur Religion u. Theologie (original ed. by Cotta, Tiib., 
1808), vols, ix and x. 

^ The whole in voL x of the Religion u. Theologie. 



SUCCESSORS OF HERDER. 131 

renders useful service.' The Einleitung in die theologischen Wis- 
senschaften (Leips., 1794, 2 vols.), from the pen of the learned G. J. 
Planck, is likewise still esteemed, because of its historical matter 
and good judgment, although its methodological value is but small.' 
In like manner, the encyclopaedias which have since appeared in 
considerable number deserve notice, rather because of single obser- 
vations of value, or because of the soundness of view displayed in 
them, than because of a clear presentation of the edifice of theolog- 
ical science, or of the connexion existing between its parts. J. Fr. 
Kleuker, who was first inspired by Herder, but was afterwards alien- 
ated from him through a dislike of the rationalizing tendencies of 
the century, with which Herder was in sympathy, wrote a Grundriss 
einer Encyclopadie (Hamb., 1800, 1801, 2 vols.), in which he sought 
to promote the restoration of a theology possessed of vigorous 
faith. The strange forms of expression in which he often clothed 
his ideas (in other w^orks as well as this) gave him widespread 
notoriety as a " foggy brain ; " but he must be credited with having 
energetically uttered many profound ideas which were subsequently 
brought to greater clearness by other minds. ^ 

A higher and more ideal point of view from which to compre- 
hend theology and encyclopaedia, is occupied by K. Daub in an ar- 
ticle in the Studien, published by Kreuzer and himself.^ To crude 
empiricism he opposes a holy enthusiasm for the things of God, 
and to mere learning a childlike, contemplative disposition, which 
alone is able to penetrate into the mysteries of religious faith. The 
writer, influenced by his speculative views, does not, however, 

* Anweisung zur Bildiing angehender Theologen, 3d ed., Halle, 1818, 19, 3 vols. 
Niemeyer has expressed his own views relating to theological studies and methods of 
instruction in the Anti-Wilibald (a memorial, issued in connexion with the Jubilee of 
G, Ch. Knapp), Halle, 1825; in the Zuschrift an Theologie Studierende iiber die Yor- 
bereitung des theol. Examens u. die Benutzung d. Candidaten-jahre, Halle, 1801 ; in 
Grundriss d. unmittelbaren Yorbereitungswissenschaften zur Fuhrung des Predigt- 
amtes, Halle, 1803; and in the Bibliothek fur Prediger, which he published in con- 
nexion with Wagnitz. 

' His smaller work, Grundriss der theol. Encyklopsedie, Gott., 1813, is (although 
antiquated) better adapted to beginners. Among Encyclopaedias of this period comp. 
L. Wachler, Grundriss einer Encykl. d. theol. Wissenschaften, Lemgo, 1795; J. F. W. 
Thym, Theol. Encykl. u. Methodologie, Halle, 1797; J. A. H. Tittmann, Encykl. d. 
theol. "Wissenschaften, Leips., 1798. With regard to these works comp. Pelt, p. 61. 
K. Ch. E. Schmidt, Grundriss, Jena, 1810 (Kantian); Sim. Erhardt, Yorlesungen iiber 
Theologie, Eriangen, 1810 (pervaded by Schelling's philosophy); J. E. Ch. Schmidt, 
Theol. Encykl., Giessen, 1811. 

' Comp. H. Ratjen, J. H. Kleuker, Gott., 1842, 8vo. 

* Theologie u. ihre Encykl. im Yerhaltniss zum akadem. Studium beider, etc., in 
Studien, vol. ii, pp. 1-69. 



132 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

regard faith simply as belief, but as an objective apprehension 
of matters that are too high for ordinary sense. With moral ear- 
nestness he combats both the clumsiness of obstinate bigotry and 
the fickleness of a trifling disposition, and draws with steady hand 
the portraiture of the true theologian; but he treats the necessity 
for a regeneration of theology by drawing prophetic outlines indic- 
ative of its future accomplishment, rather than by presenting an 
accurate survey of the actual state of the science. 

To perform this duty was the work of another mind. Friedrich 
Encyclopaedia Schleiermacher was the first to raise encyclopaedia to 
^^^b^^chJeier- ^^ independent position, and deliver it from the extra- 
macher. neous material, historical, and bibliographical elements 

in which it was involved, as well as to impress upon it the mark of 
the peculiar spirit which began to pervade theological science as a 
whole. This work was accomplished in the few pages of the Dar- 
stellung des theologischen Studiums (Berlin, 1811; Outline of the 
Study of Theology, Edinburgh, 1850). The purely formal charac- 
ter of the book attests an artistic spirit. It is a cartoon drawn by 
a steady hand, which only needs the pencil of a Herder to render it 
a grand and beautiful picture. While lacking this, it is matter for 
gratitude that the later and revised edition of 1830 contains hints, 
though few, for an easier understanding of a book which has the 
additional importance of having become the key to the entire sys- 
tem of Schleiermacher's theology. 

Encyclopaedia continued to be written in the usua. way, however, 
Encyclopaedia even after the Darstellung had appeared. Leonhard 
partlnhe^i9to Bertholdt's Theologische Wissenschaftskunde, at any 
century. rate (Erlangen, 1821-22, 2 vols.), is no model of "archi- 

tectonic " procedure, however much importance the author may at- 
tach to that phrase, and however strongly he may urge the correct 
principle that " a science should be restricted to itself and not em- 
brace too much of foreign matter." Preliminary and auxiliary sci- 
ences occupy two thirds of the space in a work glutted with learned 
stuiF, while its proper subject is discussed in the remaining third. 
The unfinished Encyclopaedia of G. S. Francke, (Altona, 1819,) gives 
evidence of greater regard for an organic arrangement of the dif- 
ferent branches of study; but a "really scientific arrangement" 
seems to have been an undefined thought with the author, which 
was never clearly developed (Pelt, p. 65). K. F. Staudlin's Ency- 
klopaediaund Methodologie (Hanover, 1821) is combined with a his- 
tory of the different theological sciences, and is more especially a 
work of historical reference. This is also true of the Eneyklopaedia 
und Methodologie by J. T. L. Danz (Weimar, 1832), in which a 



SCHLEIERMACHER AND HIS METHOD. 133 

new arrangement of the contents and new appellations give evidence 
of a reorganizing purpose, but nevertheless suggest the question, 
"Did the author understand his ground and object?" It might be 
difficult for a stranger to find his way through " the labyrinth of lit- 
erary wealth " ' 

The author of the present work,^ incited thereto by Schleier- 
macher, sought in its first edition (Leips., 1833) to so The present 
develop the principles of Schleiermacher, with not unim- "^^^^ scwSer^ 
portant modifications, that a somewhat empirical mind macher. 
might comprehend them, though not as yet familiar with logical 
discriminations — which is the case with most persons who approach 
the study of theology. His object was to lead on a transition from 
the method of the past to that which should be followed in the 
future. He sought to combine the practical aim of stimulating and 
encouraging with the scientific spirit, in following out which plan 
the point and connexion of ideas were not infrequently sacrificed to 
perspicuity,^ and the entire book received a subjective colouring 
that can only be understood from the immediate surroundings of the 
author, and from the design with which he taught. He was more 
concerned to convey a knowledge of the science than to aid mate- 
rially toward its further development. But on the first appearance 
of his book he saw himself overtaken by the advance of a new 
period in the form of an Encyclopaedia of the Theological 
Sciences, by K. Rosenkranz, Halle, 1831. This work Theological 

indicated the fact, which subsequent history has illus- encyclopaedia 

' . ^ • -1 T • ir treated in the 

trated, that the Hegelian tendency considered itseii spirit of Hegei- 

entitled to the privilege enjoyed by that of Schleier- ianism. 
macher, of opening for itself a victorious way through the newly 
cultivated regions of theology, and also that speculative philosophy, 
which Schleiermacher had separated from theology, was inclined 
to involve the latter in the mighty transformation of its character. 
The formal work of encyclopaedia was of inferior importance to the 
purpose of Rosenkranz however. He was more particularly con- 
cerned with the contents of theology, especially its speculative con- 
tents; and these he discussed in the spirit of that school, with life 

' Other works are, L. S. Jaspis, Hodegetik, Dresden, 1831 ; R. Konig, Versuch einer 
kurzen Anleitung zum Studium der Theologie, Berne, 1830; A. F. linger, Reden an 
kiinstige Geistliche, Leips., 1834; G. K. P. Hessenmiiller, Theol. Propaedeutik, ibid., 
1838, etc. 

* The original German work of Hagenbach. 

' This probably explains the charge of " rhetorical indefiniteness '* raised by Earless, 
p. 20, and that of "lack of system," by Pelt, p. 69; but it likewise explains the en- 
comium spoken by others, and emphasized by Pelt, that it is "a perfect book for 
students." 



134 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

and energy, so that he must be considered a skillful representative 
of the Hegelian tendency. In the second thoroughly revised edi- 
tion (Halle, 1845) Rosenkranz declares that "he has not hesitated 
to sacrifice even such developments of thought in the old edition, 
as had, by their novelty and also by the freshness of his youthful 
enthusiasm, secured no little favor for the book in its time." In the 
lano-uao-e of its author, the work " was written in the consciousness 
1) that the Christian religion, as being the religion of truth and lib- 
erty, is the absolute religion; 2) that Protestantism is not the dis- 
solving of religion into nihilism, but rather its development into 
an affirmative self -consciousness of its rational character; and 3) 
that the reconciliation of Christian theology with philosophy is 
possible." 

Other tendencies also became gradually apparent, as, the strictly 
Encyclopedia orthodox on the basis of the confessions, in G. C. A. 

as treated by jjarless' Theoloffische Encyclopaedia und Methodoloffie, 

Harless, Lange, » t \ i • i • 

and Pelt. etc. (Niiremburg, 1837, Lutheran), which contams many 

excellent ideas, but allows too much of its limited space to the his- 
torical element; the contrary, rationalistic tendency, in Lobegott 
Lange's Anleitung zum Studium der christl. Theologie nach den 
Grundsatzen des biblischen (!) Rationalismus, Jena, 1841; and the 
mediating tendency, which found a worthy organ in A. F. L. Pelt's 
Theologische Encyclopaedia als System, im Zusammenhange mit der 
Geschichte der theolog. Wissenschaft und ihrer einzelnen Zweige, 
Hamb., 1843. A rich material, which has been judiciously selected 
and intelligently handled, a constant effort to combine the variety 
of matter into a systematic whole (to which, however, the dry de- 
velopment of the plan in the department of dogmatics, extending 
down to the Hebrew alphabet, would hardly seem to be an aid), a 
keen eye for the artistic element in the theological profession, a 
warm interest in Christianity, and a sound and liberal judgment, 
are advantages to the book that deserve recognition, though they 
would unquestionably be heightened by being forced into a nar- 
rower compass. 

While it must be acknowledged that the literature of German 
Protestantism is in advance of others, in this as in the other de- 
leal partments of theology, it cannot be said that the 
encyclopedia Protestants of Other lands, and even less the Roman 
Francef °"swe- Catholics of Germany, have fallen behind in the march 
den, and Eng- of recent progress. The Encyclopsedise theologicae epi- 
tome, by J. Clarisse of Holland (Lugd., Bat., 1832, 
1835), still bears the stamp of the age before Schleierraacher; but 
the Encyclopaedia of Hof stede de Groot, on the other hand, represents 



THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA IN ENGLAND. 135 

the more modern tendency of the so-called Groningen school* An 
excellent preliminary work in French was published by II. G. Kien- 
len (a German) : Encyclopedic des Sciences de la Theologie Chre- 
tienne, Strasburg, 1842. It followed Schleiermacher in the main, 
and was afterward republished, with additions, in German, with the 
title, Encykl. der Wissenschaften der Protestantischen Theologie, 
Darmstadt, 1845. A Swedish Encyclopaedia by the provost II. 
Reuterdahl of Lund (1837), likewise follows the principles of 
Schleiermacher. 

The English, however, have hitherto paid very little attention 
to theological encyclopaedia. So little has been done in this de- 
partment that M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia says Theological 

with truth that " No book professing to be called En- en^ciopasdia 

A o m England and 

cyclopaedia of Theology has appeared in English, and Amerira. 
no book is more needed, as the English theological literature is al- 
most wholly neglected by the Germans." (Article Encyclopaedia.) 
Since this statement was made, however, a volume on Theological 
Encyclopaedia, compiled from the lectures of Dr. M'Clintock to his 
students, has been published (New York and Cincinnati, 1873). It 
is a posthumous work, and necessarily incomplete. Dr. Henry B. 
Smith also had begun, before his death, an Encyclopaedia and Meth- 
odology, but did not live to carry out his purpose. In English lit- 
erature instruction of this kind is usually found in treatises on 
pastoral theology. Thus handled encyclopaedia holds a very sub- 
ordinate position. In Bishop Marsh's Course of Lectures on Divin- 
ity (Cambridge, 1809; London, 1838) an encyclopaedic outline is 
given. Bickersteth's Christian Student (London, 1832, 4th edition, 
1844) is characterized by a devout spirit, but is unscientific in form.^ 
Doddridge's Lectures on Preaching and the Ministerial Office (Lon- 
don, 1830, and Andover, 1833) are wholly practical. 

The earliest American work of this type was by Cotton Mather: 
The Student and Preacher; Manductio ad Ministerium, etc. (Pub- 
lished in London only; 2d ed., 1781.) Some of Tholuck's Lectures 
on Encyclopaedia and Methodology are translated by Professor 
E. A. Park, in the first volume of the Bibliotheca Sacra. Professor 
Shedd, of the Union Theological Seminary, New York, has pub- 
lished an essay on the Method and Influence of Theological Studies 
(N'ew York, 2d ed., 1878). J. W. Alexander's Thoughts on Preach- 

* Encyclopaedia Theologi christiani a Hofstede de Groot et L. G. Pareau, Groningae, 
1851, 3d ed. 

' Bickersteth conceived of theology as a Divine science. Page 20: "Theology is, 
like the heavens, full of stars, which appear not to the careless spectator, but a dili- 
gent contemplator, with suitable helps, will find new worlds of glory in every part." 
10 



136 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ing contain valuable suggestions upon the studies of the preacher 
(pp. 168-2 IG), although nothing systematic is attempted (New York, 
18G0). Professor Shedd's Homiletics and Pastoral Theology (New 
York, 1878), presents in chap, iii, of the second part, an excellent 
outline of a course of study suitable for a clergyman. James M. 
Hoppin, in The Office and Work of the Christian Ministry (New 
York, 1869), offers good suggestions for theological culture. Most 
of these works, however, treat the subject in an incidental way. 

A brief review of the progress of Roman Catholic encyclopaedia 
remains to be given. 

Protestant text-books on encyclopaedia generally have reference 
to the academical course of instruction in universities ; 
lie encyciopas- but Roman Catholic authors give this only occasional 
^^*- consideration. Much that they have written (espec- 

ially during the earlier part of the seventeenth century) was de- 
signed for use in the seminaries for priests and the institutions of 
the monastic orders. The historical development of modern Roman 
Catholicism affords positive proof that in this as well as other mat- 
ters the Jesuits hold the first place. The Italian Jesuit, Ant. Posse- 
vin, wrote a Bibliotheca selecta de ratione studiorum (Colon., 1607, 
fol.), whose arrangement opens a view into the methods of the 
order. First stands the cultura ingeniorum, which is favored by 
the current age (the sixteenth century) more than by any other, 
despite its excessively heretical character. Heresy really hinders 
true culture, and must be opposed in its very beginning. Special 
praise is lavished on the institutions of the order, particularly that 
of Salamanca. The second book treats of the Divine history, i. e., 
the holy Scriptures and their study, in connexion with which we 
notice that the study of Hebrew is recommended. Jerome and 
Augustine should be the principal guides. With reference to the 
study of the Bible much that is excellent is said, upon the whole, and 
much that recalls to mind the similar works of Ref oi'med theolo- 
gians in this period.^ The third book treats of the scholastic the- 
ology, whose leading representative is Thomas Aquinas ; and the 
same section includes the theologia practica sive de casibus con- 
scientiae docendis. Book four deals with Catechetics, sive de juvandis 
domesticis fidei. Book five discusses Roman Catholic military (?) 
sacerdotal and monastic schools (seminaries), and also treats of 
legends, the ritual, and whatever relates to discipline and asceticism. 
The sixth and seventh books point out the course to be pursued 
with schismatics (Greeks and Russians), and Avith heretics (Wal- 

' Possevin forms a remarkable parallel to Alsted in the Reformed Church, comp. 
supra. 



KOMAN CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA. 137 

denses, Hussites, and Protestants), and the eighth indicates the 
mode of combating atheism, that of the Socinians among the rest. 
The ninth book has to do with Jews, Mohammedans, and Pagans in 
general, while the tenth and eleventh deal with the Japanese and 
other Asiatic nations in particular. The twelfth book, which begins 
the second volume, brings us to philosophy and and its relation to 
religion and theology, ancient philosophy being derived from Moses. 
The philosophies of Plato and Aristotle are then considered, the 
latter especially in great detail. Jurisprudence and medicine, 
mathematics and history, poetry and painting, occupy the space of 
the remaining books, except the last, which finally becomes a letter 
writer. This may suffice to indicate the methodically unmethodical 
character of the work.^ 

The learned Benedictine, J. Mabillon, wrote his Traite des etudes 
monastiques (Paris, 1691,) in opposition to the ascetic tendency which 
the order of Trappists and its founder Armand Jean de Bouthillier 
de R-ance ^ sought to impress upon the entire system of monastic 
orders. The work by Lud. Ellies du Pin, Methode pour etudier la 
theologie (1716), which was translated into several languages, had 
a more general aim. The publisher of Sarpi, Pierre Frangois de 
Courayer, wrote, in an anti-Roman spirit, a criticism of the theolog- 
ical method followed by the schools, entitled Examen des defauts 
theologiques, oil Fon indique les moyens de les reformer. Amst., 
1744, 2 vols. The reform, however, proceeded from Germany, in 
this field also. A movement toward increased indepen- GermaB cath- 
dence prevailed among German Roman Catholics during tieoio^'^cai en- 
the latter half of the eighteenth century, of which Denina cyclopedia. 
(1758), Gerbert (1764), Braun (1777), Brandmayer (1783), and Rau- 
tenstrauch (1781) were representatives: while Fr. Oberthur, the 
learned editor of Josephus, wrote an Encyclopaedia et Methodologia, 
(vol. i, Solisb., 1786,) which was long afterward remodelled into 
a German text-book (Augsb., 1828, 2 vols.), and which gave him 
rank with Nosselt, Planck, and T^iemeyer, in the Protestant Church. 
A methodology of the theological sciences, especially dogmatic, by 
his hand, followed the above work in the same year.' Nor did the 
Roman Catholic Church in Germany seek to resist the influence of 

* They who are acquainted with Petri Annati Methodicus theologiae apparatus (1770) 
may determine whether it renders more efficient service in these respects. 

'Traite de la saintete et des devoirs de I'etat monastique, 1683. Corap. the mono- 
graph by F. A. de Chateaubriand, Par., 1844. 

^ Additional works are by Gmeiner and Leutwein (1786), Wiesner (1788), Sartor! 
1796), Dobmayer (1807), and Thamer 1809). The influence exerted by Mich. Sailer 
in his Beitrage zur Bildung der Geistlichen (1819) and other writings was chiefly 
practical. 



138 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Schleiermacher's method, as appears from the Kurze Einleitung in das 
Studium der Theologie, mit Rtlcksicht auf d. wissenschaftl. Stand- 
punkt u. d. kathol. System, by J. S. Drey (Ttib., 1819 ; comp. Pelt., 
p. 66, sqq.). The philosophical ideas in H. Klee's Encyclopsedie 
(Mayence, 1832) are not thoroughly digested ; but F. A. Stauden- 
maier in his Encyk. der theol. Wissenschaften, etc. (Mayence, 1834, 
2d, 1840) displays a decided talent for speculation, together with 
an immoderate propensity to ramble. Staudenmaier resembles Ros- 
enkranz in regarding encyclopaedia as a philosophy of theology, and 
in disregarding the importance of the Methodological element.^ 

Seoarate con- Separate contributions to encyclopaedia were furnished by : — 

tributions to H. K. Sack, Werth u. Reiz d. Theologie u, d. Geistlichen Standes, 

theological en- Berlin, 1814; Fr. Strauss, Glockentone: Erinnerunsren a. d. Leben 
cyclopaedia. , . ^ . ,. , J .►,,!, t • -.^.Tv 

eines jungen Geistlichen, 3 parts, 7th ed. Leips., 1840. 

W. M. L. de Wette, Theodor, oder des Zweifler's Weihe. Berlin, 1822, 28. 2 vols. 
(Theodore, or the Sceptics' Conversion. Boston.) 

E. W. Krummacher, Expectorationen iiber d. Studium der Theologie, etc. Essen., 
1847. 

De Wette, Idee iiber das Studium der Theologie, edited by A. Stieren, Leips., 
1850. 

To these may be added the numerous idealistic romances on ministerial life, e. g.: — 

Hase, Des alten Pfarrer's Testament ; Erhards, Yolkmar's Bekenntnisse ; Tobler, 
Gotthold; Planck, Erstes Amtsjahr, etc., which contain hints adapted to encyclopaedia. 

* Recent Roman Catholic works : A. Genzler, Das Ideale der Wissenschaft, etc. 
(Bamb., 1834); A. L. Buchner, Encyklopaedie u. Methodologie (Sulzb., 1837); and A. 
von Sieger, De natura fidei et methodo theol ogiae ad ecclesiae catholicae theologos 
(Monast. Westphal, 1838); concerning which see Pelt., p. 72. 



PART II. 
SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

THE DEPARTMENTS OF THEOLOGY AND THEIR RELATION 
TO EACH OTHER. 



SECTION I. 
DIVISION* 

The study of positive theology is required by its nature to con- 
form to the four leading divisions of Exegetical, Historical, Sys- 
tematic, and Practical theology, and must be pursued in that order. 

As positive theology has for its source the fact of the institution 
of the Christian religion (revelation), its beginnings deoart- 

will coincide with that fact, and must be found in the ments of post- 
documents relating to such institution or revelation. ^^^ eoogy. 
Starting thus from the beginning, it traces the progress of historical 
development down to our own time, and then combines into a 
mental picture of the present what history has furnished. It obtains 
by this process a clear idea of the connexion running through the 
whole, and deduces therefrom the necessary principles for convert- 
ing theory into practice.^ 

The division into four departments was generally adopted by the 
earlier encyclopaedists, as Noesselt, Thym, Staudlin, Schmidt, and 
Planck, although the above order was not always observed ; but 
later writers have, for scientific reasons, and with but few excep- 

* The above distribution may also be justified in the following manner : The asser- 
tion is warranted that all knowledge is based either on personal (physical or mental) 
observation, or on report and tradition, and is, therefore, either theoretical (philosoph- 
ical) or historical in its nature. Historical knowledge, however, must be obtained 
by investigation, and for the latter acquaintance with languages and philological criti- 
cism is necessary ; while theoretical knowledge leads to its practical application. In 
like manner Christianity is, in its positive character, both a history and a doctrine ; 
but its history is based on the Bible, which must, first of all, be exegetically exam- 
ined ; and its doctrine is not pure knowledge, but practical. The truth of revelation 
is to be applied in the Church and the various departments of Church activity, to 
which practical theology has regard. The two departments of learning are thus con- 
fined between two fields of applied art, the exegetical at the beginning, and the prac- 
tical at the end. 



140 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

tions, departed from that arrangement, despite its advantages in a 
methodological and practical point of view. Schleiermacher pre- 
schieiermach- ferred to make three departments, and divided the 
er's division of g^ignce into philosophical, historical, and practical the- 
ogy. ology (root, trunk, and crown). The range of philo- 

sophical theology is limited by him to apologetics and polemics ; but 
he extends the domain of historical theology so as to include on the 
one hand exegesis, and on the other dogmatics and ethics — the lat- 
ter of which would seem more properly to belong to philosophical 
theology. Within that domain, however, separate places were 
assigned to exegetical and systematic theology, in order that the 
special field of historical theology proper might not be encroached 
Danz's division ^pon. Danz attempted still another division, by which 
of theology in- he separated the whole of theology into two classes of 

to a religious . . ,. . , , 

and a churcMy sciences, namely, such as pertain to religion and such 
science. ^g palate to the Church. Keligious learning is sub- 

divided into theoretical and practical, the former of which embraces 
heuristic (exegetical) and technical theology (systematic theol- 
ogy and the history of doctrines). Ecclesiastical science is like- 
wise either theoretical or practical, the former section including 
Church history, Church law, statistics, archaeology, etc., while the 
latter comprehends the " sciences of Church practice," or such as 
relate to the practical work of the Church, embracing polemics, 
irenics, liturgies, etc. This method may, at first sight, seem to pre- 
sent many advantages ; but the difficulties it involves when reduced 
to practice appear to be equally numerous. The separation of the 
religious from the Churchly element is of itself fraught with serious 
evils, since in actual Christianity the two interpenetrate each other. 
Christ founded both religion and the Church, and the Bible is as 
important to the Church as to religion. It follows that exegesis, 
for instance, is as much an ecclesiastical as a religious science. 

Still other objections arise when the method is applied to details. 
The history of doctrines and patristics is introduced before acquaint- 
ance with Church history has been made, though a knowledge of 
the latter is necessary to an understanding of the former; both 
practical and historical theology are broken into fragmentary parts, 
and the relation between apologetics and polemics is destroyed. 
This may suffice to indicate the difficulties of this division in its 
practical applications ; and the author has, at all events, failed to 
Rosenkranz's indicate the reasons which governed his action. Rosen- 
ion of positive ^^^^^ approximates more nearly to Schleiermacher, in 
theology. that he likewise divides the entire science into phil- 

osophical (which he calls speculative), historical, and practical 



EXEGESIS A DISTINCT DEPARTMENT. 141 

theology, although his speculative theology substantially includes 
dogmatics, which terra is further extended to embrace aDolegetics 
and polemics ; but he conflicts with Schleiermacher in assigning the 
leading place to systematic, which evidently must grow out of his- 
torical theologj'^, and thereby opens the way for speculation to dom- 
inate the whole in the Hegelian fashion. Stand enmaier, toe, places 
speculative theology at the front, but, singularly enough, puts prac- 
tical theology in the centre, and makes histoiical bring up the 
rear ; and Zyro is also inclined to give the first place to speculative 
theology.^ 

Kienlen and Pelt have, on the other hand, restored the precedence 
to historical theology. They adopt the division into three parts — 
historical, including exegetical, systematic, and practical theology. 
It cannot be denied that in a broad sense exegetical theology may 
be properly included under historical, inasmuch as it is the work of 
exegesis to determine conditions essentially historical, Reasons why 
and even to elucidate the primitive history of Chris- exegetical the- 
tianity itself. But historical knowledge, considered in a separate de- 
itself, is not the only element that engages the attention P^rtment. 
of exegetical theology. Exegesis in the proper sense is rather a 
certain readiness in the application of knowledge, as Schleiermacher 
himself confesses, which is based on scientific principles (hermeneu- 
tics) belonging, not to the historical, but to the philological, or, in 
the widest meaning of the term, philosophical, department. The 
historic value of the Scriptures themselves, is not, moreover, merely 
the same as that which attaches to other monuments of Christian 
and ecclesiastical antiquity. In their character, as documents of in- 
stitution or revelation, they engross our study in a very different 
manner from and to a far greater extent than do other historical 
sources. "Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna," applies to them 
with entire propriety. They rise, like the primeval mountains, 
above all the later formations of theological culture, and like the 
eternal granite rocks, they tower far above valley and hill. 

It may therefore be allowed that it is proper for Protestant 
theology, upon which devolves a special ministry of the word, to 
establish a separate department of exegetical theology, and to 
assign to the study of the Bible a sufficient, unrestricted place within 
the domain of theological learning. The objection that the dis- 
tinction made between the original and the derived is only relative," 
bears against every classification, for every thing, as we shall see, 
is relative. Or if it be said ^ that all science is either philosophical 

* Kritik der bisherigen Encyklopaedie, in Stud. u. Krit. 183Y, No. 3. 
« Pelt, p. 76. 3 Kienlen, p. 13. 



i43 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

or historical, and that every particular science must belong to one 
of these categories, we acknowledge that the statement is correct, 
Additional rea- ^^ ^^^ broad meaning by which exegesis itself becomes a 
sons for raak- historical science ; but if practical theology is entitled 
separate ^^de- to a place beside historical and systematic (thetical), al- 
partment. though its very name indicates that it is neither purely 
historical nor purely philosophical, we may, with equal propriety, 
assert the right of exegetical theology to a similar privilege. The 
truth is that both exegetical and practical theology are mixed 
sciences, which stand related not only to learning, but also to prac- 
tical skill (rexvT)), not only to knowledge, but also to ability ; and 
the fact that these very sciences form the boundary lines of the 
study, its beginning and end, points to the practical nature of the- 
ology as a whole, by which it is distinguished from pure science. 
If it should become necessary for purposes of observation to disclose 
the organism of theological science, as science simply, and without 
reference to practical needs, it would be proper to represent exegesis 
as merely an historical auxiliary science, as biblical exegesis is in 
fact for biblical theology,^ or patristic exegesis for the history of 
the Church and its doctrines. 

But the Protestant Church justly insists that, as a primary qualifi- 
cation, every theologian shall be thoroughly familiar with the Bible 
and be competent to deal with it, since more than all else, he is to be 
a well-grounded servant of the Word (verbi divini minister). This 
explains why special chairs of exegesis are every-where established ^ 
and exegetical lectures are delivered, even in Koman Catholic uni- 
versities, which have always been discriminated from the historical 
in the catalogues and in literature.^ The combination of the two — 
exegesis and history — is impracticable, confusing in a methodolog- 
ical point of view, and an innovation upon the ordinary usage of 
the terms in any language. The division we advocate may, aside 
from its practical utility, derive further support from the analogy 
of the distribution of the pure sciences, discussed above, where we 
have, first, the study of language and history, next philosophy, and 
finally professional culture. In the theological field, exegesis cor- 

' Pelt., 1. c. 

^ There was even a time when, in the Reformed Church, theology was wholly resolved 
into exegesis. In Basle at least there were but two chairs of theology from the Ref- 
ormation down to the earlier period of the seventeenth century, viz., of Old and New 
Test, exegesis. Comp. Hagenbach, Die theol. Schule Easels u. ihre Lehrer., 1860, 4to. 

' Com., for example, Winer's Handbuch d. theol. Literatur. No well arranged 
library will class exegetical with historical works ; and no person will, for instance, 
place Ernesti upon the same level of merit with Mosheim. Over-keenness is eouiva- 
lent to dullness. 



THE PLACE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 143 

responds to philology,' historical to history, systematic to philoso- 
phy, and practical to art.' Thus much respecting the continued use 
of the ancient " four ruts," which, though worn, should not be held 
responsible for the faults of wretched drivers. 

SECTION n. 

ARRANGEMENT OF THE FOUR DEPARTMENTS. 

The greatest diversity prevails also in the matter of arrangement. 
Every person who is not governed by an a priori preju- 
dice in favor of a priori modes of thought, must see that oiogy the nrst 
to give the first place to systematic theology is utterly ^^ ^^^®^* 
impracticable. The assertion that Church history cannot be mas- 
tered before the idea has been made clear by speculation,^ is almost 
sufficient to recall the boy in the fable who desired to wait until the 
stream should have passed by, before crossing over. On this plan 
there could be no history of the world before the world is under- 
stood ! Christianity itself would need to be mentally constructed 
before it could be examined as it appears in the Scriptures. To 
begin with dogmatics would assuredly deliver us again into the 
power of scholasticism, from whose control the human mind was 
emancipated by the Reformation. The reasons, therefore, Avhich 
justify the assignment of a separate department to exegetical the- 
ology, justify, also, the placing of its study at the head. The the- 
ologian must begin with exegesis and first of all become acquainted 
with the foundations. Upon this principle Protestant theology 
must insist, unless it wishes to become untrue to its principles.* 

' Philology is likewise a historical science in the wide sense, and that very fact dis- 
criminates between it and mere linguistics ; but the progressive reading of an author 
will nevertheless always be considered philological rather than historical. Philologists 
and historia.ns are likewise related, but not identical, classes of investigators. 

^ Individual qualifications likewise lead to distinct results, so that the student who 
excels in the study of languages usually becomes a good exegete, and he who has the 
historical faculty becomes a Church historian. Philosophical ability will find its 
proper field in systematic theology, and a talent for using the vernacular in artistic 
description, etc., indicates the coming preacher and liturgist. 

2 Zyro, p. 694. 

* Jerome already expressed this idea in his Comm. ad Jesaiam, " Qui nescit scripturas 
nescit Dei virtutem ejusque sapientiam ; ignoratio scripturarum ignoratio Christi est." 
It may be said, perhaps, that in order to consider the Bible as attesting the faith of 
Christianity, it is essential that it be examined from the Christian point of view, and 
that therefore apologetics must be first gone over ; hence that theology as a whole 
should begin with apologetics. Regarded merely in its principles, the idea is not bad ; 
but how can apologetics be discussed without a previous acquaintance with the mate- 
rial to which it relates ? Only they who have become interested in the study of the 
Bible are capable of deriving profit from the study of apolegetics. 



144 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The only question that remains concerns the relative positions of 
systematicandhistorical theology; for it is evident that practical 
The relative theology should close the course (though Staudenmaier 
positionsofsys- places it in the middle). The precedence of system- 
Soricai the- atic before historical theology is advocated on the 
oiogy. ground that in point of fact Christianity possessed a 

body of doctrine from the very beginning, which, accordingly, is 
not an aggregate resulting from the entire course of historical de- 
velopment, but, on the contrary, assumed a sort of systematic form 
at an early period, as the Apostles' Creed sufficiently attests.^ It is 
also contended that the history of doctrines can only be studied 
with proper interest, when it follows upon the study of dogmatics, 
and after the nature and true meaning of a doctrine has been appre- 
hended. With regard to this question every thing depends upon a 
separation of Biblical from ecclesiastical dogmatics (infra). We 
acknowledge that the former results from exegesis, and may be suc- 
cessfully studied without a preliminary course of Church history and 
history of doctrines ; but it will appear in our discussion of system- 
atic theology that Biblical dogmatics is simply a preliminary histor- 
ical branch, and not dogmatics in the proper sense, which latter 
Reasons why assumes the existence of Church doctrines as well as 
preSe^^dog- ^i^^® doctrines, and constitutes the consummation of 
matics. the whole. It will also be seen, in connexion with our 

treatment of the history of doctrines, that Biblical dogmatics forms 
the natural point of transition from historical to systematic theol- 
ogy. Not until the mind has developed its powers by historical 
studies, and has acquired facility in the broad philosophical man- 
agement of thought, will it be fitted to attempt the study of dog- 
matics, that demands a robust intellect. The mind that, on the 
contrary, begins the study of theology with dogmatics, may be lik- 
ened to the bird which undertakes to fly before its wings have 
All divisions of grown, or the architect who attempts the erection of a 
Sf '""ViatTve building before its foundations have been laid. But that 
only. every division is only relative, and that in every single 

branch of theological study all the others are involved,^ even as in a 

* Fleck, in a review of Pelt's Encykl., in the Allgem. Kirclien-Zeitung. 1844. 

"^ Exegetieal theology involves historical elements (introduction, archaeology), and 
also doctrinal (criticism, hermenuetics) and practical (practical exposition) ; historical 
theology embraces exegetieal functions (the study of sources, exposition of ecclesias- 
tical writers) and the dogmatic compilation of both Biblical and ecclesiastical dogmat- 
ics, and likewise has outlets leading into the practical field, e. g., through Church an- 
tiquities into liturgies, or through the history of the constitution of the Church into 
ecclesiastical law Systematic theology falls back (in its proof passages) upon exe- 



ALL THE DEPARTMENTS CO-RELATED, 145 

well-tuned musical instrument all the related chords will resound 
when any single one is struck, are truths that cannot be too strongly 
impressed.^ No science has either an absolute beginning or an ab- 
solute end ; and the suggestion (in § 2) that encyclopaedia should, 
in justice, occupy a double place in the theological course, will ac- 
cordingly apply to any other special study. 

The student who is familiar with systematic and practical theology, 
and perhaps even with the practical experiences of ministerial life, 
as well as with the lessons of personal experience, will apprehend 
the Bible in a very different light from that in which the new be- 
ginner sees its truths — this, too, though he be governed by the most 
sublime "absence of predisposition." The same observation applies 
also to Church history, the history of doctrines, etc. We are not, 
however, inclined on that account to plant theology on its head, or 
to call the branches roots, because roots may be propagated from 
them ; the true rule is, to apply designations to the departments in 
harmony with the features which predominate in them, and to apply 
the same method to the settling of the order in which they are to 
succeed each other. 

gesis, and calls into recollection the history of doctrines and symbolics, besides being 
required to treat the body of doctrine in its practical bearings and by its doctrine of 
the Church to furnish a sub-basis for practical theology. The latter, finally, is wholly 
dependent upon exegesis, on history, and on doctrine. The analogy of nature, which 
in its earlier formations prefigures those of a later age, and in later stages of devel- 
opment repeats the forms of an earlier period, holds good with reference to this sub- 
ject. It would not be difficult to discover the tendency to fall into four parts in each 
of the several branches specified in the text. Each takes the hand of the other ; each 
affords an outlook into the other ; and whenever a single branch comes to a living 
development,, the others are found to be involved with it and entitled to equal 
recognition. 

' Without a systematic connexion of ideas and a practical judgment both exegesis 
and history must continue to be capita mortua ; while, on the other hand, systematic 
and practical theology would, without the others, be founded on air. 
10 



146 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 



CHAPTER I. 

EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 



SECTION I, 

Exegetical theology embraces every thing that relates to the in- 

^ ^ .X. - terpretation and exposition of the Old and New Testa- 
Deflnition of ^ . „ . 

exegetical the- ment Scriptures, and therefore includes both exegesis 
oiogy. itself, considered as an art, and the auxiliary sciences 

which enable us to apply that art. Its results appear in Biblical 
theology, which may be subdivided into historical and dogmatic 
elements (sacred history and Bible doctrines). 

Exegetical theology has the Bible for its object, for which reason 
•me Bible the it has been denominated Biblical theology {e. g., by 
^eticai^the^oiol ^^^^)- '^^^ latter, however, is simply the result ob- 
gy. tained by exegetical processes, the sum total of the gains 

secured through the investigations of the student of the Scriptures. 
Exegesis, in the proper meaning of the term, is the application of a 
method (hermeneutics) to existing writings ; ^ but for the execution 
of its function the aid of an additional philological and critical ap- 
paratus is necessary, which, in all its extent, is likewise included in 
the domain of exegetical theology. The results of exegesis proper 
are partly historical and partly dogmatic in their nature ; and even 
practical theology depends on it for immediate advantages (the re- 
lation of the text to the sermon). The study of the Bible cannot be 
covered by exegesis alone, for the Scriptures command the entire 
range of theological learning, and cannot, accordingly, be forced 
within the limits of a special branch for purposes of study. Exe- 
gesis is simply the key, with which to unlock the sanctuary of Bible 
truth. Every thing, however, depends upon a proper use of the 

* " The term ^E^TfyijTai was primarily applied by the ancients to persons who di- 
rected the attention of curious inquirers to the outwardly remarkable features of a 
city or a temple, for which reason they were also called ■KepLrjyrjraL ; but more espec- 
ially to persons of higher dignity, who brought the layman into sympathy with divine 
things, and who read the signs in the heavens and the auguries in the sacrificial vic- 
tim, and also interpreted the oracles." Creuzer, Symbolik, i, p. 15. Comp. Passow's 
Worterbuch. 



THE HUMAN ELEMENT IN THE BIBLE. 147 

key, and exegetical theology is concerned to so master its peculiari- 
ties as to become able to seize upon the treasures of Biblical theol- 
ogy. The relation of exegetical to Biblical theology is, conse- 
quently, that of the journey to the destination, or of labor to its gains. 

' SECTION II. 

OF HOLY SCRIPTURE CONSIDERED AS THE OBJECT OF EXEGESIS 

ITS IDEA AND EXTENT. 

Comp. the Art. Bibel in Ersch and Gruber's Encyklopsedie (also in a separate reprint, Leips., 
1823), and in Herzog, Encykl.— together with the corresponding articles, Bibeltext des A. u. N. T., 
Bibelubersetzungen, etc.; *Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, art. 3, Die heil, Schrift: Holtzmann, Kanon 
u. Tradition, Ludwigsburg, 1859 ; * Herm. Schaltz, Stellung des christl. Glaubens zur hell. 
Schrift, etc., In Volksbl. f . d. Ref. Kircke d. Schweiz, 1872, Nos. 11-13. 

The Bible or the holy Scripture of Christianity (Biblia sacra, rd 
<3f/3Am T^em, legd ygacprj, i^ela ypacprj) is a collection of documents re- 
lating to religion and its history, which date from different periods 
and were written by different authors. When conceived as a unit 
comprehended under the higher designation of the word of God, 
and as concentrating its energies upon a common object in behalf 
of religion and the Church, that of giving direction to Christian 
faith and life — ^this collection forms the canon of the Scriptures, in 
distinction from the Apocrypha and all other writings of human 
origin. 

The nature of encyclopaedia requires that it should at the begin- 
ning appropriate to itself certain elements which according to its own 
principles belong to the science of Introduction. Its object is to se- 
cure a proper appreciation of the Scriptures by the stu- Relation of en- 
dent who enters upon their study, and to point out the sci- ^^e study oi the 
entific methods appropriate for his work. Sound views Bible, 
respecting the Bible itself are first of all to be secured, for the 
attainment of which a partial intrusion into the fields of apologetics 
and dogmatics will certainly become necessary, though merely in a 
general way. It is of the highest importance that both the relig- 
ious character and the historical nature of the Scriptures should 
be examined with both holy zeal and unbiassed judgment, in order 
that the reverence due the book of God may not cause its human 
side to be overlooked, or that the many and diverse subjects discov- 
ered from the human point of observation may not lead to the 
rejection of its Divine character. Herder, the exponent of the 
purely human has demonstrated that in one point of view the Bible 
is a human book ; and no inquirer of later times will The human 
venture to controvert this human element, which is ap- ^'le^to^be^cS- 
parent in the variety of authors and of dates, in the sidered. 
language, in modes of expression, etc. To this must be added the 



148 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

reflection that the Bible did not fall from the heavens in its completed 
form but was gradually collected, and that its different component 
parts did not escape the misfortune of all the written monuments of 
ancient times, by which what was genuine became mixed with ele- 
ments not genuine, and the text in occasional instances was cor- 
rupted. This human side presents matters of great interest to 
scientific investigation ; but such investigation becomes utterly im- 
possible on the rigid theory of a verbal inspiration of the Scriptures. 
The interest taken in philological and historical questions, does 
not, however, destroy all regard for the religious and theological 
elements, for the Divine character of the Bible, which constitutes 
The tie which the ground of its importance to religion and theology.^ 

binds the books ^ invariable religious reference to an institution 
of the Bible to- ^ /. i t • i> i 

gether. founded by God and designed for the education ol the 

1 " The Bible, when viewed in its essence, is found to present only a single body of 
truth, not, however, in the form of unvarying and formally repeated dead traditions, 
which are handed down from age to age, but as displaying the most active life, since 
the different truths continually develop with the progress of time, and assume differ- 
ent aspects and a more definite character, without becoming a confused mass or com- 
ing into conflict with each other. The truth, passing through manifold forms, is un- 
folded from the germ to the fruit on a single plan of development, a series of living 
intermediate members receiving what already exists into themselves and carrying it 
forward in harmony with their own nature, and transmitting it to their successors for 
a similar treatment, until the whole is rounded into completed truth — the ripened fruit 
produced by the entire tree, which possesses the developed power of germination, in 
order to a further development in which its inborn nature shall be reproduced." Tob. 
Beck, Einl. in d. System d. christl. Lehre, p. 216. — The religious investigation of the 
Bible belongs to the sphere of faith ; and in consequence persons possessed of robust 
faith, like Luther, have always expressed the judgment respecting the Bible which 
faith is still compelled to repeat, despite every freedom from preconceived views 
which scientific inquiry may have produced. " In summa, the holy Bible is the grand- 
est and best book of God — full of comfort in every tribulation, for it teaches much of 
faith, hope, and love, that is different from what reason is able to see, feel, conceive, 
or learn. And it teaches when misfortune comes, how such virtues are to shine forth, 
and that another and eternal life lies beyond this poor, wretched life. ... I beseech and 
faithfully admonish every pious Christian not to take offence or be disturbed at the simple 
discourses and narratives found in the Bible, and not to doubt its truth, however poor 
and silly they may seem to be ; they are yet simply the word, work, history, and judg- 
ments of the exalted majesty, might, and truth of God. In this book are found the 
swaddling-cloths and manger in which Christ has lain, Avhither the angel also sends 
the shepherds ; they are, no doubt, poor and mean swaddling-cloths, but precious is 
the treasure, Christ, which they enfold." Similar remarks by Luther on the Bible are 
scattered through his works. Comp. J. G. Mueller, Theophil., p. 235, sqq. The strong 
sense of the peculiar character of the Bible and its value above all other books enter- 
tained by Goethe also, is apparent in many passages of his works. Comp. Aus meinem 
Leben, vol. i, book 4, and Farbenlehre, ii, p. 138: "The Bible owes the great venera- 
tion, in which it has been held by many nations and generations of the earth, to its 
inherent value. It is not merely a national book, but the book for the nations, be- 



THE DIVINE ELEMENT IN THE BIBLE. 149 

human race, forms the tender spiritual tie holding together the leaves 
which in their outward form are but loosely connected, and which, 
if torn from the trunk of the theocracy and the historical root reach- 
ing back into the beginning of things, would cease to be what they 
are as parts of this whole. Such reference, however, is far more 
definite and apparent in one book than in another, and in some 
portions of the Scriptures seems to disappear or become obscure. 
It follows, accordingly, that the Bible is still a sacred literature, 

not only as distinguished from the profane, if it be 
.11, , 1 .1 The Bible con- 

thought proper to apply that term to all literature stitutes a sa- 

which does not come into immediate contact with the ^red literature. 
religious life, but also as distinguished from every other religious, 

cause it employs the fortunes of one nation as a symbol of all others, connects its his- 
tory with the origin of the world, and carries it through the gradations of earthly and 
spiritual development in connexion with necessary and accidental events, to the far- 
thest regions of the most distant eternity. . . . The more the centuries increase in 
culture the more will the Bible be made in part the foundation of education and in 
part an agency in its behalf, not, of course, by conceited persons, but by the truly 
wise." Comp. many extracts in Hagenbach, Leitfaden zum christl. Rel.-unterricht, 
3d ed. (Leips., 1861), p. 32, sqq. Also Bunsen, Gott in d. Geschichte, i, p. 94. " The 
narratives of this book are God's word to mankind. A word in servant's form, of 
course ; but this is true of -all Divine things that pass over the earth ; it is true of the 
Deity itself, as the immutable idea of the common source of being in this world. A 
book of ruins, too ; but the ruins are pervaded by a living spirit. A book, moreover, 
of humble language ; but in words that are undying, because every human heart bears 
witness to them. A book sweeping through thousands of years, full of apparent con- 
tradictions, like nature, and man, and the history of our race ; but ever young and in 
harmony with itself through the unity of the Spirit which produced it, even as crea- 
tion is a unit, with all its contrasts, and even by reason of all its contrasts. A book 
for sages and yet capable of being understood, like God's nature, by every child, 
namely, according to the measure of its understanding. A book written in dead lan- 
guages, and yet eternally living in the tongues of the nations." Rothe, too, has perti- 
nent remarks (zur Dogmatik), e. g., p. 225 : " It is precisely through such human and 
personal qualities that the Bible receives a freshness and charm that are profoundly af- 
fecting, and it is precisely this wonderful interplay and commingling of the Divine and hu- 
man, and still more this constant interpenetration of the two, that the pious soul famil- 
iar with its qualities recognizes as the most eminent characteristic among its pecuhar- 
ities." Also p. 345 : " The sacredness and all that constitutes the unique character 
of the Bible depend unalterably and altogether upon what it actually is and what it act- 
ually proves itself to be for him who approaches it in a teachable spirit, and not at all 
upon the character given it or the qualities arbitrarily assigned to it by dogmatics." 

It is not the habit of English scholars to make apology for the form in which 
Scripture conveys its truth. From the earliest years of the Reformation a reverence 
for the letter and style of the Bible, as in every way worthy of its rich contents, is 
observable in English literature. The book is familiarly described as the Great Clas- 
sic. In Bacon's Advancement of Learning this reverential tone is noticeable in every 
reference to Scripture. Barrow makes a special point of the worthiness of the form 
of the Bible for the convevance of a divine message. In his sermon on the Excel- 



150 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

and even Christian, literature, which, being only the word of man 
as contrasted with the word of God, can only sustain a subordinate 
relation to the Scriptures. 

The latter distinction, by which sacred is discriminated from 
other religious literature, furnishes the ejround for the 

Apocryphal writ- . » ' -it i i •. 

ings: whysodis- separation between the canonical and apocryphal writ- 
tinguished. -^^g which is maintained in our Church. The Bible is 

termed the canon, and its several parts canonical books,' inasmuch 

lence of the Christian Religion he says: "It propoundeth itself in a style and garb 
of speech, as accommodate to the general capacity of its hearers, so proper to. the au- 
thority which it claimeth, becoming the majesty and sincerity of divine truth ; it ex- 
presseth itself plainly and simply, without any affectation or artifice, without osten- 
tation of wit or eloquence, such as men study to insinuate and impress their devices 
by : it also speaketh with an imperious and awful confidence, such as argueth the 
speaker satisfied both of his own wisdom and authority ; that he doubteth not of what 
he saith himself, that he knoweth his hearers obliged to believe him : its words are 
not like the words of a wise man, who is wary and careful that he slip not into mis- 
take, (interposing therefore now and then his maybes and perchances,) nor like 
the words of a learned scribe, grounded on semblances of reason, and backed with 
testimonies; nor as the words of a crafty sophister, who, by long circuits, subtile 
fetches, and sly trains of discourse, doth inveigle men to his opinion ; but like the 
words of a king, carrying with them authority and power uncontrollable, commanding 
forthwith attention, assent, and obedience ; this you are to believe, this you are to do, 
upon pain of our high displeasure, at your utmost peiil be it ; your life, your salvation 
dependeth thereon : such is the style and tenor thereof, plainly such as becometh the 
sovereign Lord of all to use, when he shall please to proclaim his mind and will to 
us." Jeremy Taylor is, in the expression of this reverence, not a whit behind Barrow : 
"For the meaning of the spirit of God is not like the wind blowing fi'om one point, 
but like light issuing from the body of the sun, it is light round about ; and in every 
word of God there is a treasure, and something will be found somewhere to answer 
every doubt, and to clear every obscurity, and to teach every truth, by which God 
intends to perfect our understanding." (Sermon on the Minister's Duty in Life and 
Doctrine.) Even Coleridge, who says of the theory of verbal inspiration that it 
changes the living organism of Holy Writ into a " colossal Memnon's head, a hollow 
passage for a voice that mocks the voices of many men," speaks impatiently of the 
spirit which disparages the human element in revelation. In his Studies on Homer, 
Mr. Gladstone suggests that it is a mistake to bring the Old Testament before the 
tribunal of mere literary criticism ; that " we can no more compare Isaiah and the 
Psalms with Homer than we can compare David's heroism with Diomed's, and that 
we shall most nearly do justice to each by observing carefully the boundary lines of 
their respective provinces." He adds: "All that is peculiar in our conception of 
Isaiah or of Jeremiah does not tend so much to make them eminent among men as to 
separate them from other men," and this may be said of all the Scripture writers. 

^ Comp. H. Planck, Nonnulla de significatu canonis in eccl. antiqua ejusque serie 
recte constituenda (Gott., 1820), which contradicts the opinion of Semler and Eich- 
horn that kuvcov merely denotes a catalogue of books, Comp. also Nitzsch, System 
der christl, Lehre, § 40, sq., and especially Credner, zur Gesch, des Kanons, p. 6, sqq. 
Kavuv (corresponding to Heb. njp, a staff, reed) is equivalent to rule, measure, norm. 
Holtzmann, 1. c. 



IMPORTANCE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 151 

as the " Word of God," contained in the Scriptures, is regarded as 
the whole of Scripture, and, therefore, as the Divine rule of faith 
and practice. As sacred literature stands opposed to profane in the 
more extended fields, so the canonical contrasts with the apocryphal 
within narrower limits. In the ecclesiastical vocabulary sucli relig- 
ious writings are termed apocryphal as are considered useful and 
good, but not pervaded by the peculiar spirit of the theocracy (the 
Old Testament Apocrypha usually appended to the canon) ;^ or such 
(like many of the New Testament apocryphal writings) as betray a 
tendency foreign to original apostolic Christianity, or at any rate, 
are not in thorough harmony with it, and, therefore, not received 
as canonical.^ 

SECTION III. 

RELATION OF THE OLD TO THE XEW TESTAMENT. 

The canon of the Scriptures is divided into the books of the Old 
and New Testaments {naXaid, Kaivrj diadrifcrj).^ The Christian theo- 
logian is, in that character, to deal primarily with the New Testa- 
ment as being the immediate source of revelation for the ctiristian theo- 
Christian religion; but he is nevertheless required to logians should 
include the Old Testament Scriptures also in the range Testament, and 
of his investio-ations: ^'*^y- 

o 

' In the ancient Church the Apocrypha were kno\\Ti as libri ecclesiastici. They had 
been appended to the Greek version of the LXX, and came into circulation by that 
means ; but Jerome Avished to have them separated from the canon, while Augustine 
advocated their retention. Upon this question the Protestants have taken sides with 
Jerome and the Roman Catholics with Augustine. The English and Scottish Churches 
urge this distinction more than others, and insist upon its practical application. In 
recent times the question has given rise to disputes upon the Continent also. Comp. 
the writings against the Apocrypha by Ph. F. Keerl, Das Wort Gottes u. d. Apokr. dea 
A. T's, Leips., 1853 ; J. U. Oschwald, Die Apokr. in d. Bibel, Zurich, 1853 ; and those 
for the Apocrypha, by E. W. Hengstenberg, Beibehaltung der Apokr., Berl., 1853, 
reprinted from the Evang. Kirchen Zeitung; and R. Stier, Die Apokryphen, etc., 
Brunsw., 1853. Bleek furnishes a scientific and unbiassed discussion of the subject, 
in Stellung der Apokr, des A. T. im christl. Kanon, in Stud. u. Krit., 1853, 2, pp. 
26*7-354. The difference should certainly be recognized in practice ; but the animos- 
ity which has in recent times contended zealously against the circulation of these 
books in connexion Avith the Bible, cannot be commended. 

■^ Comp. G. Brockmann, De Apocryphorum appellatione, Gryph., 1766; Gieseler, 
Was heisst Apokryphisch ? in Stud. u. Krit,, 1829, No. 1, p. 141, sqq. ; de Wette, Einl. 
ins A. T., 6th ed., p. 10; Schleiermacher, § 109. 

' The word testamentum occurs first in Tertullian, Adv. Marc, iv, 11, who also em- 
ploys the term instrumentum. Concerning the original signification of diad-TjKj}, as 
corresponding to the Heb., n''1Il (foedus), and the transition to the idea of "testa- 
ment" (Heb. ix, 16), see the lexicons. Knapp (of Halle) beautifully says, "We are 
to read the Testament, not like the jurist, who criticizes, but like a child that inherits," 
Comp. Eylert, Fr. Wilh., iii, p. 325. 
11 



152 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

1. Because the monotheistic underlying principle of the New 
Testament is grounded in the Old, and its economy (plan of salva- 
tion) has its preparation in the Old Covenant. 

2. Because the modes of thought and expression found in the 
Old Testament, furnish the only key for comprehending the New. 

3. Because t]ie Old Testament contains sections whose theocratic 
and ideally religious character gives them immediate didactic and 
edifying value for the Christian, and possesses for him all the au- 
thority of Divine revelation. 

Opinions have always been divided with regard to the relation 
Differentviews ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ Testament to the New and the value of the 

of the value of former to the Christian. The Judaizinsj (Ebionitish) 
the Old Testa- c \ / 

ment to the tendency was opposed by certain Gnostics (Marcionites), 

Church. while the Manichaeans rejected the Old Testament; and 

in the period of the Reformation a zealous opposition to the Law 
was manifested by the Antinomians, though this movement was re- 
pressed. Renewed attention to the Hebrew language served, on 
the contrary, to greatly encourage the study of the Old Testa- 
ment, and the theology and Church government of the Reformed 
Church especially assumed an Old Testament character. In the 
end, oriental and rabbinical learning threatened to overshadow and 
smother all other learning. The Socinians, on the contrary, dis- 
tinguished between the Old and New Testaments so far as to con- 
sider the latter alone as in any proper sense the source of revelation ; 
and they were followed by a number of rationalists in the last cen- 
tury.^ Other rationalists, however, evinced a strong preference for 
the Old Testament, which arose from their Ebionitic point of view. 
They preferred to select texts from the book of Proverbs rather 
than from the writings of Paul; and they rated the morality of the 
apocryphal book of Wisdom as high as that of Jesus Christ. But 
many strictly orthodox persons likewise devoted themselves prefer- 
ably to the Old Testament, and especially to its typical sections, 
because they found it more congenial to their dispositions to appre- 
hend " Christ in the Old Testament " through the obscure medium 
of types, than in the New, as there presented in clear conceptions 
schieiermach- adapted to the human mind. The course of Schleier- 
oftheoldTes- iii^'Cher, who, in opposition to such extreme ten- 
tament. dencies, assigned to the Old Testament a position so 

' Thiess, for instance, (in his Anleitung zur Amtsberedsamkeit der Religionslehrer des 1 9 
Jahrhunderts, p. 139), asserts that "for the teacher of religion the entire Old Testament 
is composed of apocryphal books, from which he may hardly venture to borrow a few 
pages" (!); and Sintenis, in Theol. Brief e (Part I) recommended that "the entire Old 
Testament be cashiered without mercy " ( ! ). Comp. Augusti, Dogmengeschichte, p. 193. 



THE NEW TESTAMENT IN THE OLD. 153 

subordinate, as to barely recognize in it the accidental soil in 
which Christianity is rooted, is, as his followers acknowledge,' 
simply another extreme founded on a misapprehension of the pe- 
culiar character of the Covenant ; but it is historically explicable. 
The religion of salvation is contained in the Old Testament in 
the form of prophecy (in the wide meaning of the term), though 
it is apparently bound to the religion of law ; and Luther in 
his time would not limit the Gospel idea to the letter of the New 
Testament, but traced it backward through the prophecies of the 
Old.* More recent theology, since the time of Schleiermacher, has 
made undeniable progress in this direction, though the relation be- 
tween prophecy and fulfillment is not always clear, and many things 
may be shrouded in the gloom of that magical twilight in which a 
certain school finds so much pleasure.^ 

It must be conceded in any event that New Testament modes of 
thought and expression are inexplicable without the The form of 
study of the Old, and that an immense number of pas- ^^ou^TdeSved 
sages in the former are taken from the latter and refer from the oid. 
back to it, even though the inquiry be pushed no further than the 
external relations existing between the two. Such passages cannot 
be isolated and torn from their proper connexion, but must be ex- 
amined and comprehended in combination with the whole to which 
they belong. But in addition to the peculiar relation sustained by 
the Old Testament to the New, there is contained in it so much of 
a general and religious nature, in a human point of view (the relig- 
ious contemplation of nature, patriotism, ethical wisdom), that this 
quality alone possesses a sufficient charm to invite to the diligent 
study of its pages. The idea of a Divine training of humanity, 
the training of a nation that it may become the chosen people of 
God, is so grand and peculiar, as compared with any thing af- 

* See Schweizer, Ref, Glaiibenslehre, p, 95 ; Pelt, Encyk., p. 129. 

* The relation between the Old and New Testaments has been variously determined 
by recent theologians. Nitzsch's view (System of Christ. Doct., p. 79) is that the 
New Testament is related to the Old as " completion is to preparation, the removal of 
barriers to limitation, the immediate to the mediate." W. Hoffmann; Die gottliche 
Stufenordnung im Alten Test., Berlin, 1854, p. 7: "In comparison with heathenism 
the Old Testament possesses a strong consciousness of victory, but it approaches the 
coming Christianity with a humiliating consciousness of imperfection." 

' Comp, J. Ch. K. Hoffmann, Weissagung u. Erfiillung im Alten u. Neuen Test,, 
Nordlingen, 1841-44, 2 vols., and the review of Ebrard in Tholuck's Lit. Anzeiger, 
1843, Nos. 16-18. On Old Testament prophetism see the articles by Gueder and 
Oehler in Herzog's Encykl., vol. xii ; A. E. Biedermann, Die Propheten des alten Bundes,^ 
in Zeitstimmen aus d. ref. Schweiz, 1860; Tholuck, Die Propheten u. ihre Weissa- 
gungen, Gotha, 1860. In opposition to errors in this field, see Herin. Hupfeld, Die 
heutige theosoph. oder mythologische Theologie u. Schrifterklarung, Bei'lin, 1861, 



154 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

forded by the other religions of antiquity, that the study of the Old 
Testament becomes one of the highest and most profitable tasks of 
science in a general religious and historical point of view. 

Furthermore, the connexion between the Old Testament and the 
'New is vital, for the New Testament has its roots in the Old. It 
is one kingdom of God which is the subject of the history in both. 
In expressing penitence, joy, and faith, the Psalms touch the deep- 
est depths of Christian feeling, and the prophecies of Isaiah are by 
anticipation evangelical. The Bible can never be rightly studied 
unless the two Testaments are comprehended in their unity and 
harmony. If the Old Testament is in the New in fulfillment, the 
New is in the Old in promise. There is force in the thought of 
Archbishop Trench that in a just and reasonable sense all the Old 
Testament is prophetic, " that the subtle threads of prophecy are 
woven through every part of the texture, not separable from thence 
without rending and destroying the whole. All the Old Testament 
is the record of a divine constitution, pointing to something higher 
than itself, administered by men who were ever looking beyond them- 
selves to a Greater that should come ; who were uttering, as the Spirit 
stirred them, the deepest longings of their souls after his appear- 
ing, is prophetic; and this not by an arbitrary appointment, which 
meant thus to supply evidences ready to hand for the truth of Reve- 
lation, in the curious tallying of the Old with the New, but prophetic 
according to the inmost necessities of the case, which would not suffer 
it to be otherwise." ' 

SECTIo^^ ly. 

THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

The Old Testament embraces the documents relating to the his- 
contents of the ^ory of the Hebrew nation and religion, "down to a 
Old Testament, certain period." The books of which it is composed 
are generally divided into historical, prophetical, and poetical; but 
the division cannot be strictly applied to details. 

The Jews divided the sacred books (lypn ^^2D t^ipn '3^3) into the 

Usual Jewish Law (hiid), the Prophets (d'N^dj), and the Hagiographa 

dlTlslon of the - ^ "" ' - . 

books. (D'^tds). The prophets are subdivided into earlier 

(D'Jityx")) and later (n'jnnx). The former class included the histor- 
ical books, beginning with Joshua and ending with Kings; while 
the latter was again subdivided into greater (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and 
Ezekiel) and lesser prophets, the latter forming a separate book. 
The Hagiographa included Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Ruth, 
Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 
* Hulsean Lecture for 1845 ; pp. 85, 86. 



DIVISION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 155 

Chronicles. The inconvenient character of this mode of arranging 
and naming is apparent ; ^ and the more recent method of division, 
in which the Alexandrian Jews led the way, and which ^^^g Aiexan- 
classified the different books as theocratic-historical, the- drian ciassm- 
ocratically inspired (prophets), and didactic and poeti- oid Testament 
cal, is therefore to be preferred. It should be remem- books. 
bered that such a division can, in view of the entire structure of the 
Bible, be only relative, inasmuch as history and doctrine,^ poetry 
and prose,^ are combined in manifold ways in a majority of its 
books. It is for this very reason that the study of the Bible, and 
of the Old Testament in particular, becomes so stimulating and 
profitable, as to demonstrate that the Scriptures are no dry and 
formally completed system, but a beautiful variegated garden of 
God, in which the most diverse trees, herbs, shrubs, and flowers 
grow and give forth their fragrance; and above this diversity 
hovers, as above the waters on creation's morn, the spirit, peculiar 
to the Bible, of theophany and theocracy. A definite physiognomy 
looks out upon us from the theophanies, a holy, majestic, and per- 
sonal will speaks in the law and the prophecies; in the first instance, 
the physiognomy and will of a national God, no doubt, but still of 
a God who will tolerate no other gods besides, and who, exalted 
above all limitation, is sacredly and divinely conscious of possessing 
eternally creative power and universal dominion over the world. * 

^ A deeper reason for it may, however, be discovered ; comp. W. Hoffmann, Gottliche 
Stufenordnung im A. T., p. 30, on which, p. 6, the author truly and beautifully observes : 
" The Torah, the law or doctrine generally, which is the text and root of all teaching and 
learning in matters pertaining to salvation before the time of Christ, constitutes the 
foundation of the old covenant, the wonderful, massive substructure, upon which is 
grounded the graceful, rich columnar forest of the prophets, with its glorious and bold or- 
naments of sacred poetry, which ornaments are fruit-bearing in their turn. It (the To- 
rah) is the instituting of the true religion, the most ancient revelation in a human form." 
Bunsen likewise insists, in his Bibelwerk, that the ancient divisions should be retained. 

^ " It is apparent to all that in the two sections of this important work (the Old and 
New Testaments) the historical and the doctrinal elements are intimately combined in 
such a way that one aids and supplements the other, as perhaps in no other book." 
Goethe, 1. c. 

' It is assuredly a delicate thread that passes through the Old and New Testament 
Scriptures, and especially through sections in which image and reality, history and 
poetry, come into contact. Rude hands are rarely able to follow, and much less un- 
ravel it, without tearing or entangling — without harming either the poetry or the his- 
tory, which are spun by it into a whole." Herder, Theophron (Werke zur Rel. u. 
Theol, X, p. 222, sq.). 

^ A more unjustifiable statement has probably never been made, than that the Old 
Testament God is simply an extra-mundane, abstract God. The very reverse is true. 
Nothing can be more concrete than the determinate God of Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob. Bahr (Symbolik, i, p. 9) is consequently correct when he says, " The underly- 



156 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The leading object of the Old Testament, that of revelation, does 
Theieadino-ob- ^^* appear from isolated passages, but from the whole 
ject of the Old of its development ; and the present age, because of its 

Testament vis- •/•• >•-• j. .• p-i 

ibie throughout niania tor mvestigatmg separate portions oi the canon- 
its contents, ical Scriptures, is less capable than its predecessor of 
obtaining a comprehensive view of the Divine plan for educating 
the race, such as was still possible to Lessing, Hess, Herder, Ha- 
mann, and Kleuker, though from different points of view. It 
is to be hoped, however, that the constructive spirit of a coming 
age may, assisted by such preparatory critical labours, be able to 
erect the edifice of Old Testament theology with a more certain 
hand and in a purer style than was possible to that earlier period 
with its more limited historical horizon.^ But for an understand- 
ing of the Old Testament a knowledge of the New is necessary, in 
like manner as, on the other hand, the study of the former is impor- 
tant for the exposition of the latter (comp. sect. 2) ; and since it is 
evident, as a general truth, that " the peculiar character of a people 
can only be clearly recognized in the closing and crowning period 
of its history," it follows that " Jesus Christ is to the understanding 
of Israelitish history what Csesar Augustus is to the Roman." ^ 

SECTION V. 

THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

While the Old Testament covers a period embracing thousands 
The New Test- ^^ years, the new is limited to a generation of men. 
ament covers The Old is concerned with the training; of a sinorle na- 

odIv £1 sIdstIb • • O O 

generation ot tion into the character of God's people ; while the latter 
men. treats of the unique personality of Jesus Christ as the 

ing idea peculiar to Mosaism is precisely this, that Jehovah has connected himself 
with Israel, and is not separate from the world and inaccessible, but lives and walks 
among his people ; and eveiy person who in true earnestness of soul has uttered the 
Psalmist's cry, ' Whom have I in heaven but thee ? ' etc., knows also that the Lord is 
no abstract being, but a most concrete God, and no philosophy will be able to destroy 
the conclusion he has reached." 

^ A similar hope is expressed by Ebrard in his inaugural, Die Gottmenschlichkeit 
des Christenthums (Zurich, 1844), p. 17, where he declares it to be one of the leading 
tasks of the theology of our day " to follow out the Divinely human character of Old 
Testament revelation in the spirit of the immortal Herder." 

^ See Hofmann, Weissagung u. Erfiilling, i, p. 54. Comp. Havernick, Vorlesungen 
uber Theol. d. A. T., p. 18, "The statement may be truthfully made that Christ is the 
central feature of the Old Testament, as being the earthly manifestation of personal, 
concrete justice and love ; but the distinction must not be overlooked that in the Old 
Testament Christ is not immediately presented, but indirectly, by means of occasional 
symbols, actions, and words. Nor can the Old Testament be understood without 
Christ. Such an attempt will end in reducing it from its proper elevation ; it becomes 
a body without a head, disintegrating and destroying itself." 



THE SCOPE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 157 

Son of God, and of the institution of a society founded on that 
personality. 

The habit of confining the attention wholly to the connexion be- 
tween the Old and New Testaments, as though they The difference 

were simply the two volumes of a single book, the ^° ^^^ ^^^ *^' 
T^-i 1 1 1 T f . , r^ tlie two Testa- 

Bible, has led to many erroneous conclusions.' The ments. 

inquirer who desires merely quantity and variety of matter, will 
certainly derive greater satisfaction from the Old Testament than 
the New; for it will ever continue to be an important historical 
book, a chronicle of the world and its nations, even to persons 
who misapprehend its peculiar religious purpose. The New Testa- 
ment is not of this character. Its vision embraces but few nations 
in its range, and is limited to Palestine, Asia Minor, Greece, and 
Rome; and the student who desires information relating to those 
nations or countries is able to consult authorities of a wholly dif- 
ferent kind. Every thing in it relates to the manifestation of a 
single and wholly unique personality ,"" and it offers but little to a 
mind that lacks interest in this subject. No prominence is given 
to great external events, for even the miracles, with few excep- 
tions, are of a mild and unimposing character ; but, next to the 
person of the Redeemer himself, it is human characters that en- 
gage the attention, and more especially with reference to a defi- 
nite relation sustained by them to Christ.^ The inner man, with 
his capabilities and needs, with his subjection to sin and error — 
from which he is to be delivered by an act of Divine love — the 
Divine love itself, no longer directed upon a chosen nation, but, in 
a human person, upon the entire race; the entrance of the Infinite 
into the finite conditions of human life, which is conditioned by 
the circumstances of nationality and time indeed, but none the less 
is superior to such limitations; the might of a new spirit, which, 
entering upon the arena of human history, transforms both nature 
and conditions; the gathering of a community professing faith in 

* Comp. the remark by Tholuck, cited in sect. 2 of this chap., note. 

' " The pecuHarities of form and contents of the New Testament become clearly 
apparent when it is compared with these collections of sacred books (the Old Testament 
and the Koran). The religious idea and the historical fact are here combined in the 
single phenomenon of the entrance of the Deity into human life. All the parts are 
collected about a common centre, the historical manifestation of God in Christ. But 
this unity is again resolved into a rich diversity of points of view, from which the doc- 
trine is illustrated, of historical characters, whose moral beauty does not conceal the 
stamp of individuality, and of historical situations, which serve to illustrate the appli- 
cation of Christian ideas to human life." Clausen, Hermeneutik, p. 28. 

^ The Old Testament has, not improperly, been compared to the Iliad, and the New 
tv) the Odyssey. 



158 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

tlie crucified and risen Jesus; the regeneration of individuals into 
the likeness of God, and of nations into an (ideal) people and king- 
dom of God — these form the kernel and the contents of the Gospel 
proclamation. 

The substance of the proclamation is presented under the two 
forms of history and doctrine, to which prophecy is appended, 
Subdivisions of thus affording an analogy with the Old Testament, in 
the New Testa- which a similar distinction between historical, prophet- 
doctrine, and ical, and didactic books has been observed ; but this 
prophecy. analogy will not hold good in all respects. The dis- 

tinction between historical and didactic books is likewise faulty 
when applied to details. The statement that the Gospels and 
the book of Acts form the historical, the Pauline and the gen- 
eral epistles the didactic, and the Apocalypse the prophetical part, 
niust be modified by the consideration that didactic elements are 
contained in the historical books of the New Testament (the dis- 
courses of Jesus in the synoptical Gospels ^ and John), that histor- 
ical matter is found in the epistles (Gal. ii; 1 Cor. xi, 23-25; xv, 
3-9, etc.), and that prophecies occur both in the Gospels (Matt, 
xxiv) and the epistles (1 Thess. v, 1, etc.). 

Questions relating to the collection of the New Testament 
canon belong to the province of Introduction; but it is to be 
observed, for the purpose of guarding against the adoption of 
The Gospel at partial views, that the Gospel was at first proclaimed 
Siy"^- after- altogether by living agents and by means of oral 
Wards written, address; that the introduction of writing was due 
to the necessity of corresponding with distant Churches and in- 
dividuals, and that it is by reason of the references in them to 
communities and individuals that the New Testament writings 
acquire a peculiar interest, which, however, is speedily dissipated 
by the application of over-hasty dogmatizing principles to their in- 
terpretation;^ that the transmission of historical fagts by oral tra- 

^ Matthew, Mark, and Luke, so called because their modes of presenting the sub- 
ject, though different, yet resemble each other in admitting of a ready synopsis, while 
the fourth Gospel pursues an independent method. 

'^ " An examination of these (New Testament) writings will reveal a feature in which 
they differ from all other books that are accounted sacred. No trace of a formal and 
solemnly declared revelation by God is indicated by their form, nor, with the single 
exception of the Apocalypse, do they claim to have been written at the direct com- 
mand of God, which is the case in the Old Testament with the writings of Moses and 
the prophets. The sacred books of other religions, e. ^., the Koran, likewise claim to 
be Divine revelations immediately given from heaven. Had it been intended to make 
such a book the basis of the Christian commonwealth, no person would have possessed 
more absolute qualification and authority to compose it than Jesus Christ himself ; but 



AUXILIARIES OF EXEGESIS. 159 

dition preceded their circulation in a written form; that the agree- 
ments and disagreements of the different records with each other 
are founded in the circumstances of their origin, and must be ex- 
plained in harmony with human reason and by scientific methods; 
and finally, that the several books composing the New Testament 
were not all admitted to the canon and comprehended The New xest- 
into a whole at the same time, but that they were ^^^f ^^P°° 

' J Qot lorraed at 

gradually received [evayyeXtov^ dTToaroXog)^ opinion be- onetime. 

ing in the meantime undecided with regard to the canonicity of 
certain of them (avnAeydfieva). While admitting such facts, how- 
ever, it must not be suj^posed on the other hand, that the canon is 
simply an accidental aggregation. It is rather to be regarded as 
necessarily determined by its ovra internal character and so received 
by the Church, and as carrying a great idea through the whole of 
its empirical form, so that the beginning and the end are linked to- 
gether like the ends of a chain. Genesis opening with the beginning 
of all things and the Apocalypse closing with the end of the world. 
The structure of the canon must be examined with an independent 
spirit rather than with a mind controlled by any pedantic method; 
a principle that should be applied also to the (not chi'onological) 
arrangement of the Prophets and Epistles, and to the seemingly 
abrupt transitions from one book to another.^ 

SECTIOX VL 

SCIENCES AUXILIARY TO EXEGESIS. 

Exegetical theology requires, as necessary aids : — 

1. A knowledge of the original languages of the Scriptures (phi- 
loloaria sacra) ; ^. ^ ., 

2. An acquaintance with the sciences which deal with lary sciences. 

he has not done this. He has chosen instead to deposit with a number of living per- 
sons the life which he was empowered to convey ; and these persons were likewise not 
commissioned nor did they assume to give a written documentary form to the subject 
they were to announce to men. They confined themselves to the living word in the 
effort to gather a people, among whom that word should become power, life, and real- 
ity. The force of circumstances afterward led them to make use of writing, and even 
then it was because special conditions and occurrences required attention which could 
not be given in person, because the distance between the parties prevented other than 
written intercourse," etc. Chr. Hoffmann, Das Christenthum in d. ersten Jahrhun- 
derten (Stuttgart, 1853), p. 194. Comp. H. Schultz, p. 54. 

' The artistic mind of Herder discovered the right principle, here as elsewhere. " I 
cannot express the value at which I rate several of the most sharply contrasting books, 
all of which are placed together. The three books of Solomon following after the 
Psalms, the Psalms after Job, love's tender dove after the bird of wisdom, and in imme- 
diate succession Isaiah, the eagle, mounting upward to the sun. Here is instruction, 
here is human life." Solomo's Lieder der Liebe (Werke zur Rel. u. Theol., vii, p. 102). 



160 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

facts that come into question (Biblical antiquities, geography, phys< 
ica sacra) ; 

3. A knowledge of the origin and fortunes of the canon and its 
parts (Isagogics, Canon). 

To these positive, historical, and philological sciences must be 
joined an acquaintance : — 

1. With the laws which determine the canonicity and authentic- 
ity of a book as a whole, and also the perfect preservation of the 
text in its several parts (integrity) — the science of criticism. 

2. With the rules of interpretation — hermeneutics. 

The above order of arrangement is founded in methodological 
reasons. It may be thought that Introduction should 
oi-derof succes- properly precede all else ; but practice in reading the 
^^^^' Scriptures, involving a knowledge of the languages in 

which they were written, is necessarj^ to success in the study of that 
branch. A knowledge of physical and historical facts is also re- 
quired, even though it be limited, at first, to such archaeological 
notes as the lexicons afford, and its full development into a scientific 
character be reserved for a later stage, in connexion with the study 
of historical theology. Lectures on Introduction having reference 
to the canon as a whole, will possess a proper interest only for 
students who have become familiar with separate books of the 
Bible, in the way of philological and archaeological study ; and 
a thorough comprehension of the laws of Criticism and Hermeneu- 
tics is possible to him only who has, to some extent, been engaged 
in the work of interpretation. 

SECTION VII. 

THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 

The Old Testament Scriptures were originally written in the He- 
brew language, with the exception of a few sections which were 
written in Chaldee. The New Testament Scriptures were written 
in Hellenistic Greek. 

Chaldee sections, Dan. ii, 4 to the end of vii ; Ezra iv, 8 ; vi, 18 ; 
vii, 12-26 ; Jer. x, 11.' 

It may be regarded as generally conceded that the Greek, and 
not the Aramaean, as Bolten and Bertholdt argued, is the original 
language of the New Testament ; but opinions are still divided 
on the question of the original form of the Gospel by St. 
Matthew. 

^ Concerning the Biblical Chaldee comp. L. Hirzel, De Chaldaismi Biblici origine, etc., 
Leips., 1830, 4to. ; F. Dietrich, De Sermonis Chaldaici proprietate, Leips., 1839. 



CHARACTER OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 161 

SECTION VIH. 

THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 

J. J. Wagner, WIchtlgkeit d. Heb. Sprache fur Theologen, Bamb. and Wurzburg, 1806; 
W. M. L. de Wette, Aufforderung zum. Stud, der Hebr. Spr. u. Literatur, Jena, 1806; W. M. 
Thomson, The Physical Basis of Our Spiritual Language, Bib. Sacra., vol. xxix, pp. 1-^2, 
aud vol. XXX, pp. 25-127; G. H. Whittemore, Hebrew Language and Lexicography, Bib. Sacra., 
vol. xxix, pp. 5i7-553; Articles on Hebrew Language in Kltto's and M'Clintock & Strong's 
Cyclopaedias. 

A knowledge of the Hebrew language is indispensable to the 

theologian, not only for the study of the Old Testament, but also 

for the New : The necessity 

1. Because the New Testament idiom is partially oj a knowledge 

A J of Hebrew and 

based on that language. the reasons. 

2. Because much that is there given in the Greek was original- 
ly conceived and expressed in the kindred Aramaean dialect, and 
accordingly derives its colouring, in different degrees, from that 
source. 

On the word "Hebrew" (whether derived from '^:3)r, the ancestor 
of Abraham), see the introductions to the grammars of Gesenius 
and Ewald. The phrase " Hebrew language " is not found in the 
Old Test., the "language of Canaan," Isa. xix, 18, and "Jews' lan- 
guage," Isa. xxxvi, 11, 13, being used instead. The latter expres- 
sion, however, denotes more particularly the Hebrew dialect spoken 
in the kingdom of Judah and in the vicinity of Jerusalem. The 
New Testament has the expressions y^ibaaa rcbv ^'E(3paLG)v and ej3pa- 
iarl, John v, 2 ; xix, 13, but as designating the Aramaic vernacular, 
in distinction from the Greek. 

The Hebrew language possesses a peculiar interest for the pur- 
poses of pure knowledge alone ; but it engages the at- characteristics 
tention of the philologist only as it is a member of ^f Hebrew. 
the larger family of languages known as the Semitic^ The for- 

' This term has come into use since the days of Schlozer and Eichhorn, as 
being more thoroughly descriptive than Jerome's phrase, "the Oriental languages." 
The latter embraces the entire East, while the Semitic languages are indigenous to 
hither Asia, and confined to Palestine, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Ara- 
bia, and Ethiopia. They are divided into three principal branches, 1. The Aramaean 
(Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia), subdivided into West and East Aramaic (Syriac 
and Chaldee); 2. The Hebrew (Palestine and Phoenicia) from which the Punic was 
derived ; 3. The Arabic, with which the Ethiopic is a cognate branch. The Samaritan 
was a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaean. It has been found, however, that the terra 
Semitic is likewise neither sufficiently exact nor exhaustive (comp. Gesenius, Gesch. 
d. Hebr. Sprache u. Schrift, p. 5), and some writers (e. g.^ Havernick, Einl., i, 1, p. 93) 
have again adopted the term " Oriental." Recent authors have suggested that " hith- 
er-Asiatic " or " Syro- Arabic " be substituted for either, to designate this family of 
languages. J. G. Miiller (wer sind die Semiten u. mit welchem Recht spricht man vod 
11 



162 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

mation and character of this language, so essentially unlike Greek 
and Latin, its being written from right to left, its wealth in 
guttural letters, the facts that, strictly speaking, it has but three 
leading vowels, and that the root-word is usually a verb and is al- 
most invariably composed of three consonants, its peculiar modes of 
conjugation, of forming cases, etc., and its simple syntax, are feat- 
ures which impart to it a special charm,' but also to some extent, 
increase its difficult character. A knowledge of Hebrew is conceded 
to be necessary for the interpretation of the Old Testament ; but it 
is likewise indispensable to the exegesis of the New, for the reasons: 
/ , ,^ 1. That entire sections (citations) from the Old Testament 

A knowledge ^ ' 

of Hebrew in- can only be properly understood after being compared 
toe^exegeSs of ^i^h the Original ; 2. That the N'ew Testament itself, to 
the New Testa- use Luther's expression, " is full of the Hebrew mode of 
speaking; " ^ that though the number of assumed Hebra- 
isms has been greatly reduced since Winer's thorough investiga- 
tions, the significations of New Testament words and their combina- 
tions are largely to be explained from the Hebrew (e. g., the words 
(7ap^, KaQdta, anXdyxva, (77rAay;\;vi^e(70a/, (7Trep|Lta, and the phrases npoao)- 
7T0V Xafifidveiv, Trpoaconov npdg np6ao)7Tov^ kvCiniov rov Oeov^ etc.) ; 8. That 
expressions in the discourses of our Lord, as given in the Greek text 
of the Gospels, need to be translated back into the Aramaean dialect 
then current among that people, in order to be correctly understood — 
a principle that is not sufficiently regarded, the ordinary method in 
New Testament exegesis being to ascertain simply the Greek ety- 
mon. It appears from the above that a knowledge of Hebrew is 

Semit. Spraehen? Basle, 1860, 4to.) returns to the expression, "language of Canaan," 
and accordingly regards the Hebrew as a Hamitic language ; but he observes that 
"however evident the matter may be, the term Semitic has become too thoroughly 
established in the learned and cultivated world to be easily set aside." 

' " Injucundum videtur idioma latino fastui et graecanicae effeminationi, sed idioma 
est et sanctum et sacris literis necessarium raaxime, cujus ignoratio multas haereses et 
errores invexit." Oecolampadius Hedioni (Epp. Oecol. et Zwinglii, Basle, 1536, sq.) 
fol. 172. "The Hebrew language is full of the soul's breath; it does not resound, 
like the Greek, but it breathes, it lives." Herder, Geist, d. hebr. Poesie, i, p. 28. 
With reference to the relation of the Semitic languages to those of the Indo-Ger- 
manic (Aryan) nations, see Bertheau, p. 613, and also with regard to their relation to 
the later, so-called rabbinical, Hebrew. 

^ " It has therefore been justly said that the Hebrews drink at the fountainhead, 
the Greeks from the streamlets that issue f x'om the fountain, but the Latins from the 
puddles. The Hebrew is the best and purest language ; it does not beg, and wears its 
own colours. It is more simple, indeed, than others, but majestic and glorious, direct 
and of few words, which, however, involve much that is below the surface ; so that 
none other is capable of imitating it." Comp. Herder's Briefe das Stud, der TheoL 
betreffend, iv, p. 144. 



HISTORY OF HEBREW LEARNING. 163 

ail indispensable qualification for the theologian ; but it does not 
follow, as certain of the older writers imagined, that a good He- 
braist must necessarily be a good theologian.^ The terminology of 
Christianity is clearly not confined within the limits of the Hebrew 
tongue ; and as Christianity itself has grown beyond the Old Testa- 
ment Judaism, so it has developed a new language for its own use, 
and has infused a new spirit into Hebraistic forms, which a defunct 
Hebraism cannot explain, for which the Hebrew simply affords a 
basis, and which must be wholly apprehended from its own idea. 

SECTION IX. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE STUDY OF HEBREW. 

The older theology held that the Hebrew was the primitive 
language, the sacred language employed by God and The study oi 
the angels, which existed alone until others were added ^^^^^^ "^ ^^^^ 

SGVGrS.1 S.^GS 01 

in the confusion of tongues at Babel.^ Recent in- the Church, 
quiries have shown that the Hebrew language was not perfected 
before the time of David, and have given rise to different opin- 
ions concerning the language of the Canaanitish and Phoenician 
tribes that occupied Palestine before the immigration of the 
Abrahamidae. The importance of the Hebrew language for the 
Christian theologian, so generally conceded in our day, was not 
always recognized. The primitive Christians generally made use 
of versions, particularly the Alexandrian by the LXX. Origen and 
Jerome (the latter especially) were distinguished for their knowledge 
of Hebrew, while Augustine was deficient in this regard. During 
the middle ages Hebrew was almost wholly neglected by Christians; 
though a learned acquaintance with the language was preserved to 
some extent, after it ceased to be a spoken tongue, among the Jews 
(Talmudists, Masorites). The school of Tiberias was especially 
famous ; and Jerome among others, was instructed by Palestinian 
Jews. The Alexandrians, however, devoted less atten- „, ^ , „ 

' _ ' , study of He- 

tion to the ancient language of their people (Philo). Be- brew in the 

tween the eighth and ninth centuries grammatical stud- ^ ® ^®^* 

ies were greatly neglected by the Jews likewise, until they were 

revived by the Spanish Jews (in the time of the Moorish suprem- 

'■ While Luther strongly recommends the study of the Hebrew, he yet writes (against 
Erasmus, who prided himself on his knowledge of languages), " Vides, quod non ideo 
quispiam sit Christianus vere sapiens, quia Graecus sit et Hebraeus, quando et beatus 
Hieronymus quinque Unguis monoglosson Augustinum non adaequarit " — to J. Lange, 
in de Wette, Briefe, Sendschreiben, etc., i, No. 29, p. 52, 

'^ This view has been defended in recent times by Father Hy. Gossler, in Die heil. 
Schrift in ihrer Ursprache (Lippstadt, 1850). The author asserts that "no accurate 
Hebrew grammar can be found outside the (Roman Catholic) Church ! " — P. 16. 



164 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

acy). The twelfth century produced a number of prominent rab- 
bins, among others David Kimchi. 

The knowledge of Hebrew among Christians was renewed by the 
aid of Jewish teachers. At the close of the fifteenth and the begin- 
ning of the sixteenth centuries Elias Levita, by birth a German Jew, 
was teaching in Italy, where his doctrine of the modern origin of 
the vowel signs in Hebrew drew upon him persecution from his co-re- 
ligionists, though Christians also regarded his teaching as heretical 
Such prejudices were not favourable to impartial grammatical stud- 
ies. The renewed study of Hebrew in the Christian world, however, 
with which the Reformation is (partially) involved, is closely con- 
nected with the so-called renaissance of learning. Nicholas Lyra, 
in the fourteenth century, applied his limited knowledge of He- 

„ ^„ ^^ brew to the interpretation of the Scriptures ; but the 
R'^nchlln the ^ ^ -r* i t i v 

restorer of He- proper impulse was given by Keuchlm, who must be 

brew learning. (^Qi^gj^^red the restorer of the study of Hebrew among 
Christians. His three books De Rudimentis Hebraicis, prefaced by 
the Exegi monumentum aere perennius of Horace, appeared in the 
year 1506. He was followed by J. Boschenstein, Seb. Mtinster (f in 
1552), the two Buxtorfs. John B,, the elder, professor at Basle from 
1591, (f 1629,) wrote a Thesaurus linguae sacrae, a grammar, 1605, and 
a lexicon Hebr. et Chald., Basle, 1607 ; John B., the younger, (f 16\i6), 
disputed on the age of the vowel-signs at Saumur with Louis Capel- 
lus. They were succeeded by Drusius (f 1616), Schickard (f 1635), 
Glassius (f 1656), Yorstius (f 1676). In the middle of the seven- 
teenth century the method of the demonstrative philosophy, corre- 
sponding to the scholastic temper of the time, came into promi- 
nence, being represented more especially by Danz (1696) in Ger- 
many and by Jac. Alting (f 1679) in the Netherlands. A new influ- 
ence was exerted by Albert Schultens at Franecker and Leyden 
(t 1750), who consulted the Arabic and traced Hebrew words back to 
Arabic roots, but carried the method to excess. About the mid- 
dle of the eighteenth century J. D. Michaelis prosecuted the 
study of Oriental languages over a broader field and aroused an 
interest in others also for such pursuits. Gesenius (f 1842), hav- 
ing been preceded by Hezel (1777), Yater (1797-1814) and Weck- 
herlin (1797, sqq.), was the first to adopt a settled and clear method, 
which still has decided adherents, though a more systematic mode, 
based on the nature of the language and complete in itself, has been 
attempted particularly by Ewald. This latter scholar has brought 
to the study of Hebrew philosophical analysis, and a wide compar- 
ison of kindred languages. 

The first gjreat English lexicographer of Hebrew and its cognate 



HELPS TO THE STUDY OF HEBREW. 165 

languages was Edmund Castell. He published his Lexicon Hepta- 
glotton in two volumes folio, London, 1669. A Hebrew, Chaldee, 
and English Lexicon was published (London, 1840) by Samuel Lee, 
Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge. This import- 
ant work is quoted with approbation by Gesenius. The Hebrew 
Lexicon of Gesenius has been translated into English and repub- 
lished in England and America. The edition by Dr. Robinson 
(Boston, 1836, and subsequently) is considered "the best full He- 
brew Lexicon extant in our language." The compendious Hebrew 
and Chaldee Lexicon of Davies has been revised and republished 
by Dr. Edward C. Mitchell, of Chicago (Andover, 1859). Filrst's 
Hebraisches und Chaldaisches Handworterbuch iiber das Alte Testa- 
ment has been edited in English by Dr. S. Davidson (London, 1867). 
Professor Moses Stuart, of Andover, Mass., published m 1821 a He- 
brew Grammar, with a copious Syntax and Praxis (Andover, octavo). 
Isaac Nordheimer, Professor of Hebrew in the University of New 
York, published a Hebrew Grammar distinguished for its philo- 
sophical treatment of the subject (1838, 1842, 2 vols., 8vo). Pro- 
fessor Lee is also the author of a Grammar of the Hebrew Language 
(London, 3d ed., 1841). The Hebrew Grammar of Horwitz (Lon- 
don, 1835) is well approved by scholars. The Hebrew Grammar of 
Gesenius, on the basis of the revisions of Rodiger, Kautzsch, and 
Davies, has been issued by Dr. Edward C. Mitchell (Andover, 1880). 
Professor W. H. Green, of Princeton, is the author of an excellent 
Hebrew Grammar (3d ed., New York, 1876). 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

1. Htbrew Grammars and Chrestomathies. 

Ball, C. J. The Merchant Taylor's Hebrew Grammar. The Formal Principles of 
Hebrew Grammar, as understood by modern Scientists, stated in a manner suited 
to beginners. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Bickel, Gustavus. Outlines of Hebrew Grammar. Revised by the author and An- 
notated by the translator, S. 1. Curtiss, Jr. Leipzig, 1877. 

Bissell, Edward Cone. A Practical Introductory Hebrew Grammar. Svo, pp. 134. 
Hartford. 1891. (A principal aim of this work, according to the author, has 
been to furnish the student, wliile engaged in the study of the grammar, a suffi- 
cient vocabulary to enable him on finishing it to read the historical books of 
the Bible at sight.) 

Bowman, T. A New, Easy, and Complete Hebrew Course; containing a Hebrew 
Grammar with copious Hebrew and EngUsh Exercises strictly graduated ; also 
a Hebrew-English and an English-Hebrew Lexicon, designed for the purpose of 
self-instruction as well as for use in Schools and Colleges. In two Parts. 
Part I, Regular Verbs. Svo, pp. 208. Part IF, Irregular Verbs. 8vo, pp. 423. 
Edinburgh, 1882. 



166 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Craik, Henry. Principia Hebraica. The Principles of Hebrew Grammar. In 24 
large folio Tables. Folio. London, 1882. 

Crawford, F. J. Horae Hebraicse. 16rao, pp. 191. London, 1868. (Hebrew pre- 
fixes.) 

Davidson, Andrew Bruce. Introductory Hebrew Grammar, 4th ed., 8vo, pp. viii, 198. 
Edinburgh, 1880. 

Davies, Benjamin. Gesenuis's Hebrew Grammar. Translated from Rodiger's Edi- 
tion. Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged (1883), on the Basis of the Latest Edi- 
tion of Prof. E. Kautzsch, D.D., and from other recent Authorities, by Edward 
C. Mitchell, D.D. With full Subject, Scripture, and Hebrew Indexes. 8vo. 
Andover. 

Deutsch, Solomon. A Key to the Pentateuch Explanatory of the Text and the 
Grammatical Forms. Part I. Genesis. 8vo. New York, 1811. 

Deutscli, Solomon. A New Practical Hebrew Grammar, with Hebrew-English and 
English-Hebrew Exercises, and a Hebrew Chrestomathy. 8vo. New York, 
1868. 

Driver, S. R. A Treatise of the Tenses in Hebrew and some Other Syntactical Ques- 
tions. 2d ed. Oxford, 1881. 

Ewald, Heinrich. Introductory Hebrew Grammar. Translated by J. F. Smith. 
8vo, pp. 279. London, 1870. 

Ewald, Heinrich. Syntax of the Hebrew Language of the Old Testament. From 
the 8th German ed. Svo, pp. viii, 323. Edinburgh, 1879. 

Green, W. H. Elementary Hebrew Grammar. 12mo, pp. viii, 194. 2d rev. ed. 
New York, 1872. (New edition, thoroughly corrected, 1890.) 

Green, W. H. A Hebrew Chrestomathy, or Le-sons in Reading and Writing Hebrew. 
8vo, pp. vi, 261. New York, 1866. 

Harper, W. R. Elements of Hebrew by an Inductive Method. 6th ed. Rewritten. 
Chicago, 1885. (Part I treats of Orthography; Part II, of Etymology; then 
follow Paradigms,) 

Harper, W. R. Introductory Hebrew Method and Manual. 2d ed. Rewritten. 
Chicago, 1 885, (The method of this book is inductive ; tiie reading lessons are 
from Genesis, chaps, i-viii.) 

Jones, A. D. The Elements of the Hebrew Language. 8vo. pp. 163. Andover. 

Kalisch, M, M. A Hebrew Grammar with Exercises. In two Parts. 8vo, pp. xv, 
374, and xvi, 324. London, 1862-63. 

Kennedy, James. Introduction to Biblical Hebrew, presenting graduated instrue- 
tion in the Language of the Old Testament. Svo. London, 1888. 

Leathes, Stanley. Practical Hebrew Grammar, with the Hebrew Text of Genesis 
i-vi, and Psalms i-vi, Grammatical Analysis and Vocabulary. Post Svo. 
London, 1868. 

Mitchell, Alexander. The Book of Jonah. Analyzed, Translated, and the Accents 
named; being an Easy Introduction to the Hebrew Language. Svo. London, 
1882. 

Mitchell, Edward C. A Concise Statement of the Principles of Hebrew Grammar. 
For the Use of Teachers. Svo, paper. Andover, 

Mitchell, Edward C. Hebrew Introduction. An Elementary Heb"ew Grammar and 
Reading Book. Containing, I. Grammatical Notes; II. Exercises in Reading 
Hebrew; III. Selections from Scripture, with Notes; lY. Tables of Paradigms. 
Svo. Andover. 

Mitchell, H, G. Hebrew Lessons, A book for beginners. Square 12mo, pp. 164. 
Boston, 1884, (These lessons comprise the most common words of the 



HELPS TO THE STUDY OF HEBREW. 167 

lanjjuage, and are supplemciitod by selections from tlic; liistorical books of the 
Bible.) 

Miiller, August. Outlines of Hebrew Syntax. Translated and Edited by James 
Robertson, M.A., D.D., Professor of Oriental Languages in tlie XTulversity of 
Glasgow. 8vo. Glasgow, 1882. (Dr. Robertson has given an excellent tran.s- 
lation of the original, which appeared in 1878. Ho has also added copious 
indexes.) 

Nordheimer, Isaac. A Critical Grammar of the Hebrew Language. 2 vols., Svo, 
pp. 212, 379. Xew York, 1842. 

Nordheimer, Isaac. A Grammatical Analysis of Selections from the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures, with an Exercise in Hebrew Composition. 8vo, pp. xii, 148. New 
York, 1838. 

Strong, James. Eptome of Hebrew Grammar. 8vo, pp. 80. Published by the Au- 
thor, at Madison, X. J., 1875. 

Stuart, Moses. Course of Hebrew Study for Beginners. Vol. 11. Boards. Andover, 
1830. 

The Study of the Hebrew Vowel Points, ^arts I, II. A series of Exercises in 
very large Hebrew type, printed upon writing paper, with space between the 
lines for the addition in manuscript of Vowel Points and Accents. 4to. Lon- 
don, 1882. 

Tregelles, Samuel P. Heads of Hebrew Grammar. Fp. 8vo, pp. viii, 126. London, 
1852. 

Tregelles, Samuel P. Hebrew Reading Lessons. 8vo, pp. vi, 70. London. 

Vibbert, W. H. A Guide to Reading the Hebrew Texts ; for the Use of Beginners. 
12mo, pp. viii, 67. Andover, 1852. 

Wolf J. R. A Practical Hebrew Grammar. Svo, pp. xiv, 204. London, 1852. 

2. Hebrew Lexicons. 

Brown, Francis ; Driver, S. R. ; Briggs, Charles A. A Hebrew and English Lexicon 
of the Old Testament. Based on the licxicon of Gesenius, as translated by Ed- 
ward Robinson. Part I. 8vo, pp. 80. Boston and New York, 1891. 

Davidson, B. The Analytical Hebrew and Clialdee Lexicon, consisting of an Alpha- 
betical Arrangement of every Word and Inflection contained in the Old Testa- 
ment Scriptures, precisely as they occur in the Sacred Text. 2d ed., 4to, pp. 
877. London, 1882. 

Davies, Benjamin. A Compendious and Complete Hebrew and Clialdee Lexicon to 
the Old Testament; with an English-Hebrew Index. Carefully revised by E. 
C. Mitchell. Svo, pp. xxxii. 752. Andover, 1879. 

Fuerst, Julius. A Hebrew and Clialdee Lexicon to the Old Testament. 3d ed. 
Improved and Enlarged. Translated by Samuel Davidson, D.D. Royal Svo, 
pp.1547. London, 18G7. Improved and enlarged. 1871. 

Gesenius, "William. Hebrew Lexicon. Translated and edited, with Additions and 
Corrections, by S. P. Tregelles. 4to. London, 1846-52. 

Gesenius, William. A Hebrew and English Lexicon to the Old Testament, includ- 
ing the Biblical Cluldee. Translated by Edward Robinson. 20th ed., Svo, pp. 
ix, 1160. New York. 

Harper, W. R. Hebrew Vocabularies. Svo, pp. 125. Chicago, 1882. (The object 
of this book is to enable the student to acquire quickly a sufficient Hebrew 
vocabulary for working purposes. Part I contains a list of verbs occurring 
2.*>-5000 times, arranged in five subdivisions. Part II, nouns occurring 
25-5000 times. Part III, verbs occurring 25-5000 times according to their 
12 



168 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

signification. Part IV, nouns arranged according to their signification. 
Part V, Piepositiuns, Adverb.s, Conjunctions, and Interjections. Part VI, 
Englisli words, with their most common Hebrew equivalents.) 

Hellmuth, J. Bibhcal Tliesaurus; or, A Literal Translation and Critical Analysis of 
every Word in the Original Languages of the Old Testament, witli Explanatory 
Notes in Appendices. London, 1884. 

Potter, Jos. L. An Englisli-Hebrew Lexicon, being a complete Verbal Index to 
Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon, as Translated by Prof. Edward Robinson. 8vo. 
Boston, 1872. 

Robinson, Edward. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, includ- 
ing the Biblical Ciialdee. From the Latin of William Gesenius, with correc- 
tions and large additions, partly furnished by the author in manuscript and 
partly condensed from his larger Tliesaurus. 3d ed. Boston, 1849. 

Wilson, William. An English-Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon and Concordance, by 
Reference to the Original Hebrew. 2d ed. Carefully revised. 4to. London, 
1866. 

3. Other Semitic Languages. 

Bertin, George. Abridged Grammars of the Languages of the Cuneiform Inscrip- 
tions. 12mo, pp. 116. London, no date. (Contains a Sumero- Akkadian Gram- 
mar; also Assyro- Babylonian, Vannic, Medic, and Persian Grammars.) 

Birch, S. Egyptian Texts. 8vo, pp. vi. 111. London. 1877. (Part I contains texts 
transliterated and translated; Part IT, texts transliterated.) 

Clarke, John C. C. The Origin and Varieties of the Semitic Alphabet, with Speci- 
mens. 2d ed. 8vo, pp. 18, with an addendum of twenty tables. Chicago. 
1884. (An liistorical study, originally published in the Bibliotheca Sacra of 
1874, under the title of History in Alphabets.) 

Cowper, B. Harris. The Principles of Syriac Grammar Translated and Abridged 
from the work of Hoffmann. London, 1858. 

Delitzsch, Friediich. The Hebrew Language Viewed m the Lij^ht of Assyrian Re- 
search. 8vo, pp. 71. London, 1883. 

Delitzsch, Friedrich. Assyrian Grammar, with Paradigms, Exercises, Glossary, and 
Bibliography. Translated by A. R. S. Kennedy, B.D. 12mo, pp. 366. Lon- 
don and New York, 1889. (The Introduction gives a short history of the As- 
syrian excavations and of the deciphering of the insciij'tions; the following 
sections to page 61 treat of the written characters ; thf ti follow in order the Assyr- 
ian Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax. A Chre^-tomathy, Glossary, and a 
Literature of Assyriology complete the book.) 

Lnzzatto, S. D. Grammar of the Biblical Chaldaic Language and the Talmud Babli 
Idioms. Translated from the Italian, and largely renewed by J. S. Goldam- 
mer. New York, 1876. 

Renouf. P. Le Page. An Elementary Grammar of the Ancient Egyptian Language, 
in the Hieroglyphic Type. 8vo, pp. iv, 66. London, 1875. 

Riggs, Elias. A Manual of the Chaldee Language, containing a Chaldee Grammar, 
chiefly from the German of G. B. Winer; a Chrestomathy consisting of selec- 
tions from the Targums, and including Notes on the Biblical Chaldee. 4th ed. 
New York, 1 858. 

Sayce, A. H. An Assyrian Grammar for Comparative Purposes. 12mo, pp xvi, 
188. London, 1872. (In this book the cimeiform characters are transliterated 
into Roman. It is more descriptive than analytical.) 

Sayce, A. H. An Elementary Grammar with full Sylh.bary, and Prosrressive Read- 
ing Book oC the Assyrian Language, in the Cnneiform Type. 2d ed. 8vo, pp. 



HELPS TO THE STUDY OF HEBREW. 169 

xvi, 131. London, 1875; 2d ed. without date. (The first forty-eight pages 
of this book are given to the Syllabary; then follows an account of the As- 
syrian nouns, numerals, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. Ap- 
pended are reading lessons, analyzed by the author.) 

Sayce, A. H. Babylonian Literature. Lectures delivered at the Royal Listitution. 
12mo, pp. 86. 8vo. London, 1877. 

Sayce, A. H. Lectures on the Assyrian Language and Syllabary. Svo, pp. viil^ 
157. London, 1877. (The topics treated in these Lectures are the Syllabary, 
Assyrian Phonology, the Pronoun, the Verb, Assyrian Syntax, Affinities of 
Assyrian, and the Origin of Semitic Culture. 

Schrader, Eberhard. The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament. Trans- 
lated (with Additions and Corrections) from the Second German Edition, with 
an Introductory Preface by Rev. 0. C. Wliitehouse, M.A. London. (Deals 
separately with every passage capable of illustration from the cuneiform in- 
scriptions.) 

Smith, George. History of Sennacherib. Translated from the Cuneiform Inscrip- 
tions. Edited by A. H. Sayce. Quarto, pp. 182. London, 1878. 

Smith, R. Payne. Thesaurus S3Tincus. Oxonii e typographeo Clarendoniano, 
Fol. 1868-83. (Six Fascicuh as far as page 2256 have been published. Will 
be completed iu two vols. Fasciculi I to V make the first vol.) 
For other works on the Semitic dialects, see note at foot of page 170. 

THE REMAINING SEMITIC DIALECTS. 

A familiar acquaintance with other Semitic languages is neces- 
sary for a learned examination of the Hebrew, and for the exposi- 
tion of certain parts of the Old Testament, and is useful in many 
respects to the New Testament exegete and the scientific theolo- 
gian; but it cannot be required that every Christian theologian, as 
such, should possess it to its full extent. 

On the importance of treating the Hebrew in connexion with 
other Semitic dialects compare the preceding section. ^ knowledge 
At this point, however, scientific philology must serve of the chaidee, 
the purposes of theology; and for »uch purposes a thor- able useful to 
ough acquaintance with the Hebrew, as facilitated by the theologian. 
the lexical and grammatical labors of other minds, is fully adequate/ 
There always will and must be individuals wliose inclinations and 
talents will urge them onward in the path of inquiry; but here 
again "one thing will not do for all," and it is certainly more de- 
sirable that a definite knowledge of the Hebrew be secured than 
that too many studies be engaged in at the same time. The chief 
interest for Old Testament exegesis attaches to the Chaidee, which, 
however, has been incorporated with Hebrew lexicology (by Ge- 

^ The Christian theologian cannot choose otherwise than to make Christianity the 
central object of his studies. This is historically rooted in the Rast (thoug-h we 
should scarcely term it a pureh^ Oriental plienomenon); but its true home and de- 
velopment have been found in the West. 



170 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

senius), in so far as it enters into the language of the Bible. The 
Syriac is useful for the study of the Syriac version (the Peshito), 
and also for New Testament exegesis, besides being an available 
help for the Church historian (conip. Ecclesiastical philology, infra). 
This applies also to the Arabic, aside from its philological value for 
comparison with the Hebrew, In this way, however, the circle 
might be infinitely extended, for it cannot be denied that, on the 
one hand the Rabbinical, on the other the Oriental languages in their 
further manifestations through the Indian (Sanscrit and Prakrit), 
the Old Persic (Zend-language), the Chinese, etc., will also yield 
fruit which possesses value. Our concern is, however, primarily 
with what may be justly required, and this is and must continue to 
be the Hebrew,^ together with the language of the New Testament 
originals. 

SECTION X. 

THE HELLENISTIC-GREEK LA.NGUAGE — ^THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGE OP 
THE NEW TESTAMENT SCRIPTURES. 

E. Reuss, articles flellenisten und Hellenistisches Idiom in Herzog's Encykl., v, p. 701, sqq. 
While an acquaintance with Hebrew is requisite for the study of 
the Old Testament and also of the New, it is yet not sufficient, even 

' Comp. Schleiermacher, Darstellung, etc., § 131. With regard to the necessary 
aids for the study of the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic comp. Dauz, Encykl., p. 184-190, 
and Winer, Handbuch der theol. Lit. p. 124, sq. (2 ed., 1838-40; 3d ed., 1842). Yal- 
uable aids for the study of the Syriac are, the grammars by Uhlemann (Berlin, 1829, 
2d ed., 1857) and A. G. Hoffmann (Halle, 1827; revised ed. by A. Merx, ibid., 1867), 
and the chrestomathies by Roediger (Halle, 1838) and Kirsch (publ. by Bernstein, 
Leips., 1836^1); for the Samaritan, Uhlemann (Leips,, 183Y); for the Chaldee, Bux- 
torf (Lexicon chald., etc., Leips., 1866), Levy (Chald. Wdrterbuch, 2 parts, Leips., 
1867-68), Winer, Grammatik (2d ed., Leips., 1842) and Lesebnch (1825, 2d ed., 1864), 
Jul. Fuerst, (Leips., 1835, 2d ed., 1864), Luzzatto (Elementi grammaticali, Padova, 
1865, German by Kriiger, Breslau, 1873), and the chrestomathy by Kaerle, 1852 ; for 
the Arabic, Tychsen (Gott., 1823), Ewald (Leips., 1831 and 1833), Schier (Grammaire 
Arabe, Paris, 1849), C. P. Caspari (Leips., 1859), Freytag's Arabic-Latin Lexicon 
abridged ed. for beginners, (Halle, 1837, 4to.) and the chrestomathies by Kosegarten 
(Leips., 1828) and Arnold (Halle, 1853); for the Phoenician, Schroder, Die Phonicische 
Sprache (Halle, 1869); for the Coptic, the grammars by Schwartz (1850) and Uhle- 
mann (Leips., 1853.) On the Semitic languages generally see Ernst Renan, Histoire 
generale et systeme compare des langues Semitiques, Paris, 1855, 2d ed., 1863, vol. i. 

Other works are: Longfield, Introduction to Chaldee (London, 1859); Riggs, Man- 
ual of the Chaldee Language (New York, 1858); Davidson, Analytical Hebrew and 
Chaldee Lexicon (London and New York) ; Uhleman, Syriac Grammar, translated by 
Hutchinson (New York); Henderson, Syriac Lexicon to the New Testament (London 
and New York) ; Nichols, Samaritan Grammar, (London and New York) ; Cataf ego, 
Arabic Dictionary (London and New York) ; Wright, Arabic Grammar (London and 
New York). All of Bagster's Elementary Arabic, Chaldee, Samaritan, and Syriac 
books are useful. 



THE EXPOSITORS OF HELLENISTIC GREEK. 171 

when supplementing a knowledge of classical Greek, to meet the 
demands of the New Testament exegete, whose work requires in ad- 
dition that attention should be given to the elements of language 
which mediate between the two and upon which the phraseology of 
the New Testament is based. 

The New Testament was written in Greek ; but it is now gener- 
ally conceded that the language of its authors is not pure Tbe language 

Greek in either a lexical or grammatical view.^ This, 5 . ^^® .^*^*! 

=> ' Testament not 

however, is merely a negative statement ; and the mere pure Greek. 
collecting of Hebrew fragments yields no profitable result. The 
recognition of the Hebraistic character of the language of the New 
Testament would naturally cause many expressions, such as a " con- 
suming fire," a " child of death," etc., to be explained as Hebraisms, 
which occur in all languages as figurative forms of speech. The 
essential thing required is that the transition from the Hebrew to 
the Greek (from the Oriental to the Occidental) mode of thought 
and speech be clearly apprehended, a subject which directs attention 
to the Alexandrian period as being the point of transition between 
the East and the West. The ordinary Greek {tcoivri) The New Tes- 
of the later periods forms the basis of New Testament J^areT'on'^'the 
idiom, which, however, receives a peculiar colouring later Greek. 
from- the admixture of Jewish-Hellenistic elements, for which 
reason it will be found profitable to study especially the Alex- 
andrian version of the Old Testament (the LXX), the Apocrypha, 
Philo, and Josephus, in addition to authors who employ the common 
dialect (Polybius, Plutarch, Artemidorus). It is to be remembered, 
however, that as the New Testament opened a new spiritual world 
to view, it was also obliged to create a specifically Christian lan- 
guage, and that many expressions {e. g., eip'qvrj vfilv, etc.) possessed 
a larger and deeper meaning in the Christian than in the ordinary 
usage. Three elements are consequently to be distinguished in the 
language of the New Testament,^ the Greek, the Jewish, and the 

* Simple as this matter is, an erroneous conception of the doctrine of inspiration 
has led to much controversy, concerning which see Morus. Acroas. herm. T. I. ; Winer, 
Grammatik, § 1. "The presumption of a former age that no imperfection can be 
acknowledged in the New Testament language because the Scriptures came forth from 
the Holy Ghost, has, itself being false, led to the adoption of erroneous maxims which 
unhappily still exist and exert their influence." Schleiermacher, Hermeneut., p. 131. 
Examples of such influence are afterward given. The work by Joachim Jungius on 
the original language of the N. T, (1637, republished by Geffeken in 1863) affords a 
recent illustration. 

* " The Hellenistic idiom in the Jewish period and sphere bore the character of a slav- 
ish translation ; in the Christian it became independent and entered into the formation 
of a language, without on that account renouncing its nativity." Reuss, 1. c. 



172 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

Christian (comp. the first paragraplis of de Wette's Einleitung and 

Schleierraacher's Hernieneutik, p. 27). A different meaning, too, 

was acquired by Greek words in the New Testament, from that 

New meaning which attached to them in the classical language, e. g., 

given in the raneivocpQOGvvT]^ humility, which the ancient Grecian 

N. T to some 

current Greek would understand to signify baseness of disposition 

words. (comp. rarretvocpgoveLv in Arrian's Epict.), and the peti- 

tion in the Lord's prayer, dclitgrifuv ra dcpeLXru^ara ijjMJv (Matt, vi, 12), 
which he would regard as a request for the remission of a pecuniary 
debt. The language of the New Testament varies, moreover, with 
New Testa- the different writei's. Some Hebraize more than others 
Varies witTthe — I^^i^e and the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews least 
sinters. of all — some possess greater facility in the use of the cur- 

rent Greek (St. Paul) than others (Peter and James), and in the 
specifically Christian field each of them employed a class of words 
which harmonized with his own modes of thought {?i6yog, ^(ori, (pcjg 
with St. John, TTiarig, dmaioovvT), x^9^^ with St. Paul, TTiOTLc: with St. 
James, in a meaning different from that of St. Paul, etc.). Such 
differences, furthermore, are not confined to the lexical department ; 
the grammatical form, both in etymology and syntax, also varies in 
many respects from the classical forms, e. g., Luke xxiv, 15, eyevsro 
kv TW bfJLiXeiv avrovg fcal av^rjreiv, where the Greek would require 
the genitive absolute, or Luke xx, 11, nQoae-dero nefxipaL, (nSt^S =]~r) 

for ndXtv errefJi-ipeVj etc. The use of the prepositions £v, ek, Kara, is 
a further illustration (e. g., bi ek mffrecdg, for ol maTsvovreg, etc.). 

Brief Historical Sketch. 

The first to bring together the grammatical peculiarities of New 
History of the Testament diction was the j^hilologist Solomon Glas- 
exposition of gj^g /| iq^q) of Jena, in his Philologia sacra. Cas- 
NewTestament P^^ Wyss, Professor of Greek at Zurich (f 1659), 
Greek. followed with his Dialectologia sacra (1650), in which 

still greater attention was bestowed on the peculiarities of the 
New Testament. George Pasor, Professor of Greek at Franecker 
(f 1697), published a small lexicon of the New Testament, and 
left a grammar which was published by his son, Matthias, pro- 
fessor at Groningen. Pasor continued to be the standard during 
an extended period, in which only isolated attempts at observation 
were made. Ph. H. Haab attempted to provide a suitable work 
in his Hebr.-griechisch. Grammatik f. das N. T., Ttib., 1815, but 
without success. Winer established New Testament grammar on 
Bcientific principles, and elevated it to the rank of a theological 



NEW TESTAMENT LEXICONS AND GRAMMARS. 173 

and philological science, since when praiseworthy researches, includ- 
ing special branches, have been made. A translation of Winer was 
made from the first edition by Professors Stuart and Robinson 
(Andover, 1825). A translation of the seventh edition revised by 
Liinemann has also been issued by Professor J. Henry Thayer (An- 
dover, 1869). The same American editor has prepared a revised 
translation of Alexander Buttmann's Grammar of New Testament 
Greek (Andover, 1873). Thomas Shehlon Green is the author of a 
brief Grammar of the New Testament (London, 1862). Professor 
Stuart, of Andover, prepared a Grammar of the New Testament 
Dialect which is deserving of honorable mention (Andover; also in 
Clark's Biblical Cabinet, Edinburgh, 1835). Planck's Sacred Phi- 
lology and Interpretation was translated by Professor Samuel H. 
Turner, of the Protestant Episcopal Seminary, of New York (repub- 
lished in Clark's Biblical Cabinet, Edinburgh, 1834). Dr. Edward 
Robinson's Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament, orig- 
inally based on Wahl's Clavis, but recast and made an original 
work, carefully traces the differences between classical and New 
Testament usage. But most valuable for the student is Cremer's 
Biblico-Theological Lexicon of New Testament Greek (3d English 
ed., Edinburgh, 1880). It traces the words which are distinctive 
of the New Testament from the classics to the Septuagint, and 
thence on " till they reai-h the fullness of New Testament thought." 

1. Greek Grammars. 

Buttraann, Alexander. A Grammar of the New Testament Greek, with numerous 
Additions and Corrections by the Author. By J. H. Thayer. 8vo pp. xvi, 474. 
Andover, 1873. 

Cary, George L. An Introduction to the Greek of the New Testament, 12mo, pp. 
72. Andover, 1879; 2d ed., 1881. 

Curtius, George. Principles of Greek Etymology. Transited from the German, 
with the sanction of the author, by A. S. Wilkins and E. B. England. 2 vols. 
London, 1876. 

Greek New Testament, Hand-Book to the Grammar of, with Vocabulary and the 
chief New Testament Synonymes. 8vo. London. 

Greek Students' Manual, The, containing: I. A Pn.ctical Guide to the Greek Testa- 
ment. II. The New Testament, Greek and English. III. A Greek and English 
Lexicon to the New Testament. F'cap, 8vo, pp. 676. London, 1868. 

Green, Thomas Sheldon. A Treatise on the Grammar of the New Testament, em- 
bracing observations on the literal interpretation of numerous passages. New 
ed., 12mo, pp. 244. London, 1862. (l^'iglity-two pages, or fully (ne third, are 
devoted to the usage of the New Testament writers in respect to the article.) 

Hatcli. Edwin. Essays in Biblical Greek. 8vo, pp. 293. New York, 1889. (The 
discussion of the Greek of the Septuagint is the stronger part of the book.) 

Jelf, W. E. A Grammar of the Greek Language. 3d ed., enlarged and improved. 
2 vols., Svo, pp. 517, 700. Oxford, 1861. 



174 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, 

Middl^toii, Tlios. F. The Doctrine of tlie Greek Article, applied to the Criticism and 
Illustration of the New Testament. New ed., 8vo. London, 1855. 

Simcox, William Henry. The Language of the New Testament. 16mo, pp. xii, 226. 
New York, 1889. (This book is not precisely a Grammar of New Testament 
Greek. It aims '• to indicate ihe points wherein the language of the New 
Testament differs from classical and even post-classical usage." It treats of the 
characteristics of New Testament Greek in forms or inflections and in syntax.) 

Stuart, Moses. A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect. 8vo, pp. 312. Ando- 
yer, 1846. 

Trollope, Willi.im. A Greek Gramaiar to the New Testament, and to the Common 
or Hellenic Diction of the Later Greek Writers. 8vo, pp. 257. London, 1841. 

Wirier, George Benedict. A Grammar of the Idiom of the New Testament; pre- 
pared as a Solid Basis for the Interpretation of the New Testament. 7th ed., 
enlarged and improved. By Dr. Gottlieb Liinemann, Professor of Theology at 
the University of Gottingeri. Revised and Authorized Translation. 8vo, pp. 
744. Andover. 

2. Greek Lexicons. 

Analytical Greek Lexicon to the New Testament, The. 4to, pp. 490. London, 1868 ; 
also New York. 

An Etymological Vocabulary of All the Words in the Greek New Testament. 8vo, 
pp. 224. London, 1882. 

A Practical Guide to the Greek New Testament. Designed for those who have no 
knov/ledge of the GreeK language. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Creriier, Hermann. Biblico-Theological Lexicon of the New Testament Greek. 
Translated from the 2d German ed. 4to, pp. viii, 603. Edinburgh, 1878 ; 
3d English ed., 1880. 

Greenfield's Greek Lexicon to the New Testament. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Liddell, H. G., and Scott, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon. 7th ed., revised and 
augmented throughout with the co-operation of Professor Drisler. New York, 
1883. 

Robinson, I£dward. A Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament. New 
'ed., royal 8vo, pp. xii, 804. New York, 1878. 

Schleusner, J. F. Novus Thesaurus Philologico-Critieus, sive Lexicon in LXX. et 
Reliquos Interpretes Graecos, ac Scriptores Apocryphos Yeteris Testamenti, etc. 
• 2 vols., 8vo. Glasguae, 1824. 

Sophocles, E. A. A Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods. Prom 
B. C. 146 to A. D. 1100. 4to, pp. 1202. Boston, 1870. 

Tha3'er, John Henry. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, being 
Grimm's Wilke's Clavis Novi Testamenti. Translated, Revised, and Enlarged. 
Royal 8vo, pp. 726. New York, 1887. (Grimm's Wilke's Clavis Novi Testa- 
menti was pronounced by English critics as " imeq' aled " and "invaluable." 
Professor Scliiirer says : " It is not only unquestionably the best among existing 
New Testament Lexicons, but, apart from all comparison, it is a work of the 
highest intrinsic merit." Professor Thayer in his preface thus speaks of the 
scope of his book: "Primarily, it is intended to satisfy the needs and to guide 
the researches of the average student, although the specialist will often find it 
serviceable.") 

3. Greek Synonymes. 

Tittman, John Aug, Henry. Remarks on the Synonymes of the New Testamens, 
etc. 2 vols,, 16mo, pp, 265, 281. Edinburgh, 1837. 



BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 175 

Trench, R. C. Synonymes of the New Testament. 12mo, pp. 250. New York, 
1854. 2d part, 12mo, pp. 214, 1866. 9tli ed., 8vo, pp. xxx, 405. London, 1880. 
(Not the least valuable part of Trencli's tirst volume is its Preface. '"There are 
few things," he writes, " whicli we should have moie at heart than to awaken 
in our scholars an enthusiasm for the grammar and the lexicon. We shall have 
done much for those who come to us for tlieological training if we can persuade 
them to have these continually in their hands; if we can make them believe ihat 
with these and out of these the}- may be learning more, obtaining more real and 
lasting acquisitions, such as will form part of tlie texture of their own minds 
forever, than from many a volume of divinity studied before its time.") 

Webster, William. Syntax and Synonymes of the Greek Testament. Svo. London, 
1864. 

SECTION XI 

THE PRACTICAL SCIENCES AUXILIARY TO EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY 

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 

Comp. Schleiermacher, § 140, sqq, ; Herzog, Encykl., i, p. 411. 

A knowledge of the historical, physical, geographical, statistical, 
and politico-economical conditions under which a work „, , 

i^ _ _ ^ ^ The scope oi 

was Avritten is the indispensable means for any expla- Biblical arcbae^ 
nation of its matter intended to be at all exhaustive, in °^^^^' 
like manner as grammatical proficiency is necessary for the inter- 
pretation of its language. For this reason the range of Biblical 
studies includes a scientific investigation of the history of the Jew- 
ish people and their relations to other nations, the constitution of 
their State, their politico-economical and ecclesiastical arrangements, 
etc., the geography of Palestine and other Eastern countries as well 
as of all countries referred to in the Bible, and the natural products 
of these regions, together with the corresponding industries and the 
manner of life and tlie customs of their inhabitants. All of this is 
comprehended under the vague title of Biblical archseology — a 
branch which is, in one point of view, preparatory to exegesis, but 
in another results from exegesis. 

It may be held that the science of language is itself a branch of 
archa3ology; for it certainly belongs to archaeology to -^ 
ascertain the spoken and written language of a people, chaeoiogy too 
In an inverse direction archaBology must be included in ^^^^o^- 
the domain of language, inasmuch as the lexicon is obliged to explairt 
a multitude of terms by means of archaeological and geographical 
inquiries (proper names, technical terms, e. g., 7nx, n^T. inD, nnjp, 
etc.). Strictly speaking, however, the term archaeology is too nar- 
row, because matters relating to physical geography and natural 
history (physica sacra), with all else of a similar nature, are not 
included in archaeological inquir}^ 'The manners and customs 



176 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

of the East have, moreover, undergone so little change in many 
respects, that descriptions of travel in our own day frequently 
throw light upon statements of the Bible ; and this feature likewise 
cannot be assigned to the departmentof historical archaeology but 
must be classed with statistical and ethnographical knowledge.^ 

Biblical archaeology, on the other hand, includes more than Jew- 
Archaeoiogyin- ish and Hebrew antiquities. It cannot even be restrict- 
than^' Hebrew ^^ ^^ ^^^ researches to the East alone, especially as re- 
antiquities, gards the New Testament, for whose exposition it is 
necessary that " the historical apparatus should embrace a knowledge 
of the spiritual and civil conditions of all the regions in and for 
which the New Testament Scriptures were composed." ' This in- 
volves a thorough familiarity with the state of the Roman world 
from Augustus to Domitian, and of the state of the Jewish people 
in this period, Josephus being the principal source for the latter 
information. A broader inquiry would include the range of ideas 
prevalent at this time, though it cannot always be determined 
whether ideas, drawn, for instance, from the rabbins, were actually 
current in the time of Christ, or belong to a later age instead. In 
this direction archaeological inquiries lead back, as Schleiermacher 
has remarked,^ to the domain of apologetics. 

The Old Testament must always be the principal source for Bib- 
lical Archaeology,* and consequently the science is compelled to 
move in a kind of circle, archaeological knowledge being needed for 
a thorough understanding of the Bible, while that knowledge re- 
ceives further additions from a profounder study of the Scriptures. 
The Bible thus becomes at one time the object and at another the 
means of archaeological research, while this research is sometimes a 
preparation for exegesis and again its result. Archaeology may 
consequently be reckoned among the auxiliaries to exegetical theol- 
ogy, or be classed as a product of exegetical studies with historical 
theology, in proportion as one or the other point of view prevails. 
Classification ^ more careful distribution of the material of archae- 
of the material olosfv will warrant its classification under: 

of Biblical ar- Vm, , „, -r.-ii/ •.• 

chseoiogy— ge- 1- The geography of the Bible (on its importance to 
ograpby. Biblical exegesis, comp. the work by Furrer under that 

' Comp. de Wette's Bibl. Archaeol., § 1 and 2, where reference is also made to the 
still more extended meaning of the word apxaioXoyia in Josephus and Dion. Halicar. 
Gesenius defines Biblical Archaeology to be " the science which makes us acquainted 
with the natural and social conditions of the peoples among whom the Scriptures orgin- 
ated and to whom they relate," (Hall., Encykl,, x, 74), which is still correct in an 
empirical point of view. 

' Schleiermacher, § 141. ^ § 143, note. * Schleiermacher, § 141, note. 



SUBDIVISIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGY. 177 

title, Ztlrich, 1871). The geography of Palestine* forms its cen- 
tral feature, but it is not confined to Palestine. It begins 
historically with the country in which the sources of the Eu- 
phrates and the Tigris are situated, the Asiatic highlands in the 
region of Ararat), and extends, in the Old Testament, over Egypt, 
Arabia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia." New 
Testament geography extends its range farther into the West, 
the incidents of the New Testament record being located in Asia 
Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Italy (Rome), in addition to those 
of which the scene was in Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. Topogra- 
phy, the description of remarkable places, especially of Jerusalem 
and the temple, forms a special element of this geography, for the 
study of which the records of ancient and modern travel render 
valuable aid. 

2. The Natural science of the Bible (Physica sacra), which is 
most intimately connected with its geography. The Natural science 
importance of securing a vivid idea of the natural (geo- ^' *^® ^^'^^^• 
ological, topographical, and climatic) conditions of the country is 
heightened by the fact that the religious thought of the Hebrews 
was closely related thereto, and that the most important features of 
revelation connect themselves with the natural scenery of the 
Orient. Man is an object of natural science, in the whole of his 
physical constitution, in proportion as he is moulded by natural con- 
ditions. This applies, among the rest, to the entire subject of dis- 
eases and their peculiar form in the East (leprosy). In proportion, 
however, as man becomes superior to nature and assumes a social 
character, the physical and anthropological element will become 
subordinate to the ethnographical. Hence : — 

3. Biblical Ethnography, the description of manners and customs, 
first of Eastern peoples, and then of the ancient world Biblical Eth- 
in general. This involves the study (1) of man's rela- nosrraphy. 
tion to nature (agriculture, herding cattle, hunting, and fishing) and 

* This name was primarily applied to the country of the Philistines, in the south- 
western part of Canaan ; but it was subsequently given to the entire region embraced 
between the Jordan, the Mediterranean Sea, and Mt. Lebanon. Canaan (jyjS), derived 
from the fourth son of Ham, Gen. x, 6, was the older designation ; and it was also 
called the "land of Jehovah," the "land of promise," the "pleasant land." In later 
periods the name Judea denoted the entire country. Tlie expression, " land of the 
Hebrews" (D''"l!iyn j*1X) occurs but once in the Bible, in Gen. xl, 15, and the designa- 
tion was not common until after the time of Josephus (^ 'E^pattjv ;^:tjpo). For addi- 
tional information see J. G. Miiller, Die Seraiten in ihrem Verhaltniss zu Chamiten 
und Japhetiten, Gotha, 1872. 

' In strictness, the extreme western limit would be the ancient Tarshish (Tartessus) ; 
but this appears only as an isolated point. 
12 



178 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

of his modes of preparing the raw materials provided by nature for 
his use (dwellings, clothing, ornaments, food, utensils, handicrafts, 
navigation, etc.); and (2) man's relations to society (social customs, 
marriage, domestic life, general intercourse ; journeys, hospitality, 
relations with strangers, war, and slavery).' Inasmuch, however, 
as such relations of ordinary life were, among the Hebrews, regu- 
lated by the law of the Theocracy, it becomes necessary to examine: 

4. The Biblical (Mosaic) legislation and political constitution 

ox * **x, with which the codes of laws and the constitutions of 
structure of the . , , ^ 

Hebrew com- the Other nations embraced within the range of the 
monweaith. Scriptural records are to be compared (the Roman law, 
consequently, in connexion with the New Testament). The consti- 
tution of the theocratic State and its laws, were, moreover, intimately 
connected with the system of worship, so that in this point of view 
also the religious feature forms the central object of theological 
study ; and Biblical archaeology must accordingly give a prominent 
place to: — 

5. The sacred institutions of the Hebrews (sacra) in comparison 

^ ,, . with the other reliscions of antiquity as mentioned in 
The rehgious o . . 

institutions of the Bible, Many writers have limited the idea of Bib- 
the Hebrews, j-^^^ archaeology wholly to this branch of antiquities. 
It is usually subdivided into (I) The sacred places (the tabernacle, 
the temple, and, later, the synagogue); (2) the sacred seasons (the 
Sabbath, the new moons, the Hebrew feasts); (3) sacred and 
theocratic persons, the judges, prophets, priests, Levites, scribes; 
and (4) sacred usages, circumcision, sacrifice, anointings, purifica- 
tions, ceremonies, etc. The religions of non-Israelitish peoples and 
their polytheistic and nature-worship (worship of animals in Egypt, 
the worship of Baal, Astarte, and Moloch, witchcraft and divina- 
tion) must receive special attention inasmuch as the Israelites were 
constantly exposed to their influence. For the study of the New 
Testament the Graeeo-Roman mythology is likewise important. 
Finally, the worship having taken art into its service (music and 
poetry among the Hebrews) and the religion having developed a 
theology, it becomes necessary to give attention to: — 

6. The sciences and arts of the Hebrews and the nations with 
Art and science whom they came into contact. For the interpretation 
anf ^^reS ^^ ^^^ poetical Sections of the Bible it is especially im- 
peopies. portant that the nature of Hebrew poetry and music be 

* For this inquiry also travels are especially valuable. " You will find the reading 
of travels in the East, in which the life, manners, and customs of the nomads are de- 
ecribed, and from which conclusions respecting these earlier times of innocence and 
strength may be drawn, to be the best commentary." Herder, Briefe, No. 3, p. 42. 



HISTORY OF BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 179 

understood. The development of theology among the later Jews 
into Phariseeism and Sadduceeism, and into the Alexandrian phi 
losophy of religion (Philo)/ belongs more appropriately to the 
history of Bible doctrines, but is nevertheless entitled to a place in 
this department also.^ 

The real task of the Biblical archaeologist will be to combine all 
these threads into an organic whole, through which runs the prin- 
ciple of a higher intelligent life ; to represent the Biblical matter 
both in its development in time and in its extension in space, as 
contrasted with contemporary ethnical facts, and thus to bring be- 
fore the mind of the inquirer a living picture in which the lights 
and shadows are accurately disposed.^ 

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

The history of archaeology is rooted in the science itself. A circle 
is involved at this point. The Bible is the most ancient ^^^^^j.^ ^f ^^^ 
source for Hebrew and the related archaeologies of the licai archaeoi. 
East, and yet the exposition of the Bible requires ar- ^^^' 
chaeological knowledge. We become acquainted with the Bible 

'0pp. ed. Mange)' (Lond., 1742), 2 Tom. ; Pfeiifer (Erl, 1785-92, 1820) 5 Tom. ; Ed. 
Tauchnitziana (Lips., 1851-53), 8 Tom. English version in Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library 
(Lond., 1854). Comp. J. G. MuUer, Textkritik der Schriften des Philo, Basle, 1839, 4to. 

^ The Talmud (from Ijyp, f^ie doctrine), a collection of Jewish traditions, becomes a 
rich, though confused, source at this point. It consists of two parts, the Mishna, dat- 
ing in the second century A.D., and the Gemara, formed in the third centuiy. The 
Babylonian Talmud, which was completed as late as the sixth century, must be dis- 
tinguished from the Jerusalem. On the editions comp. Winer, Handb. der Lit. i, p. 
523, and M. Pinner, Compend. des hierosolym. u. babyl. Talmud, with preface by Bel- 
lermann, Berl., 1832. Lightfoot, Schoettgen, Surenhusius, Wetstein, Meuschen, Danz, 
and others, have made extracts from the mass of the rabbinical literature. Comp. 
Winer, Chrestomathia talmudica et rabbinica, Leips., 1822; F. Nork, Rabbin. Quellen 
u. Parallelen zu N. T. Scriftstellern, Leips., 1839. Concerning the later Judaism see 
J. A. Eisenmenger, Entdecktes Judenthum, Frankf., 1700, 2 vols., 4to, ; A. F. Gfrorer, 
das Jahrhundert des Heils, Stuttg., 1838, 2 vols.; S. Griiiiwald, Glaubens und Sitten- 
Lehre des Talmud. Heilbronn, 1854. 

' George remarks, in his work, Die Jiidischen Feste, pp. xii-xiv (see below, Litera- 
ture), " The tendency still prevails to regard Biblical Archaeology as a gamer into 
which the separate grains may be brought, without attempiug to combine them into a 
scientific whole, to which every individual object will sustain a definite and necessary 
relation. . . . Archaeology is the science which first opens to our view the real life of 
a people, by placing before our eyes its conditions in all the different periods and sit- 
uations of its history. Its office is to point out all the features m that life in their neces- 
sary connexion, and thereby to explain one in the light of the others and each one in 
its principles. It is, so to speak, the interior of the various phenomena, which spring 
from it as from a root. It is the complement of history, to which it stands related as 
the soul to its body, since it presents to view the conditions from which may be de- 
duced the phenomena in the life of a people recorded by history." 



180 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

through the Bible. In addition to the Bible, mention must be made 
Th n i nt ^^ Josephiis, the son of a Jewish priest (born A. D. 
writers on ar- 37) and a Pharisee, an eye-witness and participant in 
chaeoiogy. ^j^^ Jewish war (A. D. 70). He wrote a history of his 

nation, extending down to the close of Nero's reign, in twenty 
books — Antiquitates Judaicae ; and also described the Jewish wars 
in seven books, besides treating of other matters.^ For acquiring a 
knowledge of the country the study of Herodotus, Strabo (ii, 16), 
Ptolemy, Dio Cassiiis, Pliny (Hist. Nat., v, 13-19), Diodorus Sicu- 
lus, and others, is also useful. The beginnings of Bible geography 
Eusebius the ^^*^^'^ ^^'^^ '^7 ^^^ Christian Cliurch historian Eusebins (in 
first of Biblical the fourth century) in liis work HeqI Tottlkcov 'Ovofidrcjv 
geographer. ^^ ^- ^^^'^ Tpd(p'^. This work was known only in the 
translation by Jerome: Onomasticon urbium et locoriim Scripturae 
Sacrae, until the Jesuit Bonfrere publi.ihed it in 1659 (later editions 
by Clericus, 1707, Larsow and Parthey, 1862, Lagarde, 1870). The 
itineraries of Christian pilgrims are not without historical import- 
ance, though they contain much fabulous matter (the oldest is the 
Itinerarium Burdigalense, dating since 333), and this is especially 
true of the statements by crusaders, e. g., William of Tyre, James 
de Yitri, etc. (the whole published in Bongars. Gesta Dei per 
Francos, Hanover, 1611, 2 vols.). The journey of Rabbi Benjamin 
of Tudela (1160-1173), a Spanish Jew, has again commanded at- 
tention in recent times (published in Hebrew and English by A. 
Asher, J-^ondon and Berlin, 2 vols.). A more critical character be- 
longs to works of the sixteenth century. The Roman Catholic priest 
Chr. Adrichomius (f 1585), among others, published a description 
of Jerusalem in the time of Christ and a Theatrum terrae sanctae, 
with maps (Col. 1590), and the Reformed theologian S. Bochart 
(t 1667) laid the beginnings for a Bible geography in his Phaleg 
et Canaan, (1646, 1674) and of a Biblical natural history in his Hiero- 
zoicon (Lond., 1663, 1690). These were followed by the works of 
Geographical H. Reland (f 171S), Antiquitates sacrae veterum He- 
wruerfof "the ^^aeorum (Traj., 1708 and often), and Palaestina (1714); 
18th century. J. D. Michaelis, Spicilegium geographiae Hebr. (1769, 
1780), Mosaisches Recht (1770-1775, 6 vols.) and others. The 
numerous and predominantly scientific Travels, begun more than a 
centurj" ago and still continued, have afforded much valuable in- 
formation. Of such works those by Berggren, Buckingham, Cha- 

^ Editions by Havercamp (Amst, 1726, 2 vols., fol.), Oberthiir (Leips., 1782-85, 
3 vols.), Richter (Leips., 1825-27), Dindorf (Par., 1845-47, 2 vols., ed. Tauchnitziana 
Leips., 1850), Bekker (Leips., 1865-56, 6 vols.); also translated into English by 
Whiston, various editions. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 181 

teaubriand, Clarke, Ilasselquist, Joliife, Maundrell, Niebuhr, Po- 
cocke, Prokesch, Richardson, Seetzen, Shaw, Yolney,' etc., belong 
more or less to an earlier period. Of more recent works Writers on sa- 
we notice, J. E. Burckhardt, Reisen in Syrien u. Palaes- orthelgth^cen^ 
tina (with notes by Gesenius, Weimar, 1822-24, 2 vols.) ; tury. 
A. Lamartine, Voyage en Orient, 1832-33 (Paris, 1835); G. IL v. 
Schubert, Reise in d. Morgenland (Erl., 1838-40, 3 vols.); E. Rob- 
inson, Biblical Researches, etc. (2d ed., 1856, 2 vols.), Physical Ge- 
ography of the Holy Land (1865); Tischendorf, Reise in den 
Orient (Leips., 1846, 2 vols.); Lynch, Narrative of Exploring Expe- 
dition to the Dead Sea (1849; 9th ed., 1854); and Official Report 
of expedition (1852, 4to.); Ph. Wolff, Reise, etc. (Stuttgart, 1849); 

F. A. Neale, Eight Years in Syria and Palestine (Lond., 1851, 2 vols.). 

G. H. van Senden, Het heilige Land, (Gorinch., 1851); Gossler, Pil- 
gerreise nach Jerusalem (Paderb., 1852); J. S. Schiferle, Reise ins 
h. Land (Augsb., 1852, 2 vols.); F. J. Gehlen, Wanderung n. Jerusa- 
lem, (Munst., 1853); J. Hilber, Pilgerreise ins heil. Land (Inn- 
spruch, 1853); Plitt, Skizzen einer Reise n. d. heil. Lande (Carls- 
ruhe, 1853); Schulz, Reise ins gel. Land 3 ed., Muhlheim, 1855); 
F. A. Strauss, Sinai u. Golgatha, etc. (7 ed., Berl., 1857); Tobler, 
Denkblatter aus Jerus. (St. Gall, 1853) and Dritte Wanderung n. 
Palaest. (1859); K. Graul, Reise n. Ostindien, Part i, Palestine 
(Leips., 1854); de Saulcy, Voyage autour de la mer morte (Par., 
1853, 2 vols.); Delessert, Voyage aux villes maudites, etc. (Par., 
1853); M. Sachs, Stimmen vom Jordan (Berl., 1854); Leibetrut, 
Reise n. d. Morgenl, etc. (Hamb., 1854, new ed., 1858); Thomson, 
The Land and Book (1880 ; new ed., revised) ; Van de Velde, Journey 
through Syria and Palest. (1854, 2 vols.); Roroff, Reise n. Palaest. 
(Leips., 1862, 2 vols.); Bovet, Voyage en terre Sainte (4 ed., Par., 
1864); Furrer, Wanderungen durch Palaest. (Zurich, 1865); Lud- 
wig, Bethlehem in the Summer of 1864 (Berne, 1865); Petermann, 
Reisen in den Orient (Leips., 1865); Macedo, Pelerinage aux lieux 
saints (Paris, 1867); Riggenbach (Balse, 1873); Dean Stanley, Sinai 
and Palestine (London, 1853; New York, 1870); E. H. Palmer, The 
Desert of the Exodus (London; also New York, 1872); J. L. Por- 
ter, Handbook for Syria and Palestine, (last London ed., 1875); 
Lieuts. Conder and Hitchen, Survey of Western Palestine: Memoirs 
of its Topography, Orography, Hydrography, and Archaeology; 

' Comp. Paulus, Sammlung der merkwiirdigsten Reisen in den Orien., Jena, 1792-94, 
7 vols. Continued by Rink (Konigsberg, 1801); Winer, Handb. d. theol. Lit., p. 151. 
For New Test, times see the imaginary journey, Helons Wallfart nach Jerusalem, 109 
Jahre vor der Geburt des Herrn, by Fr. Strauss, Elberfeld, 1820-23, 4 vols — ^an imi- 
tation of the Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Grece. 



183 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

6 vols., 4to; 3 vols, yet to appear (London, 1881). See also Quar- 
terly Statements of Palestine Exploration Fund, London; also the 
Egyptological and Assyriological researches of Bonomi, Botta, Bun- 
sen, Brugsch, Fergusson, Grotefend, Layard, Lepsius, Rawlinson, 
Reinisch, Unger, Seyffarth, Vaux, Geo. Ebers (Aegypten u. d. 
Bilcher Mosis, etc. (vol. i, Leips., 1868), Schrader, Die Keilschriften 
u. d. Alte Testament (Giessen, 1872), Smith, and others. The 
Phoenician studies of Movers, Renan (1864), and others, and the 
numerous reports by missionaries stationed in the East, are likewise 
valuable in many respects. (Comp., too, the Ausland and the differ- 
ent geographical magazines.) 

Concerning the recently discovered "Moabite stone" recording 
the triumphs of the Moabite king Mesha (ninth century B. C.) 
comp. the works by Noldeke, Schlottmann, Kampf, Ginsburg, and 
others. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

1. Hebrew Antiquities. 

Benisch, A. Judaism Surveyed ; a Sketch of the Rise and Development of Judaism 
from Moses to our Days. 12 mo. London, 1874. 

Bissell, E. C. Biblical Antiquities : A Hand-Book. 8 vo, pp.420. Philadelphia, 1888. 

Conder, Francis R. A Hand-Book to the Bible. Being a guide to the study of 
the Holy Scriptures, derived from ancient Monuments and modern Exploration. 
Svo. London, 1879; 2d ed , 1880. 

Cox, F. A. The Manners and Customs of the Israelites in relation to their Religion 
and Civil Polity. 12mo. London, 1852. 

De Costa, B. F. The Moabite Stone. 8vo. New York, 1871. 

Ewald, Heinrich. The Antiquities of Israel. From the German. 8vo, pp. 398. 
London, 1876. 

Freeman, James M. Hand-Book of Bible Manners and Customs. 12mo, pp. 515. 
New York, 1874. 

Ginsburg, C. D. The Moabite Stone : a Fac-simile of the Original Inscription, with 
an English Translation, and an Historical and Critical Commentary. 4to. Lon- 
don, 1871. 

Jahn, John. Biblical Arcliseology. From the Latin. 5th ed., 8vo, pp. xii, 573. 
New York, 1859. 

Jamieson, Robert. Eastern Manners, Old and New Testament. New ed., 2 vols., 
12mo. Edinburgh, 1859. 

Josephus, Flavins, "Works of. Translated by "William "Whiston, A.M. Many editions. 

Keil, Carl F. Manual of Biblical Archaeology. With Alterations and Additions fur- 
nished by the author for the Flnglish Translation. Translated from tiie German 
chiefly by Rev. Peter Christie. Edited by the Rev. F. Crombie, D.D. 2 vols., 
8vo, pp. 482, 404. Edinburgh, 1887. (This is a \qvj comprehensive work. 
The topics discussed are: I. The Scene of the Biblical Historj^ II. The Religious 
Relations of the Israelites. III. Tiie Social Relations of the Israelites. Under 
these heads all the details of Hebrew life, private and public, are presented.) 

King, J. Moab's Patriarchal Stone; being an account of the Moabite Stone. 8va 
London, 1878. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 183 

Madden, F. W. History of Jewish Coinage and of Money in the Old and New Testa- 
ments. With 254 Kngravings of all the Jewisli Coins mentioned in the Bible. 
8vo, pp. 373. London, 1864; 2d ed., Boston, 188L 

Maimonides, Rabbi. The Laws of the Hebrews relating to the Poor and the Stranger. 
Translated by James W. Peppercorn. 8vo. London, 184L 

Michaelis, J. D. Commentaries on the Law of Moses. 4 vols., 8vo. London, 1814. 

Pierotti, E. Customs and Traditions of Palestine, illustrating the Manners of the 
Ancient Hebrews. Translated by T. G. Bonney. 8vo, pp. 288. London, 1864. 

Rawhnson, 0. Historical Illustrations of the Old Testament. With Additions by 
Prof. H. B. Hackett. 16mo, pp. 237. Boston, 1874. 

Snowden, J. R. The Coins of the Bible and its Money Terms. 18mo. Philadelphia, 
1864. 

The History of the Hebrew Commonwealth, from the Earliest Times to the Destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, A. D. 72. With a continuation to the time of Adrian. 3d 
ed., 8vo, pp. xvi, 592. Oxford, 1840. 

Townley, James. The Reason of the Law of Moses. With Notes, Dissertations, 
and a Life of the Author. 8vo, pp. 451. London, 1827. 

Van Lennep, H. J. Bible Lands : Their Modern Customs and Manners Illustrative 
of Scripture, New York, 1875. 

Warburton, William. The Divine Legation of Moses Demonstrated. 3 vols., 8vo, 
pp. 526, 518, 512. London, 1846. 

"Wines, E. C. Commentaries on the Laws of Ancient Hebrews. 8vo, pp. 640. New 
York, 1852. 

2. Christian Arch(jeology. 

Bennett, Charles W. Christian Archaeology. With an Introductory Notice by Dr. 
Ferdinand Piper, of Berlin. 8vo, pp. xvi, 558. New York, 1888. (Dr. Bennett 
was a pupil of Piper. The divisions are : Book I. The Archaeology of Christian 
Art. II. The Archaeology of the Constitution and Government of the Church. 
III. The Sacraments and Worship of the Early Church. lY. The Archaeology 
of Christian Life. The Appendix contains a full literature of the subject.) 

Bingham, Joseph. Origines Ecclesiasticae ; or, Antiquities of the Christian Church. 
10 vols., 8vo. Oxford and London. 

Coleman, Lyman. Ancient Christianity Exemplified in the Private, Domestic, Social, 
and Civil Life of the Primitive Christians, and in the Original Institutions, Offices, 
Ordinances, and Rites of the Church. 8vo, pp. 643. Philadelphia, 1853. (An 
excellent and scholarly book.) 

Hatch, Edwin. The Organization of the Early Christian Churches. 8vo, pp. xxviii, 
216. London, 1881. 

The student should also consult freely Smith and Cheetham's Dictionary of the History^ 
Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church. 2 vols., 8vo. London. 

3. Biblical Katural History. 
Abbott, Gorham. Scripture Natural History. 12mo. Boston. 
Bennett, J. R. Diseases of the Bible. 12mo, pp. 144. London, 1888. 
Calcott, Maria. Scripture Herbal. 8vo, pp. 568. London, 1842. 
Harris, T. M. The Natural History of the Bible. 8vo. London, 1820. 
Knight, A. E. Bible Plants and Animals. London, 1890. 
Kurtz, J. H. The Bible and Astronomy. An Exposition of the Biblical Cosmology 

and its Relations to Natural Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1861. 
Mitchell, 0. M. Astronomy of the Bible. 12mo, pp. 322. New York, 1863. 
13 



184 • SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Osborn, Henry S. Plants of the Holy Land, with their Fruits and Flowers. 8vo. 
Pliiladelpliia, 1860. 

Tristram, H. B. Tlie Land of Israel: a Journal of Travels in Palestine undertaken 
with Special Reference to its Physical Character. 2d ed., Svo, pp. 671. Lon- 
don, 1866. 

Tristram, H, B. The Natural History of the Bible; being a Review of the Physical 
Geography, Geology, and Meteorology of the Holy Land ; with a Description of 
Every Animal and Plant Mentioned in Holy Scripture. London, 1867; 2d ed., 
1869; also New York. 

Wood, J. G, Bible Animals; being a Description of Every Living Creature Men- 
tioned in tlie Scriptures. 8vo, pp. 652. New York, 1869. 

4. Biblical Geography. 
Arabia. 

Burton, Sir Richard Francis. The Land of Midian Revisited. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 

1879. 
Burton, Sir Richard Francis. Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El Medina and 

Mecca. 3 vols., 8vo. London, 1855; 3d ed., 1879. 
Lowth, Geo. T. The Wanderer in Arabia ; or, Western Footsteps in Eastern Tracks. 

2 vols., 12mo, pp. 724. London, 1855. 
Palgrave, W. G. Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia. 2 vols., 8vo. Lon- 

don, 1869. 
Taylor, B. Travels in Arabia. New York, 1874. 

Armenia. 

Curzon, Robert. Armenia ; a Year at Erzeroum. 12mo, pp. xiv, 226. New York, 
1854. 

Smith, Eli, and Dwight, H. G. 0. Researches in Armenia, with a visit to the Nesto- 
rian and Chaldean Christians of Oroomiah. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 679. Boston, 1830. 

Southgate, Rev. Horatio. Narrative of a Tour through Armenia, Kurdistan, Persia, 
and Mesopotamia, with an Introduction and Occasional Observations upon the 
Condition of Mohammedanism in those Countries. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 334, 356. 
New York, 1840. 

Wheeler, C. H. Ten Years on the Euphrates ; or. Primitive Missionary Policy Il- 
lustrated. 12mo. Boston. 

Asia Minor. 
Hamilton, William J. Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia. 2 vols., 

8vo, pp. 1069. London, 1842. 
Leake, W. M. A Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, with Comparative Remarks on the 

Ancient and Modern Geography of that Country, 8vo, pp. 391. London, 1824. 
Van Lennep, H. J. Travels in Little-Known Parts of Asia Minor. 2 vols., 8vo. 

London, 1870. 

Assyria. 
Assyrian Discoveries ; an Account of Explorations and Discoveries on the Site of 

Nineveh, during 1873 and 1874, with Illustrations. Svo, pp. xvi, 461. New 

York, 1875. 
Fraser, J. Baillie. Mesopotamia and Assyria. 12rao, pp. 376, Edinburgh, 1847. 
Smith, George. The Chaldean Account of Genesis, Svo, pp. xvi, 319, New York, 

1876. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 185 

Babylon. 
Budge, E. A. Wallis. Babylonian Life and History. 8vo. London, 1814. (Gives 

the results of tlie study of cuneiform inscriptions.) 
Xewman, Jolm P. Thrones and Palaces of Babylon from Sea to Sea. 8vo, pp. 455. 
l^ew York, 1876. 

Chaldea. 
Loftus, William K. Travels in Chaldea and Susiana. 8vo, pp. 436. New York, 
1857. 

Crete. 
Postlethwaite, E. Tour in Crete. 12mo, London, 1868. 
Skinner, J. E. H. Roughing it in Crete in 1867. 8vo. London, 1867. 

Cyprus. 

Di Cesnola, Louis P. Cyprus : its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples. A Narra- 
tive of Researches and Excavations during Ten Years' Residence in that Island. 
8vo, pp. xix, 456. New York, 1878, 

L51ier, Franz von. Cyprus. Historical and Descriptive, from the Earliest Times to 
the Present Day. 8vo, pp. vii, 324. New York, 1878. 

Damascus. 

Porter, J. L. Five Years in Damascus; with Travels to Palmyra, Lebanon, and 
other Scripture Sites. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1855. 

Dead Sea. 

De Saulcey, L. F. J. C. Narrative of a Journey Round the Dead Sea and in Bible 

Lands. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 968. London, 1854. 
Lynch, "W. F. Narrative of the United States Expedition to the River Jordan and 

the Dead Sea. 8vo, pp. 516. Philadelphia, 1848. 

Desert and the Exodus. 
Bartlett, W. H. Forty Days in the Desert on the Track of the Israelites; or, a 

Journey from Cairo to Mount Sinai and Petra. New ed., 8vo. London, 1867. 
Brugsch Bey, Henry. The True Story of the Exodus of Israel. Edited by Francis 

H. Underwood. 12mo, pp. 260. Boston, 1880, 
Field, Henry M. On the Desert, from Egypt through Sinai to Palestine ; a Journey 

in the Track of the Israelites ; with a brief Review of Recent Events in Egypt. 

8vo.' New York, 1883. 
Foster, Charles. Israel in the Wilderness. 12mo, pp. 319. London, 1865. 
Palmer, E. H. The Desert of the Exodus ; Journeys on Foot in the Wilderness of 

the Forty Years' Wanderings. 8vo. pp. 470. New York, 1872. 
Trumbull, H. Clay. Kadesh-Barnea: Its Importance and Probable Site, with the 

story of a hunt for it, including Studies of the Route of the Exodus, and the 

Southern Boundary of the Holy Land. 8vo. New York, 1884. 

E'jypt 
Bartlett, W. H. The Nile Boat; or, Glimpses of the Land of Egypt. ]2mo, pp. 

236. New York, 1851. 
Brown, Robert Hanbury. The Fay<im and Lake Moeris. With Illustrations and 

Map. Large 4to. London, 1892. 



186 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Budge, Ernest A. "Wallis. The Dwellers on the Nile ; or, Chapters on the Life, 
Literature, History, and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. 8vo. London, 
1885; newed., 1888. 

Bunsen, Ernest de. Egypt's Place in Universal History. New ed., 5 vols,, 8vo. 
London, 1867. 

De Leon, Edwin. The Khedive's Egypt ; or, the Old House of Bondage under New 
Masters. 12mo, pp. 435. New York, 1877. 

PMwards, Amelia B. Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers. 8vo, pp. xix, 325. New 
York, 1892. (Among the topics treated are: The Explorer in Egypt; The 
Buried Cities of Ancient Egypt; Portrait Painting in Ancient Egypt; Egypt 
the Birthplace of Greek Decorative Art ; the Hieroglyphic "Writing of Ancient 
Egypt, etc.) 

Egypt Exploration Fund, Memoirs of. 1. The Store City of Pithom and the Route 
of the Exodus, by Edouard Naville. 2. Tanis, Part I, by "W. M. Flinders Petrie. 
3. Naukratis, Part I, by W. M. Flinders Petrie. 4. Tanis, Part II, by W. M. 
Flinders Petrie ; with chapters by A. S. Murray and F. LL. Griffith. 5. Goshen, 
by Edouard Naville. 6. Naukratis, Part II, by Ernest A. Gardner. Appendix, 
by F. LL. Griffith. 7. The City of Onias, and the Mound of the Jew, by 
Edouard Naville. 8. Bubastis, by Edouard Naville. Quartos, pp. 31, 54, 95, 
25, 84, — ^ 116, 71 ; with Appendices of Plates. 

Galloway, W. B. Egypt's Record of Time to the Exodus of Israel, Critically Inves- 
tigated. London, 1869. 

Harman, Henry M. A Journey to Egypt and the Holy Land in 1869-70. Pp. xii, 
331. Philadelphia, 1873. 

Jones, J. Foulkes. Egypt in its Biblical Relations and Moral Aspect. 8vo, pp. viii, 
326. London, 1860. 

Klunzinger, C. B. Upper Egypt. Its People and its Products; with a Prefatory 
Notice by Dr. Geo. Schweinfurth. 8vo, pp. xv, 408. New York, 1878. 

Lane, E. "W. An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians. 
2 vols., 16mo, pp. XX, 418; viii, 429. London, 1836; 5th ed , enlarged, 1871. 

Lepsius, Ric. Discoveries in Egypt, Ethiopia, and the Peninsula of Sinai, 1842-45. 
Edited, with Notes, by K. R. H. Mackenzie. 8vo, pp. 471. London, 1S58. 

Lindsay, A. "W. C. Letters on Egypt, etc. Boston and New York. 

Maspero, G. Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria. From the French. 12mo, pp. 
XV, 376. New York, 1892. (This book is abundantly illustrated.) 

Osburn, William. The Monumental History of Egypt as Recorded on the Ruins 
of her Temples, Palaces, and Tombs. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 461, 643. London, 
1854. (This work is profusely illustrated.) 

Osburn, William. Israel in Egypt; or. Genesis and Exodus. 2d ed., 12mo. Lon- 
don, 1856. 

Palmer, William. The Egyptian Chronicles ; with a Harmony of Sacred and Egyp- 
tian Chronology. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 1053. London, 1861. 

Perrot, Georges, and Chipiez, Charles. A History of Art in Ancient Egypt. Pro- 
fusely Illustrated. Translated and Edited by Walter Armstrong. 2 vols., royal 
Svo, pp. xvi, 444. London, 1883. 

Rawlinson, George. Egypt and Babylon from Sacred and Profane Sources. Pp. 
vii, 329. New York, 1885. 

Schaff, Philip. Through Bible Lands : Notes of Travel in Egypt, the Desert, and 
Palestine. 12mo, pp. 413. New York, 1879. 

Sharpe, Samuel. The History of Egypt from the Earliest Times till the Conquest by 
the Arabs, A. D. 640. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 628. London, 1846 ; 5th ed., 1870. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 187 

Taylor, W. C. Illustrations of the Bible from the Monuments of Egypt. 12rao, pp. 

xvi, 200. London, 1838. 
Wilkinson, J. Gardner. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. New ed., 

revised and corrected by Samuel Birch, LL.D. 3 vols., Svo, pp. xxx, 510; xii, 

515; xi, 528. London, 1878. 
Zincke, F. Barham. Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. Svo. London, 

1871. 

Ephesus, 

Wood, J. T. Discoveries at Ephesus. New ed., 4to. London, 1876. 

Greece. 
Baird, Henry M. Modern Greece ; a Narrative of a Residence and Travels in that 

Country. 12mo, pp. xii, 380. New York, 1856. 
Wordsworth, C. Greece, Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical. Svo. Boston. 

Jerusalem. 

Barclay, J. T. The City of the Great King ; or, Jerusalem as it was, as it is, and as 
it is to be. Svo, pp. 647. Philadelphia, 1858. 

Bartlett, W. H. Walks about the City and Environs of Jerusalem. Svo. London, 
1852. 

Palmer, E. H., and Besant, Walter. Jerusalem: the City of Herod and Saladin. 
Svo. London, 1871. 

Pierotti, E. Jerusalem Explored ; Ancient and Modern. Translated from the French 
by T. G. Bonney. 2 vols., folio. London, 1864. 

TJirupp, J. F. Ancient Jerusalem ; a new Investigation into the History, Topog- 
raphy, and Plan of the City, Environs, and Temple. Svo, pp. 428. London, 
1855. 

Warren, Captain, and Wilson, Colonel Sir C. The Recovery of Jerusalem. Svo. 
London, 1871-1876. 

Warren, Charles. Underground Jerusalem ; an Account of Some of the Principal 
Difficulties Encountered in its Exploration, and the Results Obtained. Svo, pp. 
579. - London, 1876. 

Warren, Sir Charles, and Conder, Claude Reignier. Jerusalem. The Survey of 
Western Palestine. 4to, pp. 542. London, 1 884. (This is one of the volumes 
issued under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund. As originally 
published it was accompanied by a portfolio of drawings. The first paper con- 
tains historical notices of the extant remains of the city.) 

Williams, George. Tlie Holy City. Historical, Topographical, and Antiquarian 
Notices of Jerusalem. 2d ed. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 601, 629. London, 1849, 

Wilson and Warren. The Recovery of Jerusalem. A Narrative of ^Exploration and 
Discovery in the City and Holy Land. Svo, pp. 459. New York, 1S71. 

Lebanon. 
Burton, R. F., and Drake, C. T. Unexplored Syria. Yisits to the Libanus, the Anti- 
Libanus, the Northern Libanus, etc. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1872. 

Macedonia. 
Walker, U. A. Macedonia to the Albanian Lakes. Svo. London, 1864. 

Mesopotamia. 
Fraser, J. Baillie. Travels in Koordistan and Mesopotamia. 2 vols., Svo. Edinburgh, 
1840. 



188 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Moah. 

Conder, Captain C. R. Heth and Moab : Explorations in Syria in 1881 and 1882. Svo. 
London, 1883; 2d ed., 1885. 

Merrill, Selah. East of the Jordan. A Record of Travel and Observation in the 
Countries of Moab, Gilead, and Bashan, during the years 1875-1871. With Il- 
lustrations and a Map. With an Introduction by Prof. Roswell D. Hitchcock, 
D.D,, President of Union Theological Seminary. 8vo, pp. 549. New York, 
1881. 

Tristram, H. B. The Land of Moab : Travels and Discoveries on the East Side of 
the Dead Sea and the Jordan. 8vo, pp. 416. New York, 187.3. 

Nineveh. 

Pergusson, J. The Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored ; an Essay on An- 
cient Assyrian and Persian Architecture. 8vo, pp. 384. London, 1851. 

Layard, A. H. Nineveh and its Remains. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1848-49 ; also 1867. 

Layard, A. H. Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, with Travels 
in Armenia, Kurdistan, and the Desert. Second Exploration. Svo, pp. 586. 
New York, 1853. 

Rich, C. J. Narrative of a Residence on the Site of Ancient Nineveh. 2 vols., Svo. 
London, 1836. 

Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries : Explorations and Discoveries on the Site of 
Nineveh, 1873, 1874. Svo. New York, 1875. 

Vaux, W. S. W. Nineveh and Persepolis. A Historical Sketch of Ancient Assyria, 
etc. 2d ed., 12mo, pp. 444. London, 1850 ; new ed., 1855. 

Palestine. 

Bartlett, W. H. The Footsteps of our Lord and his Apostles in Palestine, Syria, 
Greece, and Italy. Svo. London, 1856; new ed., 1862. 

Buchanan, Claudius. Christian Researches in Asia. 12mo, pp. 275. Philadelphia, 
181.3. 

Burt, N. C. The Land and its Story ; or, The Sacred Historical Geography of Pal- 
estine. Svo. New York, 1869. 

Conder, Claude Reignier. Tent Work in Palestine. A Record of Discovery and 
Adventure. Published for the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. 
With Illustrations by J. W. Whymper. 2 vols., Svo, pp. xxvi, 381 ; viii, 352. 
London, 1878. 

Conder, Lieutenant Claude R., and Kitchener, Lieutenant H. H. Survey of Western 
Palestine. Memoirs of tlie Topography, Orography, Hydrography, and Archaeol- 
ogy. Edited with additions by E. N. Palmer, M.A., and Walter Besant, M.A. 
For the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. 3 vols., 4to, pp. 420, 
445, 450. London, 1881-1883. (The text of this important work is composed 
of the field notes of the two explorers, printed without change. The additions of 
the editors, printed in small type, are drawn from Robinson, Stanley, Renan, 
Tristram, and other travelers.) 

Dixon, William H. The Holy Land, with Illustrations. 3d ed., 2 vols., Svo. Lon- 
. don, 1867. • 

Dulles, John W. The Ride Through Palestine, in 1879, by Seven Presbyterian Cler- 
gymen. Illustrated. 12mo, pp. 528. Philadelphia, 1881. 

Field, Henry M. Among the Holy Hills. 12 mo. New York, 1884. 

Geikie, Cunningham. The Holy Land and the Bible. A Book of Scripture Illustra- 
tions gathered in Palestine. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 656. New York, 1890. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 180 

Hull, Professor Edward. Mount Seir, Sinai, and "Western Palestine, being a Xarrative 
of a Scientific Exploration. Maps and lUustraiious. 8vo. Loudon, 1885, 

Hull, Professor Edward. The Survey of Western Palestine. Meuioirs, etc., with 
special reference to the Jordan- Arabah Depression and the Dead Sea. 4to. 
London, 1886. 

Keith, Alexander. The Land of Israel, according to the Covenant with Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob. 12rao. Xew York, 1851. 

Kinglake, W. Eotlien ; or, Travels in the East. New ed., 12mo. London, 1871. 

Le Strange, Guv. Palestine under the Moslems. A Description of Syria and the 
Holy Land, from A. D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the works of the Mediae- 
val Arab Geographers. 8vo, pp. xxii, 604. London, Palestine Exploration 
Fund, 1890. (The list of Arab geographers quoted reaches twenty-four 
names.) 

Macleod, Norman. Eastward : Travels in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. 3d ed., 8vo. 
London, 18T2. 

Merrill, Selah. Galilee in the Time of Christ. With an Introduction by A, P. Pea- 
body. 18mo, pp. 159. Boston, 1881. 

Rawhnson, G. Bible Topography. 12mo, pp. 141. New York, 1887. 

Ridgaway, Henry B. The Lord's Land: A Narrative of Travels in Sinai, Arabia Pe- 
tra, and Palestine, from the Red Sea to the Entering In of Hamath. 8vo, pp. 
744. New York, 1876. 

Ritter, Carl. The Comparative Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula. 
Translated and adapted to the use of Biblical Students, by W. L. Gage. 4 vols., 
8vo, pp. 451, 418, 396, 410. Edinburgh, 1866. 

Robinson, Edward. Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent Regions. 
A Journal of Travels in the Year 1838. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. xxx, 614 ; xiv^ 600f. 
Boston, 1868. 

Robinson, Edward. Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent Re- 
gions. A Journal of Travels in 1852. New Maps and Plans. 2d ed., 8vo, 
pp. xxx, 664. Boston, 1871. 

Sage, W. L. Palestine, Historical and Descriptive; or, the Home of God's People. 
Fully Illustrated with 150 Engravings and Maps. 8vo, pp. 560. Loudon, 1887. 

Sandie, George. Horeb and Jerusalem. Pp.417. Edinburgh, 1864. 

Schumacher, Gottlieb. Northern Ajl\in, within the Decapolis. Translated by 
Guy Le Strange. 12mo, pp. xii, 207. Palestine Exploration Fund, London, 
1890. 

Stapfer, Edmond. Palestine in the Time of Christ. Translated by Annie Harwood 
Holmden. 12mo, pp. xii, 528. New York, 1888. (The material is classified in 
two books: I. The Social Life. II. Tlie Religious Life.) 

Thayer, Alexander Wheelock. The Hebrews and the Red Sea. 16mo, pp. 140. An- 
dover, 1883. 

Thomson, W. M. The Land and the Book; or. Biblical Illustrations drawn from 
the Manners and Customs, the Scenes an'd Scenery, of the Holy Land. 2 vols., 
Svo, pp. 560, 614. New York, 1859. New ed., in 3 vols. 

Tillotson, John. History of Palestine and the Holy Land. Illustrated with 350 En- 
gravings and Maps. With a History of the Crusades, compiled by W. and R. 
Chambers. Svo. New York, 1875. 

Tristram, H, B. The Topography of the Holy Land. A succinct account of all the 
places, rivers, and mountains of the Land of Israpl mentioned in the Bible, so 
far as they have been identified, together with their modern names and historical 
references. Svo. New York, 187S ; London, 1872.. 



190 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Western Palestine, The Survey of. Special papers on Topography, Archseology, 
Manners, Customs, by Wilson, Warren, Conder, Kitchener, Palmer, George 
Smith, Chester, Clermont, Ganneau. Edited by Walter Besant. 4to, pp. 362. 
London, 1881. (These papers are reprints from the Quarterly Statement of the 
Palestine Exploration Fund. The information C9ntained in them is of great 
value.) 

Wright, Tliomas. Early Travels in Palestine, comprising the Narratives of Arculf, 
Wlllibald, Bernard, Saewulf, Sigurd, Benjamin of Tudela, Sir John Mandeville, 
De la Brocquiere, and Maundrell. 12mo, pp. 548. London, 1848. 
(See also the Quarterly Statements of the Palestine Exploration Fund, issued from 

the society's ofiSce, 1 Adam Street, Adelphi, London, W. C.) 

Ptrsia. 

Bassett, James. Persia. The Land of the Imams. A Narrative of Travel and Resi- 
dence, 1871-1885. 12mo, pp. 343. New York, 1886. (There is a valuable 
Bibliography of the subject at the end of the volume, containing about seventy, 
five titles.) 

Loftus, William K. Travels and Researches in Chaldea and Susiana. 8vo, pp. 436 
New York, 185*7. 

Wagner, M. Travels in Persia and Georgia. 3 vols., 8vo. London, 1856. 

Phosnida. 
Phoenicia and Israel. A Historical Essay. London, 1871. 

Samaria. 
Mills, John. Nablus and the Modern Samaritans. 12mo, pp. xii, 335. London, 1864. 
Shelaby, Jacob Esh. Notices of the Modern Samaritans. 8vo, pp. 55. London, 
1855. 

Seven Ghurclies. 
Cathcart, M. The Seven Churches of Asia. 4to. London, 1869. 
Tristram, H. B. The Seven Golden Candlesticks. 8vo. London, 18tl. 

Sinai. 
Bartlett, S. C. From Egypt to Palestine through Sinai, the Wilderness, and the Soutli 

Country. 8vo, pp. 555. New York. 
Gaussen, L. From Egypt to Sinai. The Exodus of the Children of Israel. 12mo, 

London, 1869. 
Stanley, Arthur P. Sinai and Palestine in Connection with their History. 8vo, pp. 

Iv, 535. New York, 1857. New Edition, with Maps and Plates. Pp. 641. 

New York, 1883. 

4. Hebrew Poetry and Music. 

Carhart, J. Wesley. The Poets and Poetry of the Hebrews. New York, 1865. 
Herder, J. G. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. From the German. 2 vols., 12m^ 

pp. 293, 320. Burlington, Yt., 1833. 
Hutchinson, Enoch. The Music of the Bible ; or. Explanatory Notes upon all the 

Passages of the Sacred Scriptures relating to Music. 8vo, pp. 513, Boston, 

1864. 
Lowth, R. The Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. London and Andover. Many ed. 
Taylor, Isaac. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. 8vo, pp. xvi, 347. London, 1861. 



THE SCOPE OF INTRODUCTION UNSETTLED. 191 

SECTION XII. 
BIBLICAL IS AGOGICS. (Introduction. Canonics). 

Comp. Dav. Schulz, Review of Eiehhorn's and de Wette's Einleitungen in Stud. u. Krit, 1829, 
No. 3, pp. 570-72 ; Hupfeld, Begrifl u. Methode der sog. Bibl. Einl., Marb., 1844; Rudelbach, Be- 
grlfl der N. T. Tbeologle u. Isagogik, in his Zeitschrift, 1848, 1 ; Baur, Die Einl. in das N. T. als 
theol. Wissensch. in Tbeol. Jalarbb., 1850-51 ; Delitzsch, Begrifl u. Methode der sog. Biblischen 
u. insbeson. A. T. Einleitung, in Thomasius and Hof mann's Zeitschr. fiir Prot. u. Kirche, xxviii, 
No. 3; Erl., 1854, p. 133, sqq.; Hahn, in Herzog's Encykl., iii, p. 726, sqq. (s. v. Einl. ins A. T.); 
Articles Biblical Introduction in M'Cllntock & Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol. iv, p. 630, and Kitto's 
Cyclopaedia, vol. ii, p. 27 ; Brooke Foss Westcott, Introduction to the Study of the Gospels ; 
Henry Alford, How to Study the New Testament. 

The Bible is a body of writings which originated in different 

periods and under various circumstances and conditions, which were 

from different authors, and were gradually collected ^^ objects of 

into a whole; and it is consequently necessary for a a history of the 

proper appreciation of its character that the origin and 

fortunes of the entire collection and also of its several parts be 

understood. To afford this knowledge is the office of the history 

of the canon or the science of Biblical Introduction (Isagogics in 

the limited sense), which is divided either into Introduction to the 

New or to the Old Testament, or into general and special. General 

introduction discusses the origin and progress the establishing of 

the canon, the history of manuscripts, editions, versions, , , , 

\ ^ 1 1 c^ ' c^ • 1 • -. Introduction IS 

revisions oi the holy Scriptures, etc. opecial mtroduc- either general 

tion, on the other hand, inquires, in partial connexion °^ special. 
with criticism, into the authenticity and integrity of the several 
writings, and deals, in addition, with the history of their authors 
as such, the design, plan, form, and style of their works, and finally 
with the date, place, and circumstances in which the writings were 
composed. 

The idea of Introduction itself is vague, and opinion is still di- 
vided with regard to its importance and extent as a Tbe scope and 
Biblical science. De Wette denies that Introduction limits of intro- 

, , . . duction not 

IS a science m the proper sense, and views it as a mere precisely de- 
aggregation of preliminary knowledge, which lacks termined. 
both " a true scientific principle and a necessary connexion of its 
parts ; ^ but in more recent times scholars (e. (/., Schulz, Credner, 

* De Wette, Einl. § 1. Schleiermacher (Herm. u. Krit., p. 3*79) observes in a similar 
spirit that the so-called N. T. Introduction is " a science that has no limits whatever, 
and into which an}'thing that is desired may be thrown. A going back to principles 
is wholly out of the question in such a case. . . . But it is pertinent to ask, ' Are there 
no such principles ? ' " Comp. p. 36 ; " N. T. introduction is not properly a constitu- 
ent part of the organism of theological science, but it is practically useful for both 
the beginner and the master, because it facilitates the bringing together upon a sirigle 
point of all the inquiries that are involved." Scholz, a Roman Catholic writer on in- 



192 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Reuss, Hupfeld) have directed attention to the necessity for a sift- 
ing of the material to be treated by Introduction, and also for the 
application of principles to such treatment. The indefinite char- 
acter of the word " introduction " ^ will be apparent to every mind. 
At the bottom, all that our treatment of encyclopaedia has touched 
upon or shall hereafter discuss, relating either to the Bible itself or 
to the aids necessary for its interpretation, may be included under 
Introduction to the Bible ; and, in point of fact, the Hebrew and 
New Testament languages, archaeology, hermeneutics, etc., have 
been thus disposed of in some instances. Some writers have accord- 
Tbe name "Ca- ^^g^J preferred to lay aside this indefinite term, and the 
nonics" pro- name canonics has been proposed as a substitute.'* 0th- 

posed as a sub- /-i-i ^^ \ r r ^ 

stitiite f or " In- ers (like Reuss) have exchanged it for the name "His- 
troduction." ^^^.^ ^f ^^^ jj^^^ Scriptures of the Old and New Tes- 
taments." The vague idea of introduction is certainly confined with- 
in wholesome limits in one direction by this method ; but in another 
direction the present science of introduction is extended to cover a 
field that lies beyond the bounds of introductory matter, since the 
later fortunes of the Bible — the dissemination of the sacred writ- 
ings, the history of their employment and their exposition — are in- 
cluded. 

troduction, likewise speaks of it as being simply an aggregation of multifarious mat- 
ters, in connexion with which the important feature is that they be " conveniently dis- 
tributed." He divides introduction into criticism, hermeneutics, and archaeology (see 
pp. 1 and 2). Comp. Delitzsch, 1. c, " Every science is an organism ; but the term 
organic applies only to what is not simply a means for promoting an object external 
to itself, but is itself a whole, an object to itself, in which the individual with its pe- 
culiarities is lost in the idea of the whole, and only that is an instrument (organ) 
which aids the development of the whole in its identity with itself. The so-called in- 
troduction lacks this organic character. It is not without idea and aim, but it lacks 
the immanent, self-developing idea, the principle of teleological self -reference, which 
is necessary to a science." 

^ The name is first employed by Adrian, a writer probably of the fifth century, in 
the small hermeneutical work elaayuyy el^ rag d^siag jpaddc] afterward by Cassiodorus 
(in the sixth century), and later in the Middle Ages. In Germany Michaelis first used 
it in connexion with the N. T., and Eichhorn with the 0. T. Comp. Hahn in Herzog's 
Encykl., iii, p. Y27, sqq. 

' Zyro, in Stud. u. Krit., 1837, No. 3, considers canonics to be merely a branch of 
isagogics. In his view, the latter comprehends everything that is necessary for the 
interpretation of the Scriptures, i. e., 1. the nature and importance of the Bible, to- 
gether with its history (canonics) ; 2. its compass, or the genuineness of its matter (crit- 
icism) ; 3. its language and contents (hermeneutics). Ee then divides canonics into 
two parts, in abstrado, in which character canonics unfolds the nature of the Scrip- 
tures under the forms of authenticity, credibility, and genuineness, and canonics in 
concreto^ or what is usually termed introduction in the more limited sense, which is 
again divided into general and special or into Old and New Testament canonics. Comp. 
Pelt, Encykl, p. 121. 



GENERAL AND SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 193 

It will not be denied that great interest attaches to such an 
all-sided historical knowledge respecting the Bible ; but methodo- 
logical considerations require nevertheless that what is introductory 
to the study of Scripture (the history of its origin and the collection 
of its parts into a canon), and what relates to the further history of 
the already completed collection of the Scriptures, should be kept 
apart. Only the former, though likewise historical in its nature, 
is an exegetical auxiliary science, because it affords a correct posi- 
tion to the exegete from which to operate ; while the latter must 
be assigned to the department of Church history and the his- 
tory of literature, and may be reserved for a later stage of theo- 
logical study. It does not appear to us a matter which the sci- 
ence need be ashamed of, that the "reader of the introduction 
Bible" (i. e., the student) must before all "be well- ^^XhSt^rfS 
grounded in historical knowledge in order to correctly the canon and 
understand and properly appreciate the Bible as a whole 
and in its parts ; " ' but such preliminary knowledge needs a careful 
discrimination of its elements among themselves, and a proper dis- 
tribution of its parts in the organism of the sciences. If, in har- 
mony with this principle, the grammatical and archaeological ele- 
ments be excluded, and a distinct place be assigned to hermeneutics, 
there will be left only what is generally denoted by the still current 
name of introductory science, namely, the history of the canon 
(within the limits hitherto assigned to it) and criticism. These 
may not be wholly separated from each other, for the history of the 
canon is not to be a mere review, but history involving the discus- 
sion of principles — criiical history ; in which connexion it may be 
remembered that what is now called introduction was formerly 
known as critica sacra or histoire critique du V. et N. T. (Richard 
Simon). This does not forbid, however, that criticism as such, 
i. 6., the whole of the science of critical principles, should consti- 
tute a distinct branch of study, as does hermeneutics, which em- 
braces the theory of interpretation. The science of introduction is 
thus confined to critical and historical inquiry concerning the books 
of Scripture and their collection into a canon, instituted for pur- 
poses of exegesis. 

The division into Old and New Testament introduction results 
from the nature of the case ; but the relation of general Relation of 
to special introduction is more difficult to determine. cfaT^i^troduoI 
The usual method is to begin with the general (the col- tion. 
lection of the canon, history of the text, versions, etc.), and to sup- 
plement this with introductions to the several books ; but the oppo- 

^ The words of Hupfeld, p. 8. 
13 



194 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

site course may be adopted with Reuss, and the origin of the 
different books discussed, so that the formation of the canon from 
its first beginnings to its final completion is presented in a genetic 
view. In the latter case, however, the special introduction would 
need to be very brief and to steadily approach its object, as is the 
case with Reuss, the more extended discussion being reserved for 
the exegesis of the books. Here, again, the intervention of the 
different sciences comes into view. Introduction provides the 
point of view from which the exegete is to regard the Bible ; but 
the progress of exegesis reacts upon introduction and alters the po- 
sition of isagogics. 

Encyclopaedia is concerned with the material of introduction only 
in so far as it is necessary to give preliminary information with 
regard to its general character. The question concerning the period 

„.,,.. in which the formation of the canon was first under- 
Penod of the 

first formation taken, is connected with the inquiry respecting the time 
o the canon. T^\xen the art of writing was invented. It is certain 
that the canon as a whole appears for the first time after the cap- 
tivity. The traditional view that Ezra (B.C. 478) and Nehemiah 
(2 Mace, ii, 13) took measures for collecting the different books, has 
been doubted by the criticism of recent times. ^ The first to receive 
a completed form was probably the Pentateuch, and to this the 
other books were added in various collections and at different 
times. The earliest constituents of the Kew Testament canon were 
the Pauline epistles, which were written as occasion required 
(those to the Thessalonians being the oldest); and to these were 
gradually added the (catholic) epistles of other apostles, togeth- 
er with the written memorabilia of the life of Jesus (Gospels), 
the latter being probably first in point of time. The ancient Church 
knew of but two collections, the evayyeXiov and the aTioaroXoq (ac- 
The New Test- cording to the assumption which has become current 
th^eariyChriS ^^^^^ ^^^ *^^^ ^^ Semler, though it is not fully estab- 
tian Church. lished).'^ The former included the four Gospels, which 
had already been distinguished from the spurious gospels and recog- 

* Comp. Leyrer's art. in Herzog's Encykl., xv, p. 296, »qq. A reference to an al- 
ready completed canon cannot, of course, be looked for in the canonical books them- 
selves. The apocryphal Book of Wisdom, however (not later than B.C. 130), affords 
proof that a collection of sacred writings existed (chap, xlv-xlix), though it cannot be 
Bhown that the entire canon, as we possess it, is intended ; for this purpose a formal 
catalogue would be required. The first to furnish a list (of twenty-two books) was 
Josephus (contr. Ap. i, 8), from whom the tradition referred to in the text is also 
derived. 

' Pelt, p. 144, under reference to Orelli : Selecta patrum capita ad eiai^yijTiKTjv sacra 
pertin. p. 1, 11, sq.^ note, Comp. Landerer in Herzog's Encykl,, vii, p, 270, sqq. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 195 

nized by the Church, and the latter embraced the apostolic epis- 
tles and the Book of Acts. Opinion was long divided with regard 
to the Apocalypse and certain of the catholic epistles, and a distinc- 
tion was made between bfioXoyoviieva and avTiXeyopLSva and voda 
(Euseb., H. E. iii, 25) as late as the fourth century. The first class 
included the four Gospels, the Book of Acts, the fourteen Pauline 
epistles,' and 1 Peter and 1 John ; to the second were assigned the 
2d ep. by Peter, 2 and 3 John, James, and Jude; and the third was 
limited to the Apocalypse, though many classed it among the writ- 
ings whose authenticity was acknowledged (comp. the canon of 
Origen in Euseb., vi, 25, and that of Eusebius himself, ibid., iii, 25, 
as also the somewhat divergent so-called Muratorian canon of 
Milan, in Kirchhofer, Quellensammlung, p. 1, sqq. ; also Westcott 
on the Canon of the New Test., p. 184, sqq.^ and Harman's In- 
troduction, pp. 428-438). The canon of the New Testament 
as it now stands was gradually formed by the actions of councils 
(comp. Canon Laodic, 364, and the canon of the third council of 
Carthage in 397). This may suffice to enable the beginner to under- 
stand the relation of the early Christian Church to the canon, and to 
demonstrate to him that the former had already attained to a high de- 
gree of independence (" sine charta et atramento." — Irenseus) before 
the canonical boundaries of the letter of the Bible had been definitely 
fixed.' But this by no means involves the conclusion that the canon 
is a mere accident ; the religious disposition will still recognize its 
providential, though not necessarily miraculous, character. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

1. Introduction to the whole Bible. 

Angus, Joseph. The Bible Hand -Book: An Introduction to the Study of the Sacred 
Scripture. 12mo, pp. 727. Philadelphia, 1865. 

Bissell, E. Cone. The Historic Origin of the Bible: A Hand-Book of Principal 
. Facts from the best recent authorities. 8vo. New York, 1873. 

Briggs, Charles Augustus. Biblical Study : Its Principles, Methods and History, 
together with a catalogue of Books of Reference. 4th ed., 8vo, pp. xv, 506. New 
York, 1891. (The author aims "to present a guide to Biblical Study for the 

' Including that to the Hebrews, though its Pauline character is denied by some 
churches. 

'^Comp. Schleiermacher, § 104, sqq.; Goetlie, p. 140, "The Bible itself— and this 
receives too little attention — exerted almost no influence in the older times. The 
books of the Old Testament had scarcely been collected, and the nation in which they 
originated was utterly dispersed. The latter alone formed the nucleus about which 
its members gathered and still gather. The books of the New Testament had 
scarcely been brought together before Christendom divided into endless differences 
of opinions. And thus it appears that people do not busy themselves with the work 
so much as about the work." 



196 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

intelligent layman as well as the theological student and minister of the Gospel." 
Each department of Biblical Study is treated historically, and the doctrine of 
the Bible is developed from the standpoint of the Westminster Confession. A 
valuable feature of the work is the extensive Bibliography of the subject, both 
directly referred to in the body of the book, and arranged topically in a cata- 
logue at the end.) 

Cosin, John. Scholastical History of the Canon of the Holy Scriptures. London, 
1657. In Vol. Ill of his Works. Oxford, 1849. 

Davidson, Samuel. The Canon of the Bible : Its Formation, History, and Fluctua- 
tions. 3d ed. London, 1880. 

Ewald, Heinrich. Old and New Testament Theology. Translated from the German 
by T. Goadhy. 8vo, pp. 458. Edinburgh, 1888. (Although Ewald was 
opposed to Rationalism, he placed both the Scriptures and the doctrine of Rev- 
elation upon a scientific basis, subjecting everything contained in them to the 
test of experience. He makes Revelation a great historical development, an- 
evolution of which Christ is the result and issue. The history of Israel 
finds its consummation in Christianity, and is for the inheritance and redemp- 
tion Of all men.) 

Ewald, Heinrich. Revelation : Its Nature and Record. Translated from the German 
by the Rev. T. Goadby. 8vo, pp. 482. Edinburgh, 1884. (The three parts of 
the book are. The Nature of the Revelation of the Word of God; Revelation in 
Heathenism and in Israel; Revelation in the Bible.) 

Fairbairn, P. The Typology of Scripture Viewed in Connection with the Whole Series 
of the Divine Dispensations. 5th ed., 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 420, 484. New York, 1880. 

Gaussen, L. The Canon of the Holy Scriptures. Examined in the Light of History. 
From the French, by Ed. N. Kirk. 12mo, pp. x, 463. Boston, 1863. 

Given, John James. The Truth of Scripture in Connection with Revelation, In- 
spiration, and the Canon. 8vo, pp. 370. Edinburgh, 1881. 

Harman, Henry M. Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. 8vo, pp. 798. 
New York, 4th ed., 1884. 

Hitchcock, Roswell D. A New and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible. The 
Old and New Testaments arranged by subjects on the basis of M. Talbot, with 
Indexes and Tables by N. West. With Cruden's Concordance, revised by J. 
Eadie. 8vo. New York, 1870, 

Home, Thomas Hartwell. An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of 
the Holy Scriptures. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 464, 493, and 198. Philadelphia, 1841. 
Thirteenth English edition, with the aid of Ayre and Tregelles. 4 vols., 8vo. 
London, 1872. 

Ladd, George T. The Doctrine of Sacred Scripture. A Critical, Historical, and 
Dogmatic Inquiry into the Origin and Nature of the Old and New Testaments. 
2 vols., pp. 783, 778. New York, 1883. (Holds that the Christian consciousness 
is the judge of what in the Bible is and is not the word of God. A very valuable 
work, which, however, takes some questionable positions.) 

Lenormant, Frangois. The Beginnings of History, according to the Bible and the 
Traditions of Oriental Peoples, from the Creation of Man to the Deluge. Trans- 
lated from the second French edition, with an Introduction by Francis Brown, As- 
sociate Professor in Biblical Philology, Union Theological Seminary. Svo, 
pp. XXX, 588. New York, 1883. 

Lightfoot's Horse Hebraicse et Talraudicae. 4 vols., 8vo. London, 1880. 

Robson, John. The Bible: Its Revelation, Inspiration, and Evidence. 8vo. London, 
1883. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 197 

Rogers, Ilenry. The Superhuman Origin of the Bible. Inferred from itself. 8vo, 

pp. 475. New York, 1874. 
Stowe, C. E. Origin and History of the Books of the Bible, both Canonical and 

Apocryphal. In Two Parts. Part I, Tlie New Testament. Svo, pp. 583. 

Hartford, 1867. 
Townley, James. Illustrations of Biblical Literature, exhibiting the History and 

Fate of the Sacred "Writings from the Earliest Period to the Present Century. 

2 vols., 8vo, pp. 602, 604. New York, 1847. 

2. To the Old Testament. 

Bartlett, Samuel C. Sources of History in the Pentateuch. Six Lectures delivered 

in Princeton Theological Seminary, on the Stone Foundation, March, 1882. 

(Includes an excellent treatment of evolution and creation, and a treatise upon 

the early documents.) 
Binnie, William. The Psalms: Their History, Teachings, and Use. London, 1870. 
Birks, T. R. The Pentateuch and its Anatomists; or. The Unity and Authenticity of 

the Books of Moses Vindicated. 12mo. London, 1869. 
Bleek, Johannes. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Translated by 0. H. 

Yenables. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 967, new ed. London, 1875. 
Cowles, Henry. The Pentateuch in its Progressive Revelations of God to Men. Pp. 

414. New York, 1874. 
Cross, J. A. Introductory Hints to English Readers of the Old Testament. 8vo. 

London, 1882. 
Curtiss, Samuel Ives. The Levitical Priests : a Contribution to the Criticism of the Pen- 
tateuch. With Preface by Dr. Delitzsch. 12mo, pp. xxix, 254. Edinburgh, 1877. 
Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the Old Testament, Critical, Historical, and 

Theological. 3 vols., 8vo. London, 1862. 
Davison, John. Discourses on Prophecy. In which are considered its Structure, 

Use, and Inspiration. 8vo. Loudon, 1870. 
Delitzsch, Franz. Messianic Prophecies. Translated from Manuscript Lectures by 

S. Ives Curtiss. 12mo. New York, 1881. 
De Wette, W. M. L. A Critical and Historical Introduction to the Canonical Script- 
ures of the Old Testament. Translated and enlarged by Theodore Parker. 2 vols., 

Svo, pp. 517, 570. Boston, 1843. 
Driver, S. R. An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament. 2d ed., Svo, 

pp. xxxii, 543. Edinburgh and New York, 1892. (The contents and structure 

of the several books are treated from the standpoint of advanced criticism.) 
Elliott, Charles. A Vindication of the Mosaic Authorship of the Pentateuch. 16mo, 

pp. 273. Cinciunati and New York, 1884. 
Ewald, Heinrich. The History of Israel. Translated and Revised. 5 vols., Svo. 

London, 1869-1871. (Discusses the formation of the Old Testament Canon.) 
Fairbairn, P. Prophecy, Viewed in Respect to its Distinctive Nature, its Special 

Function, and Proper Interpretation. 2d ed., Svo. New York, 1866. 
Gloag, James Paton. The Messianic Prophecies. Baird Lectures for 1879. 12mo, 

pp. 368. Edinburgh, 1879. 
Godet, F. Biblical Studies on the Old Testament. Edited by W. H. Lyttleton. 

Cloth, Svo. New York and London, 1875. 
Green, W. Henry. Moses and the Prophets. Svo. New York, 1883. (Includes 

reviews of Prof. Kueneu and Dr. W. Robertson Smith.) 
Havernick, H, A. Ch. A Historico-Critical Introduction to the Pentateuch. From 

the German. Svo, pp. 450. Edinburgh, 1850. 



198 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Havernick, H. A. Oh. A General Historico-Critical Introdnction to the Old Testa- 
ment. From the German. 8vo, pp. 389. Edinburgh, 1852. 

Hengstenberg, B. W. Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel, and the Integrity 
of Zechariali. Translated from the German. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1858. 

Hengstenberg, E. W. Dissertations on the Genuioeness of the Pentateuch. From 
the German. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 462, 543. Edinburgh, 1847. 

Herder, J. G. The Spirit of Hebrew Poeiry. Translated from the German by 
James Marsh. 2 vols. Burlington, Yt., 1833. 

Jehovah and Elohim in the Pentateuch, On the Use of, as Consistent with, and Con- 
lirmatorj of, its Mosaic Authorship. By H. T. Svo. London, 1869, 

Keil, Karl F. Manual of Historico-Critical Introduction to the Canonical Scriptures 
of the Old Testament. Translated by M. Douglas. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 545, 444. 
Edinburgh, 1869. 

Kuenen, A. The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. Translated from the Dutch by 
the Rev. Adam Milroy. London, 1817. 

Leathes, Stanley. The Structure of the Old Testament ; a Series of Popular Essays. 
16mo, pp. 198. Philadelphia, 1873. 

M'Donald, Donald. Introduction to the Pentateuch. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 487, 489. Edin- 
burgh, 1861. 

Murray, Thomas C. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of the Psalms. 12mo. 
New York, 1880. 

Norton, Andrews. The Pentateuch and Its Relations to the Jewish and Christian 
Dispensations. 12mo. London, 1870. 

Oehler, G. F. Theology of the Old Testament. Translated by Sophia Taylor. Svo, 
pp. 497. Edinburgh, 1875. 

Orelli, C. Von. The Old Testament Prophecy of the Consummation of God's King- 
dom Traced in its Development. Translated by Rev. J. S. Banks. Svo, pp. 
472. Edinburgh, 1885. (Part first treats of prophecy in relation to Israel as a 
nation ; part second of prophecy as the herald of the new birth of God's king- 
dom and the security for its future consummation.) 

Phelps, Austin. Studies in the Old Testament. 12mo, pp. 333. Boston, 1879. 

Porter, J. L. The Pentateuch and the Four Gospels : a Statement of our Lord's Tes- 
timony to the Mosaic Authorship, Historic Truth, acd the Divine Authority of 
the Pentateuch. 12mo. London, 1865. 

Pusey, E, B. Daniel the Prophet. Nine Lectures delivered in the Trinity School of the 
University of Oxford. Svo, 3d ed. Oxford, 1869. (Aims to invalidate the theo- 
ries of Prof. Robertson Smith by testing their consistency with other scriptural 
statements.) 

Quaney, John. Genesis and its Authorship. Two Demonstrations: I. On the Im. 
port of the Introductory Chapters. II. On the Use of the Names of God in the 
Book of Genesis. Svo. London and Edinburgh, 1866. 

Ryle, Herbert Edward. The Canon of ihe Old Testament ; an Essay on the Gradual 
Growth and Formation of the Hebrew Canon of Scripture. London and New 
York, 1892. (Written from the standpoint cf the new school of Old Testament 
critics.) 

Smith, R. Payne. Prophecy a Preparation for Christ. Bampton Lectures for 1869. 
12mo, pp. 397. 'Boston, New York, and Cincinnati, 1870. 

Smith, W. Robertson. The Old Testament in the Jewish Church. Twelve Lectures 
on Biblical Criticism. 12mo, pp. 441. New York, 1881. (Denies the historical 
validity of much of the Pentateuch. Reviewed at length by Prof. "W. Henry 
Green in Presbyterian Review for January, 1882, pp. 108-156.) 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 199 

Smitli, W. Robertson. The Prophets of Israel and their Place in History, at the 
close of the Eightli Century B. C. 8vo. New York, 1882. 

Stearns, 0. S. Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament, with Analyses 
and Illustrative Literature. 12mo, pp. 148. Boston, 1888. New ed., 1892. 
(The Literature given on each book is not exhaustive but helpful. In addition 
to the analyses the principal difBculties are pointed out. A brief list of desira- 
ble commentaries is also given.) 

Stebbins, Rufus P. A Study of the Pentateuch for Popular Reading, Being an In- 
quiry into the Ageoftlie so-called Books of Moses, with an Introductory Examina- 
tion of Recent Dutch Tneories, as represented by Dr. Kuenen's "Rehgiunof 
Israel." 12mo, pp. 233. Boston, 1881. (The aim of the author is to show that 
the Pentateuch is of the Mosaic age and of Mosaic authorship, directly or 
indirectly.) 

Stuart, Moses. Critical History and Defense of the Old Testament Canon. 12mo. 
Revised ed., pp. 422. Andover, ]8'72. 

Taylor, Isaac. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. 8vo. New York, 1862. With a bio- 
graphical introduction by William Adams. 

Watts, Robert. The Newer Criticism and the Analogy of Faith. A Reply to Prof. 
W. Robertson Smith. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1881. 

Wellhausen, Julius. Prolegomena to the History of Israel, with a reprint of the 
article "Israel" from the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Translated from the Ger- 
man, under the author's supervision, by J. Sutherland Black and Allan Men- 
zies, with Preface by Prof. W. Robertson Smith. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1885. (A 
destructive critic : holds that " Moses is the originator of the Mosaic constitu- 
tion in about the same way as Peter is the founder of the Roman hierarchy.") 

Williams, Rowland. The Prophets of Israel and Judah during the Assyrian Em- 
pire, 8vo, pp. 450. London, 1866. 

Wright, W. The Book of Jonah, in Four Oriental Yersions, namely, Ghaldee, 
Syriac, Ethiopic, and Arabic; with Glossaries. 8vo, pp. xii, 148. London, 1857. 

3. To the Neiv Testament 
Abbott, Edwin A., and Rushbrooke, W. G. The Common Tradition of the Synoptic 

Gospels in the Text of the Revised Version. 16mo, pp. xxxix, 156. London, 1884. 
Abbott, Ezra. The Authorship of tlie Fourth Gospel. 8vo, pp. 104. Boston, 1880. 
Alexander, Joseph A. Notes on the New Testament Literature and Ecclesiastical 

History. 12mo, pp. 319. New York, 1873. New ed., 1875. 
Alford, Henry. How to Study the New Testament. First Section, The Gospels 

and Acts. Second Section, The Epistles. Third Section, The Epistles of John 

and the Revelation. 3 vols., 12mo. London, 1865-1869. 
Bleek, Friedrich. An Introduction to the New Testament. From the Second Edi- 
tion of the German. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 900. Edinburgli, 1869-1870. 
Burgon, John W. The Last Twelve Verses of tlie Gospel According to St. Mark 

Vindicated Against Recent Critical Objectors and Established. Svo, pp. 334. 

London, 1871. 
Charteris, A. H. The New Testament Scriptures: Their Claims, History, and 

Authority; being the Croall Lectures for 1882. 8vo, pp. 227. London, 

1882 ; New York, 1 883. (A well written, popular work.) 
Charteris, A. H. A Collection of Early Testimonies to the Canonical Books of the 

New Testament, Based on Kirchhofer's Quelleusammlung. 8vo. Edinburgh, 

1880. 
Conder, Josiah. Literary History of the New Testament. Svo, pp. 624. London, 1845. 
1-1 



200 SPECFAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Conybeare nnd Howson. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols. ; also 2 vols. 

in one. I'iiuo, pp. 556. New York, 1869. 
Curiisa, Samtiel Ives. The Dale of our Gospels in the Light of the Latest Criticism. 

]8mo, pp. 76. Chicago, 1881. (A review of Judge "Waite's "History of the 

Christian Religion to the Year 200 ;" and also a lecture based on Norton's " Gen- 
uineness of the Gospels.") 
Davi'lson, D. Connection of the Sacred and Profane History, from the Close of the 

Old Testament History till the P]stablishment of Christianity. 3 vols, in one. 

rimo. New York, 1857. New ed., 24mo. London, 1868. 
Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament. 3 vols., 

8vo, pp. 458, 495, 688. London, 1851. 
Dods, Marcus. An introduction to the New Testament. 5th ed., 16rao, pp. 247. 

New York, 1892. (In discussing the synoptic problem the author joins issue 

with Canon Westcott's hypothesis of an antecedent oral gospel, favoring the 

double-source tlieory of Holtzmann. The work is an admirable specimen of 

concise and accurate writing.) 
Ebrard, J. H. A. The Gospel History. A Critical Investigation in Support of the 

Historical Character of the Gospels. Translated by James Martin. 8vo, pp. 

602. Edinburgh, 1863. 
Evans, Howard Heber. St. Paul the Author of the Last Twelve Verses of the Second 

Gospel. 16mo, pp. 83. London, 1886. (Rationalistic.) 
Farrar, F. W. The Messages of the Books: Being Discourses and Notes on the 

Books of the New Testament. 8vo. London, 1884; also New York. 
Fisher, George P. The Beginnings of Christianity, with a View of the Roman 

World at the Birth of Christ. 8vo. New York, 1877. 
Gloag, Paton J. Introduction to the Pauline Epistles. 8vo, pp. 488. Edinburgh 

and New York, 1874. 
Godet, F. Studies in the New Testament. 12mo. pp. 398. New York, 1877. 
Gregory, D. S. Why Four Gospels? or, The Gospel for All the World. 12mo, pp. 

348. New York and Cincinnati, 1880. 
Howson, John S. Tlie Metaphors of St. Paul, and Companions of St. Paul. With an 

Introduction by H. B. Hackett. 2 vols, in one, 16mo, pp. v, 91, 211. New 

York, 1872. 
Hug, John Leonard. An Introduction to the Writings of the New Testament. From 

the German. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 529, G82. London, 1827. 
Hutton, Richard H. The Historical Problems of the Fourth Gospel. In Essays, 

Theological and Literary. 2 vols. London, 1871. 
Kelly, Wm. Lectures Introductory to the Study of the Gospels. 12mo. London, 

1867. 
Kelly, Wm. Lectures Introductory to the Study of the Acts, the Catholic Epistles, 

and the Revelation. 12mo. London, 1870. 
Kelly, Wm. Introduction to the Study of the Epistles of Paul. 12mo. London, 

1869. 
Lardner, Nathaniel. The Credibility of the Gospel History. 5 vols. London, 1838. 
Less, Godfrey. The Authenticity, Uncorrupted Preservation, and Credibility of the 

New Testament. Translated by R. Kingdom. 8vo. London, 1864. 
Lewin, Thomas. Fasti Sacri ; or, A Key to the Chronology of the New Testament. 

Svo, pp. 429. London, 1865. 
Lewin, Thomas. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul, with Numerous Illustrations, 

finely engraved on wood ; Maps, Plans, etc. 2 vols., 4to, pp. xxxiv, 414; xxii, 

487. London, 1878. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 201 

Martin, James. Origin and History of the -New Testament. 2d ed., 16mo. London, 
1872. 

McWhorter, Geo. C. A Popular Hand-Book of the New Testament. 12mo, pp. 295. 
New York, 1864. 

Michaehs, J. D. Introduction to the New Testament. Translated, with Notes, etc., 
by Herbert Marsh. 6 vols., 8vo. London, 1823. 

Mill, William H. Observations on the Attempted Apphcation of Pantheistic Prin- 
ciples to the Theory and Historic Criticism of the Gospel. Edited by B. Webb. 
2d ed., 8vo. Cambridge, 1855. 

Mitcliell, E. C. The Critical Hand-Book. A Guide to the Study of the Authenticity, 
Canon and Text of the Greek New Testament. Illustrated by Diagrams, Tables, 
and a Map. 12mo, pp. 151. Andover, 1880. 

Monod, Adolphe. St. Paul. Five Discourses. From the French, by J. H. Myers. 
New ed., 12rao. Andover, 1876. 

Nast, Wm. The Gospel Records. Their Genuineness, Authenticity, etc. 12mo, 
pp. 373. Cincinnati, 1878. 

Norton, Andrews. The Evidence of the Genuineness of the Gospels. Abridged ed,, 
12mo, pp. 584. Boston, 1867. 

Reuss, Edward. History of the Sacred Scriptures of the New Testament. Trans- 
lated from the Fifth Revised and Enlarged German Edition, with Numerous 
Bibliographic additions by Edward L. Houghton, A.M. Edinburgh, 1884. 
2 vols. Boston. (The distribution of the matter of this work is masterly. Book I 
presents the history of the origin of the New Testament workings. Book IT, 
history of the collection of the writings — the canon. Book HI, history of the 
preservation of the writings — the text. Book IV, history of the circulation of 
the writings — the versions. Book Y, history of the theological use of the 
writings, a history of exegesis,) 

Roberts, Alexander. Discussions of the Gospels. Part I, on the Language used by 
our Lord. Part II, on the Original Language of Matthew's Gospel, 8vo, pp. 
571. Cambridge and London, 1864. (Argues that Jesus spoke Greek.) 

Salmon, George. A Historical Introduction to the Study of the Books of the New 
Testament. 4th ed., 8vo. London, 1890. (Strongly apologetic.) 

Sanday, "Wm, The Gospels in the Second Century, An Examination of the Critical 
Part of a Work entitled "Supernatural Religion," 8vo, London, 1876, 

Sanday, Wm. The Authorship and Historical Character of the Fourth Gospel con- 
sidered in reference to the Contents of the Gospel itself. A Critical Essay. 
Cloth, 8vo. London, 1872. 

Schaff, Pliillp. A Companion to the Greek Testament and the English Yerslon, 
with Fac-simile Illustrations of MSS. and Standard Editions of the New Testa- 
ment. Pp. xxi, 618. New York, 1883, 3d ed. revised, 1888. (Included are 
chapters on the language of the New Testament ; manuscripts of the New Testa- 
ment; the ancient versions; patristic quotations; textual criticisms; the printed 
Greek text ; the Authorized Yerslon ; the Revised Yersion, There are also 
appendices containing a list of printed editions of the Greek Testament; fac- 
similes of standard editions of the Greek Testament; a list of English and 
American revisers; list of American changes adopted by the lOnglish committee ; 
adoption of the revision by the Baptists; with indexes of Scripture passages 
explained and of subjects.) 

Scrivener, F. II. Six Lectures on the Text of the New Tes'araent, and the Ancient 
MSS. which contain it. Crown 8vo, pp. 216. Cambridge, London, 1875. (This 
work is a more popular presentation of some of the chief topics discussed by 



202 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Dr. Scrivener in his Introduction ta the Criticism of the New Testament, The 
principal MSS. and versions of the New Testament are described in the first four 
lectures, and some important passages in the Gospels and Epistles are examined 
in the remaining two, the entire series being " chiefly addressed to those who 
do not read Greek." 

Tischendorf, Constantino. Origin of the Four Gospels. Translated by William L. 
Gage. 16mo, pp. 287. Boston, 1868. 

Tischendorf, Constantino. When were our Gospels Written ? An Argument; with a 
Narrative of the Discovery of the Sinaitic Manuscript. 16mo. New York, 186Y. 

Toy, Crawford Howell. Quotations in the New Testament. 8vo, pp. xiv, 321. New 
York, 1884. (Takes the position that " the quotations in the New Testament 
from the Old Testament are never made immediately from the Hebrew, but 
always from tlie Greek or the Aramaic version.") 

Tregelles, S. P. Canon Muratorianus. The Earliest Catalogue of the Books of the 
New Testament. Edited, with Notes, and a Fac-simile of the Manuscript in the 
Ambrosian Library at Milan. 4to. London, 1868. 

Upham, Francis W. Thoughts on the Holy Gospels: How they came to be in 
Manner and Form as they are. 12mo, pp. 378. New York and Cincinnati, 1881. 

Weiss, Bernhard. A Manual of Introduction to the New Testament. Translated 
from the German hj A. J. R. Davidson. 2 vols., Svo. Yol. I, pp. xv, 420 ; 
vol. 11, pp. xi, 426. New York, 1889. (After discussing the history and present 
state of the science of Introduction with special reference to the Tiibingen 
school. Dr. Weiss treats, in part first, of the origin of the New Testament canon, 
tracing its development from the earliest apostolic epistles until the close of the 
canon in the West. In part second he takes up the history of the New Testa- 
ment writings in detail, first considering the Pauline Epistles, with an appendix 
on the Epistle to the Hebrews. The Revelation of John, the Catholic Epistles, 
and the Historical Books follow in turn, the synoptical question, and that of the 
oldest source, as well as the Johannean question receiving consideration. A 
comprehensive history of the New Testament text is given in the final appendix, 
in which the author treats of the preservation of the text, of manuscripts, ver- 
sions, the printed text, and the philological elaboration of the text.) 

Westcott, Brooke Foss. The New Testament in the Original Greek. Introduction 
and Appendix. 12mo, pp. xxxii, 324. Appendix, pp. 188. New York, 1882. 

Westcott, Brooke Foss. A General Survey of the Canon of the New Testament. 
4th ed., 12mo, pp. Ivi, 587. London, 1875. (A most valuable work, which 
discusses in three periods the evidences for the authority of the canon of the 
New Testament. The Introduction notices the difficulties which effected the 
formation of the canon. In the first period, 70-170 A. D., citations from the 
canonical books, not necessarily by name, or uses of their language by the 
apostolic fathers, and the Greek apologists are noticed; the early versions are 
described, and also the uses of the language of the canonical writings by the 
early heretics. In the second period, 170-303 A. D,, the testimonies of the 
churches to the acknowledged and the disputed books, and also the testimony 
of heretical and apocryphal writings are brought forward. In the third period 
— 303-397 A. D. — we have presented the testimonies of the age of Diocletian 
and of the age of Councils. To all this is added the mediaeval and the sixteenth 
century view of the canon. The discussion is carried forward with the cautious 
thoroughness which is characteristic of Bishop Westcott.) 

Westcott, Brooke Foss. Introduction to the Study of the Gospels ; with Historical 
and Explanatory Notes. 12mo, pp. 476. Boston. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 203 

Whately, Richard. Difficulties in the Writings of the Apostle Paul and other parts 
of the New Testament. From the 8th London edition. 12mo, pp. 376. Andover, 
1865, 



Besides the works above noticed there are numerous periodicals devoted to the 
illustration of the Bible which are important for the student. The following list 
makes no pretensions to completeness, but may be found useful ; some of the peri- 
odicals are exclusively devoted to criticism and exposition. 

Biblia. The mouthly representative of the English Exploration Fund. New York 
and London. 

Christian Thought, New York, The Bi-monthly organ of the American Institute of 
Christian Philosophy, which is devoted to the "Study of the Relations Between 
Science and Religion." 

Expository Times, Edinburgh, (Designed to record the results of the best study of 
the Bible in our times.) 

Hebraica. Chicago. A Quarterly Journal in the interests of Semitic Study. Edited 
by the Staff of the Semitic Department of the University of Chicago. 

Journal of Biblical Literature. Boston, Published by the Society of Biblical Lit- 
erature and Exegesis, whose object is "to Stimulate the Critical Study of the 
Scriptures." 

Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. London. (This society com- 
prises the leading biblical scholars of G-reat Britain and the Continent.) 

Texts and Studies of the Cambridge University. Edited by J. Armitage Robinson, 
(These studies are devoted to Biblical and Patristic Literature. Yol. I Contains 
the Apology of Aristides ; Yol. II, A Study of the Codex Bezse. The studies 
are not issued at stated times.) 

The Biblical World. Chicago. A Monthly Journal, devoted to the Bible and Bib- 
heal interests. (This is a continuation of the Old and New Testament Student.). 

The Critical Review of Theological and Philosophical Literature. Edited by Pro- 
fessor S. D. F. Salraond, Edinburgh. (Devotes much space to Criticism and 
Exposition.) 

The E]xpositor. London. 

The Thinker. London and New York. A Monthly Magazine of Christian Litera- 
ture and Review of World-wide Christian Thought. (In 1892 it absorbed the 
Magazine of Christian Literature.) 



204 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION XIII. 

BIBLICAL CKITICISM. 

J. S. Semler, Abhandlung von freier Untersuchung des Kanon, Halle, 1771-75, 4 vols. ; Jod. 
Heringa, Ueber d. rechten Gebrauch u. MIssbrauch d. bibl. Kritik, from the Dutch, by Beckhaus, 
Offenbach, 1S04 ; F. Hitzig, Begrlff der Kritik, am A. T. praktisch erortert, Heidelberg, 1831 ; 
M. Drechsler, Die Unwissenschaftlichkeit im Gebiete d. Kritik, etc., Leips,, 1837; G-. A. Hauff, 
Oflenbarungsglaube u. Kritik d. bibl. Geschichtsbiicher, am Beispiele d. B. Josua in ihrer noth- 
wendigen Einheit dargethan, Stuttg., 1843 ; (1. L. Hahn, Gegenwartigen Stand d. N. T. Kritik, 
Breslau, 1848 ; Ebrard, in Herzog's Encykl., s. v. Kritik ; B. B. Edwards, Certain Erroneous 
Methods and Principles of Biblical Criticism, Bib. Sacra., vi, p. 185 ; Kitto's Cyclopaedia, 
vol. 1, p. 487. 

Biblical Criticism operates on the historical ground opened to 
The objects our view by the study of isagogics. Its task is, to 
bTm™u^ca1 determine, on the one hand, the authenticity of the 
Criticism. Scriptures as a whole ; on the other, the un corrupted 

character (integrity) of single passages or the entire text, and also 
to restore the true reading where it has been lost or crowded out. 
It conducts its work on scientific principles, and makes use of avail- 
able historical monuments and of the evidence aiforded by internal 
marks in the writings themselves under examination. 

No pious mind need be startled by the phrase " Biblical Criti- 
cism,"^ as though it implied a purpose to criticise and force the 
text. Of such criticism there has been no lack ; but here no criti- 
cism of the contents, whether historical or dogmatical, is intended, 
but simply an examination into the authenticity of the text as it 
exists, either in its parts or as a whole. At the first glance even 
such inquiry may seem to conflict with the reverence we owe to the 
Bible, though this reverence itself, when more correctly under- 
stood, invites to conscientious investigation of the Scriptures.^ The 
thought that God has always watched over the Bible, is, in this gen- 
eral form, the presumption of a pious consciousness, which may be 

^ " It is very difficult to conceive of this word (criticism) as denoting a real unity in 
the technical meaning which has been attached to it." Schleiermacher, Herm. u. Kritik 
(at the beginning) ; comp. his Abhandl. iib. Begriff u. Eintheilung der philolog. Kritik 
in Akadem. Reden u. Abhandlungen (Sammtl. Werke zur Phil., vol. iii, p. 38); and 
also Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, p. 810: "There assuredly exists a criticism that springs 
from the full confidence of faith as well as one that takes its rise in doubt ; and the 
former is inborn with Christian piety, at least with that of the evangelical type. God 
has not made, and did not intend to make, the task a trifling one for us. He gives 
nothing whatever to man in its finished state ; all his gifts are imparted in such a way 
as to abundantly tax human energy — this for the reason that we are human. This 
applies also to the Scriptures ; and if we consent to undertake the labor imposed on 
us by God and subject the Bible to historical criticism, it does not follow that we 
thereby exalt ourselves above and constrain it, but rather that we are sincerely en- 
deavoring to learn its true meaning." 

^ Upon this point comp. esp. Hauff, supra, p. 19, sqq. 



THE BIBLE A PROVIDENTIAL BOOK. 205 

sustained at the bar of science, and even finds its justification at the 

hands of science. But to decide beforehand how God should have 

Avatclied, what things he must have guarded against 

to prevent the Bible from becoming a book like other identiaTiy 

books, is an arros^ant assumption equal to that of ra- ^^^arded, yet 
, . . ... . ^ . . subject to hu- 

tionalistic criticism in the other direction. It is an man vicissi- 

historical fact to which we are, in all humility, to as- ''^^®^' 
sent, that God has chosen to permit the Bible to pass through the 
same human processes by whi(;h other written monuments have 
been and are being tested. This will be apparent to every person 
who has looked with an unprejudiced eye into the history and for- 
tunes of the canon. ^ 

It is doubtless true that (in recent times, especially) criticism has 
been often employed for perverse and even frivolous Bibucai criti- 
ends,^ and rarely has a book been subjected to so much cism, though 
abuse as has the Bible ; but it is by no means wise to ed!^stiirof 
oppose uncritical to hypercritical arbitrariness. Only a ^reat value. 
strictly scientific procedure, unbiassed by dogmatic preconceptions 
of any kind, will meet the demands of the case.^ While it is true 

* Comp, Herder, Brief e, Ko. 1, "Banish the last remains of the leaven of the opin- 
ion that this book is unlike other books in its outward form and matter, so that, for 
instance, no various readings can occur in it, because it is a Divine book. Various 
readings do occur (and yet but ooie can be the correct reading) — this is fact, not opin- 
ion. , . . Whether a person who makes a copy of the Bible thereby becomes at once a 
faultless God ? ... No parchment acquires a firmer nature because it bears the Bible, 
and no ink becomes thereby indelible." Similiarly, Eichhorn, Einl. ins. A. T., p. 5*7, 
iq. (2d ed.), "Every person who censures the Biblical scholar, or even sighs with 
pious anxiety because he examines one book after another of the Old (or New) Testa- 
ment for this purpose, applying critical exactness and judicial strictness to his work 
must either remain unacquainted with antiquity and profane literature, together with 
the processe^i employed in that field, or be so extremely weak in mental powers as to 
fail to see the serious consequences resulting from the neglect of such tests, as well as 
the invincible host of doubts which can only be driven from their entrenchments by the 
proposed [i. e., critical) method," 

^ It must be admitted, however, that complaints upon this point have been exagger- 
ated, as, for instance, by Drechsler, who is governed by the idea that " every assault 
upon the genuineness of a Scriptural book is at the same time an attack directed 
against the belief in salvation through Christ." — Page 12, etc.; comp. Hauff, p. 255. 

^ " Every person is sufficiently protected against the arbitrary tendencies of his own 
nature who enters on the investigation animated by a sincere love of truth, and against 
the arbitrariness of others by the liberty to test assertions and arguments made by 
them," Hauff, p. 45 ; " It is the especial task of our age to place this department 
of theology (criticism) in a new and clearer light, to provide new fundamental con- 
ceptions and a new basis for this science, since the old has become decayed and un- 
serviceable," Hahn, p. Y ; "I am convinced that in order to renew the Christian faith 
we need, not less, but more, investigation," Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, 88 ; " On its bright 
side, criticism is the self-rejuvenating element of the Church as a whole, the boast of 



20G SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

that the authenticity of many a book or single passage hag been 
doubted because it gave discomfort to the critic's subjectivity, it 
yet appears, from the history of criticism, that genuine critics, while 
abstaining from all passion, have brought within the range of their 
researches matters having no immediate connexion with the faith, 
and have given them the most conscientious consideration, and that 
upon the whole, and on the large scale, their judgment has been con- 
trolled by other than predetermined dogmatical reasons. How can 
a dogmatical system derive advantage from the fact that the ac- 
count of the aduherous woman (John viii) is assigned to a different 
Gospel; that a doxology (Rom. xvi) is assigned to a different place; 
<»r even that the genuineness of Second Peter is by some surrendered? 
Not a single Bible truth is thereby deprived of its support. Criti- 
The objection cism has also been frequently denounced as paltry, and 

that Biblical {x> may doubtless surprise the layman or the beginner 
Criticism is . *' . . . . •, \ -, ^ -i • "Z ^i 

often paltry. that extensive investigation should be made into the 
transposition of a word, or concerning a particle, wiiich might seem 
to exert no immediate influence on the meaning. Precisely this 
devotion to the letter of the Scriptures (which was cultivated " for 
the glory of Jesus Christ" by the pious Bengei) constitutes, with 
all its apparent dryness, the finest flower of scientifi3 earnestness 
and the most effectual restraint upon recklessness, while, on the 
contrary, uncritical ignorance, which, for instance, would, in order 
to possess an additional proof -text, retain passages like 1 John v, 7, 
though known to be not genuine, is rendering but poor service to 
the interests of piety. The glory of science is this, that it presses 
onw^ard in the course marked out by an incorruptible love of truth, 
without yielding to the power of outside influences. 

SECTION xiy. 

CONDITIONS OF CANONICITY. 

The claim of a book to be canonical is only partially established by 
the acknowledgment of its genuineness ; but the canonical char- 
acter of the Bible certainly depends on the integrity of the separate 
2)assages contained in it, and consequently on the purity of the text. 
Genuineness of The word spurious (spurius, ^0190^) is, in its harshest 

books and pas- . t j x i • ^ ^- n '\ a ^ 

sages to be de- meaning, applied to works intentionally ascribed to 

termined by .^^i author with whom thev did not orisrinate ; and a 

Biblical Criti- o ^ 

cism. number of suc-h works was known to the early Church, 

the evangelical Church and theology ; on the darker side, criticism has, by its deform- 
ity, filled one of the most pungent pages in the history of the Protestant Church." 
J. P. Lange, Das Apostol. Zeitalter, i, p. 9 ; comp. also the Periodisirung der krit. 
Operationen in der evangel. Kirche, p. 10, by the same author. 



GROUNDS OF CANOmCITY. 207 

bearing the names of Peter, James, Thomas, etc., and seeking to 
intrude themselves into the canon, from which they were, however, 
subsequently rejected as apocryphal/ In this instance the denial 
of genuineness ^ involved the loss of canonicity also. But the ques- 
tion of genuineness may relate to more than the canonicity of a 
book. The admission that a book possesses the highest title to a 
place in a collection of sacred and even Divinely -inspired books, 
does not necessarily preclude inquiry into the propriety with which 
it is attributed to the author to whom tradition or the inscription 
(of later date than the work itself) ascribes it. It will hardly do, 
however, to claim inspiration for a book whose very lirst sentence 
is a forgery. If the j^astoral epistles, for example, are not Paul's, 
then some one has palmed off a deception in his name, and they are 
not deserving of respectful consideration. It will be useless to 
argue that, though written under false pretences, they may be 
yet canonical, although this concession has very unwisely been 
made. 

The greatest caution is, therefore, required at this point. The 
good name of the Bible would be damaged seriously by the assump- 
tion of well-meant imitations of apostolical productions ; for such an 
hypothesis throws a very equivocal light upon the question of the 
integrity of the Biblical writers, and attributes to them arts which 
can hardly be made to consist with the character of sincere dis- 
ciples of Christ. Fortunately, the results of the destructive crit- 
icism applied to the authorship of New Testament books are not 
yet so well established as its originators would persuade them- 
selves they are. Criticism finds here a proper field for a frank dis- 
cussion of the reasons for and against, by which means the questions 
involved can be brought to a final settlement ; but let the thought 
that it might possibly become necessary even to give up one book 
or another cause no alarm in advance, as though our salvation 

^ The N. T. Apocrypha has been published by J. A. Schmid, Pseudo-Nov. Test, 
Helmst., 1809, 4to. ; J. A. Fabricius, Cod. Apocryphus N. T., Hamb., 1119, 3 vols.; 
C. Ch. L. Schmid, Corpus vet. Apocryph. extra Biblia, Hadam., 1805 ; J. C. Thilo, Cod. 
Apocryphus N. T., etc., torn, i, Lips., 1832 (incomplete); Tischendorf, Evangelia 
Apocrypha, Lips,, 1853; same, Acta Apostol. Apocrypha, 1851, and Apocalypses 
Apocryphae, Lips., 1866; K. W. Borberg, Bibliothek der N. T. Apocryphen, Stuttg., 
1840-41, 2 vols. J. F. Kleuker, Die Apocryphen des N. T., Hamb., 1790; Nitzsch, De 
Apocr, Evv., etc., Viteb., 1804, 4to.; Arens, De Evang. Apocryph., etc., Gott., 1836, 4to. , 
Tischendorf, De Evangg. Apocryph., origine et usu, Hague, 1851, (prize essay). See 
also Hone's Apocryphal N. T., Lond., 1820, and N. Y., 1849, 8vo., and Abp. Wake's 
Apost. Fathers, Lond., 1830, and Hartford, 1834, 8vo.). 

^ The word has reference solely to the authorship of a book, and not to its fitness 
to rank as canonical. 



208 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

depended on such a contingency ; unlikely as that contingency 
may be/ 

The principle applies to the Old Testament as well. Let it 
be proven that certain Psalms were not composed by the royal 
singer himself, but merely ad modum Davidis — would this de- 
stroy their religious worth? We should no more exclude them 
from the canon, than we would exclude from the hymn book a beau- 
tiful poem by an unknown author of the seventeenth century, con- 
cerning which we learn that it has been erroneously attributed to 
Paul Gerhard. Is the description of God's servant in Isa. liii less 
applicable to Christ on the supposition that Isa. xl-lx was written 
by another (later) than Isaiah, a deutero-Esaias?" Who, moreover, 
would find the book of Job to be less impressive because its author 
is unknown ? Even Pope Gregory I. was able to form a more in- 
dependent judgment upon this question than many Protestants liv- 
ing ten centuries later. It follows that the canonicity of a book 
may be maintained, even when its authorship is left in doubt, pro- 
vided the book itself contains nothing that conflicts with the nor- 
mal character of the theocracy in the Old, or of the Gospel in the 
New, Testament. But should criticism extend its investigations to 
the question of canonicity also ? If so, to what extent ? That it did 
so in the ancient Church is a matter of fact, and it is to the exer- 
cise of such criticism that we owe the rejection of apocryphal writ- 

* A very correct and much more intelligent view than that entertained by many 
pious people of to-day was advanced by Richard Baxter (died 1691) in his work De 
casibus conscientiae, T. iii, p. 1*74: "Non est ad salutem necessarium, ut quis credat 
singulos libros aut versus Scripturae esse canonicos aut scriptos per spiritum Dei. Si 
liber aliquis periret aut in dubium vocaretur, v. g. epistola Judae, non inde sequeretur, 
una cum ipso omnem veram fidem spemque salutis perituram." Comp. also Episcopii 
Institut. iv, 1. " It must become evident at some time," says J. L. Riickert, Theologie, 
i, Leips., 1851, Pref., p. 4, "that all the results of criticism maybe acknowledged, and 
a thoroughly independent mode of thinking may be followed, without destruction to 
the Christian character. It must become evident that Christian faith and volition do 
not depend upon our judgment respecting this or that particular book." Even Kahnis 
(Dogmat.), occupying the strict confessional ground of Lutheranism, has asserted his 
right to an independent position with regard to the canon ; comp. his Zeugniss v. d. 
Grundwahrheiten d. Protestantismus gegen Dr. Hengstenberg, Leips., 1862. 

' Umbreit (Prakt. Comm. zum Jesaia, p. 308) beautifully observes, " The auroral 
light of grace and salvation breaks forth from the joyously animated discourses which 
are appended to the book of Isaiah in a well-ordered succession. We hear the voice 
of one of the greatest prophets at the close of the Babylonish exile. Even though his 
name is not Isaiah, his high importance is apparent from every word proclaimed by 
him. . . . Well may we term him (this anonymous) the evangelist of the old covenant^ 
for no one of the prophets has declared like him the glad tidings of the day-star from 
on high." The thorough discussions in relation to Daniel, which Bunsen places in the 
mouth of his Hippolytus, ii, p. 296, sqq., are very similar. 



REASONS FOR TEXT CRITICISM. 209 

ings. Whether the exclusion of such writings was absolute, or 
whether the boundary line between canonical and apocryphal is 
still in dispute, is a different question. The recognition of a dis- 
tinct class of dvrLXeyofMSva, and the distinction between proto- and 
deutero-canonical writings are of themselves evidence that such crit- 
icism was exercised. The Reformation asserted in its own behalf 
this right of the ancient Church/ and more recent times have like- 
wise recognized it as a right and so employed it. We readily admit 
that the common feeling of the Church is not likely to consent that 
the slightest alteration in the canon be attempted, and cannot even 
desire it for ourselves ; ^ but the right of judgment must be con- 
ceded and science must steadily respect it. However unlikely it 
may now be that at this late day books will be excluded from the 
canon by general consent, it is yet more unlitely that the changes in the 
canon will receive any addition or be enriched by the canon unlikely, 
incorporation with it of such writings as were formerly not known 
at all or were misunderstood.^ 

It is not the genuineness of the sacred writings alone, however, 
that engages attention, but their integrity as well ; and the lat- 
ter is even more directly necessary to the canonical reception of 
a book than the former. Whole books or extended paragraphs, as 
well as particular expressions, or even single adjectives, particles, 
etc., may have slipped into a completed work or have been attached 
to a revered name, whether by a designed insertion (interpolation) 
or through mistake, by which, e. (/., a marginal note (gloss) written 
by a later hand was transferred to the text. The text may, more- 
over, have become corrupt in places or be defective by reason of the 
carelessness or inexperience of copyists, or for other reasons to be 
discussed in connexion with introduction itself (faded characters, 
abbreviations, absence of divisions between words, etc.). That 

^ Comp. Luther's criticisms of the Epistle of St. James and of the Apocalypse. With 
this comp. the opinion of L. Osiander (1614) : In eo autem erratum est, quod epistolam 
Jacobi et Judae et posteriores duas Joannis inter canonica scripta numerant, quae 
scripta non longe post apostolorum tempora non pro scriptis canonicis habita sunt. . . . 
Recte autem omissa Apocalypsis ; ea enim non est Joannis Apostoli, sed cujusdam 
Joannis Theologi, et multa habet adeo obscura et perplexa, ut non multi dextre in 
ejus lectione versari queant — in Spittler, Ueber d. 60 Laod. Kanon, p. 16. This cita- 
tion is not designed as an approval of such opinions in themselves, but simply as a 
proof that independent views respecting the elements of the canon may consist with a 
decided faith in the Divine nature of Christianity. 

' Comp. Schleiermacher, § 114, sq. 

' Discoveries made up to the present time (e. g.^ of a lost letter by Paul to the Cor- 
inthians) have not, however, been sufficiently attested. But comp. Schleiermacher; 

§ 111. 

14 



210 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

such things have occurred is, as Herder observes, not supposition, 
but fact/ Who can even assure us that, despite the great number 
of MSS. of the Scriptures, none of which reach back to the time of 
the original founding, the original form of expression was not lost 
here and there, and that this could not have been the case at a very 
early period, perhaps at the time when the first copy was made from 
the autograph ? 

Upon the purity of the text depends the internal value and char- 
acter of our Biblical canon. It may be said that as a book may be 
canonical, though found to emanate from another than the reputed 
author, even so a single passage, e. g., 1 John v, V, may be allowed 
A pure text in- "^o stand in the Bible if it does not contradict the 
dispensable. analogia fidei. Reverence for the Bible, however, re- 
quires that every thing within our power be done to secure it in a 
form of the highest attainable purity, though the nature of the 
case is such as to prevent more than an approximate accomplish- 
ment of the task, 

SECTION XV. 

CRITIC AL METHODS. 

Criticism is, according to its objects, divided into external and 
internal, and, according to its results, into negative and positive. 
A further distinction is sometimes made between the criticism of 
books and that of words or texts '^ but the two cannot easily be 
kept apart, though they are employed on different objects — the 
former being more concerned with the authenticity of entire books 
or separate paragraphs, the latter with the genuineness and purity 
of the text (comp. the preceding §). It is usual, though inappro- 
priate, to designate the criticism of sections and books the higher, 
and that of words and separate passages the lower criticism.^ Not 
less misleading is the usage of others, who endeavor to include in 
the higher criticism what we would, more appropriately, term the 
internal, and in the lower criticism what we characterize as the 
external.* The truth is that the business of the critic deals with 

^ " The evidence which lies on the surface long ago destroyed all the prejudices 
which formerly prevailed on this subject."— Schleiermacher, § 116. To this we add, 
"Ought, at least, to have destroyed them." Wetstein, Proleg., p. 4, adduces a note- 
worthy example from the Aldine ed. of the LXX, in Gen. xliv, which reads ol avdpuTzot 
avTdv, instead of ol ovoi avrdv (Drflbn). The MS. had avot instead of bvot, which was 
taken for an abbreviation of av&puTrot, and in this way asses were transformed into 
men J ^ Danz, p. 210. ^ Schleiermacher, § 118. Note. 

* Some writers apply the phrase, " the lower criticism," to the genuineness, etc., of 
single letters and words, and that of " the higher criticism " to entire books and sec- 
tions. Schleiermacher has, however, forcibly demonstrated the mechanical and un- 
tenable character of this distinction. Comp. Herm. u. Krit., p. 267 ; comp. 211. 



OBJECTS OF INTERNAL CRITICISM. 211 

various combinations which are all equally important, but which 
are sometimes directed toward the external, historical, empirical, 
and sometimes toward the internal and psychological side. We 
accordingly give the name of external criticism to that External criti- 
which seeks to demonstrate the authenticity and genu- c^sm defined. 
ineness of a book, and also to discover the true readings from exist- 
ing facts, viz. : from existing testimonies taken from Christian an- 
tiquity, from MSS. versions, etc. This is by no means to be de- 
nominated a lower criticism, as if it were contrasted with anoth- 
er kind, which might proudly claim a higher place, or even disre- 
gard its existence, but rather constitutes the necessary basis of all 
critical procedure, unless we intend- to build on air. But this ex- 
ternal application of the so-called critical apparatus is not alone 
sufficient-; for on the one hand that apparatus is itself subject to 
higher critical conditions, since the age and the importance of MSS. 
versions, etc., must first be ascertained,^ and on the other hand the 
most perfectly constructed critical apparatus cannot accomplish 
everything. It is necessary that internal criticism be brought in to 

complement the other. In this wav conclusions may be 

. -, . , , . .* „ . •' , The office of 

arrived at respectmg the authenticity of a written work, internal criti- 

even though the testimony from external sources be ^^^' 
indefinite or conflicting, or though no such testimony exist — the 
means employed being comparison with other works by the same 
author (e. ^., the Ep. to the Hebrews compared with the acknowl- 
edged writings of St. Paul, the Apocalypse with the gospel and the 
epistles by St. John, 2d with 1st Peter and with discourses in the 
Acts by the same apostle), the collocation and estimating of histor- 
ical conditions (e. g., in connexion with disputed predictions in the 
prophets), and finally the careful observation and comparison of the 
language iii any particular period, its grammatical forms, figures of 
speech, etc. Upon the question of integrity the disturbance of the 
natural connexion caused by an interpolated passage (1 John v, 7-8) 
may be sufficient to arouse the suspicion of spuriousness, even before 
the authority of MSS. is appealed to ; or with regard to the choice 
between different existent readings an important influence may be 
exerted, in addition to that exercised by the external superiority of 
some particular MS., by the internal relation of the passage to the 
whole connexion. It also becomes possible occasionally to show by 
internal criticism how a false reading could have originated, and 

* In this regard compare the different critical systems by Bentley, Mill, Bengel, "Wet- 
stein, Griesbach, Hug, Matthaei, Scholz, Lachmann, Tischendorf. At this point crit- 
icism and introductory science interpenetrate each other. See Schleiermacher, § 120 ; 
de Wette, Einl., § 87, sgq. 



212 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

not rarely is it compelled to decide whether the preference is to be 

given to an easy or a more difficult reading ; for while it is certain 

that words have been changed because they were not understood in 

such a sense or such a connexion, it is equally certain that many a 

difficult reading was introduced into the text by ill-timed polishing 

or thoughtless want of care on the part of copyists. 

To discover the proper bounds to be observed between external 

Carefully fixed and internal criticism in their application, is conceded 

limits to be set ^ ^ difficult. Great care is certainly required in con- 
to internal crit- . . , 
icism. nexion with the latter, and much mischief has already 

been caused by its use ; but we cannot on that account give an un- 
qualified assent to the idea that the critic's work should be of a 
purely mechanical nature, and that the authority of MSS. should 
alone be allowed to decide.^ Harmonious activity of the intellect- 
ual powers, the combination of external with internal circumstances, 
comprehension and judgment, doctrina and ingenium^ must go hand 
in hand in this pursuit. Who will deny that even the earliest and 
best codices were exposed to accidents, the very thing which the 
keen scent of criticism, certainly a natural endowment which is to 
be ennobled by learning, is to discover when possible ? Above all 
arbitrariness and accident, however, stands science, combined with 
liberty and a higher necessity. 

SECTION XYL 

POSITIVE AXD IfEGATIVE CRITICISM. 

The negative criticism endeavours simply to ascertain and cast out 
Negative and what is spurious as a whole or in part ; while the posi- 
cism^f unctions ^^^'^ criticism seeks, with reference to authenticity, to 
of each. discover the real authors of anonymous and pseudony- 

mous works, and with reference to integrity to restore the text to 
its original condition. The former, when sufficient external evi- 
dence is wanting, is done by hypothesis, the latter by conjecture. 

It is generally more easy to determine with certainty that a work 
was not written by the author to whom tradition has attributed it, 
than to discover who the real author was ; and it is likewise more 
easy to arrive at the conclusion that a passage has been corrupted 
or mutilated than at a definite result in settling the true reading. 
Positive criticism receives occasional aid from external helps, how- 
ever, even though they be not wholly adequate. Thus, e. g., the 
testimony of Tertullian (De pudic. c. 20) led many to adopt the 

^ Comp., e. g., Rettig's notice of Lachmann's N. T. in Studd. u. Kritt., 1832, No 4. 
Baur (contra Thiersch et al.) has said much that is worthy of note, in opposition to 
pure mechanism in critical processes. 



POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CRITICISM. 213 

theory that the Epistle to the Hebrews was written by Barnabas. 
Sometimes, however, hypothesis puts forth clnims, based solely upon 
possibilities, as in the case of Eichhorn's assumption of a primitive 
Gospel, and in many other instances of recent times. The claim 
of hypothesis upon our approval is even less authoritative in the 
latter class of cases {L e., of appeal to bare possibilities) 
than in the former, and many writers have accordingly cies of critical 
forsaken the way of hypothesis, as being entirely too ^"^^ ®^®^' 
uncertain, and have ceased altogether from making use of the so- 
called positive criticism; bolder inquirers, however, still continue 
to employ it.^ Similar considerations apply to conjectures relating 
to the readings. A former age was entirely too prone to apply 
conjecture, at first in the department of profane, and subsequently 
also in that of sacred, literature ; but they are likewise wrong who 
unconditionally reject conjecture, for it is knowm that conjectures 
have occasionally been confirmed by readings that were afterward dis- 
covered. While therefore it may be advisable in general to insist 
upon the rule that " whatever of correct results may be obtained in 
the way of conjecture must be supported by facts connected with 
the history of the text," the rule must yet be so modified as not to 
forbid conjectural attempts in needful cases.' 

' Comp. Hitzig, supra. The positive criticism is especially recommended by Hahn ; 
understanding thereby not a criticism which so dreads negation as to cling with firmer 
grasp to the traditional, but that which conquers the negative, and which by concen- 
trating its attention upon its object— the several books of the Bible and the cir- 
cumstances of history— assigns to such books their definite and assured historical 
place. 

2 Schleiermacher, §§ 119 and 121, and Kritik, p. 291: "The canon that the divina- 
torial process (conjecture) is to be allowed only where documentary aids are wanting, 
or even that when the latter are not wanting, the right to employ conjectural processes 
does not exist, the best that manuscripts afford being all that we are authorized to 
ask— this canon does not apply absolutely, and may not even be assumed, because the 
interests of hermeneutics would suffer loss thereby." But see p. 312, and comp. 
Herder. " Conjecture, in the critical sense, resembles the scalpel of the surgeon. It 
may unfortunately become necessary and beneficial, but only terribly necessary, terri- 
bly advantageous ; and the wretch who plays and whittles with it, cutting away at pleas- 
ure, now an ear, now an eye, now a nose, that does not suit his fancy— but mutilates 
himself." Specimens of vain conjecture are given by Herder in the Appendix to the 
Briefe zweener Briider Jesu (Werke z. Rel. u. Theol., viii, p. 291). Similarly, Liicke, 
"Divinatorial criticism involves a dangerous element, and is least of all the concern 
of everybody ; but it is needed for complementing the theological science of the canon:' 
(Stud. u. Krit., 1834, No. 4, p. 267). Comp. Rosenkranz, Encykl, p. 121, sog. ; de 
Wette, Einl., § 59. 



214 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 



SECTION XVIL 

THE EELATION OF CRITICISM TO EXEGESIS. 

Although criticism is, in its idea, distinguished from exegesis, 

„ , ,. ^ ., assuming: the relation of an auxiliary to the latter, it 
Relation of cnt-- ^ . ... 

icisra to exe- can yet be conceived of in reality only in connexion 
^^^^- ^itL the functions of interpretation ; for an interest in 

criticism must be aroused, and a sense for it be quickened, by ex- 
egesis. The two sciences must accordingly be conceived of as con- 
tinually acting upon each other, and therefore as conditioning and 
aiding each other. 

Nothing is more hurtful, and nothing has done more to damage 
h- f d criticism in the estimation of pious people, than the ill- 
by dabblers in timed and Superficial dabbling with it of persons who, 
en icism. before having properly read a single book in the Bible, 

or having been tested in the work of exposition, undertake to deal 
exclusively with the surface results of criticism, and swear by them 
as though they were established facts — who pronounce their dictum 
about the Bible without being well read in the Bible, or having 
learned anything of value from it. How frequently has a taste 
for the Bible been destroyed at the outset by forcing upon the no- 
tice of young men such oracular decisions of criticism, before they 
had become well acquainted with the sacred text ! If it is highly 
unpedagogical to trouble pupils who have not thoroughly read an 
ode of Horace or an oration by Cicero, with criticism in connexion 
with the explanation of the classics, it is nothing less than sin to 
disgust young theologians with the study of the Bible from the be- 
ginning, or, what is worse, to lead them to cultivate a foolish self- 
conceit, by means of depreciatory criticisms. It might therefore 
be sufficient for the beginner at first if he were to make himself 
acquainted with the tasks which criticism is to perform, leaving the 
practical employment of its operations for a later time, when he 
shall have become familiarly acquainted with his Bible, and shall 
have tasted somewhat of its positive contents, even having refreshed 
and nourished his soul thereby. This is possible, however, only 
in the rugged way of a thorough exegesis. Critical virtuosity, as 
Critical and ex- Schleiermacher terms it, is to be attained only as the 
effeticai skill result of practice :^ and exesretical virtuosity is its neces- 

the result of . 

practice. sary prerequisite, although neither of them can attain 

to its completion without the aid of the other. Such reciprocal ac- 
tion between exegesis and criticism is self-evident, however. If the 
choice of a reading affects the interpretation, or, rather, if it pro- 

* Schleiermacher, § 122, sq. 



HISTORY OF CRITICISM. 21. "i 

vides the matter for interpretation, it is conversely true that the 
correct explanation of a passage throws needed light upon the vari- 
ous readings which exist, so that, not unfrequently, a more accurate 
comprehension of the connexion inclines us to readopt a reading 
which we had rejected, or to reject one which we believed ourselves 
obliged to hold, before the passage itself was understood. The 
authenticity of a book and the acknowledo^ment of its ., .^. . ;, , 

*' _ r . . Criticism and 

author may likewise be affected, and suspicion against exegesis act on 
the book itself be excited, by the misunderstanding of 
a passage, w^hile a profounder apprehension of the writer's spirit 
and of the situation may restore its genuineness. Conversely, a 
superficial knowledge respecting the authenticity of a book may al- 
lay all questionings, while a thorough examination of the matter 
may excite doubts warranted by the facts, and call for a more ex- 
haustive discussion of the points in doubt. It will thus be seen 
how necessary it is, first, in every case, and before the judgment 
has been formed, to have regard to the results obtained by others, 
and in this way to employ in reading the Bible a text as critically 
correct as may be possible; but, second, while making use of the 
best critical aids at command, to preserve unbiassed the keenneas of 
our own mental vision in the work of interpretation. 

HlSTOKY OF CeITICISM. 

To provide the history of criticism fully is the task of Intro- 
duction. The text of the Old Testament, upon which „ . , . , 

. . . Hi s t or ical 

the copyists expended conscientious care (the syna- sketch of Bib- 
gogue-rolls), engaged the attention first of all of the "'^^ criticism. 
Masorites, Jewish scholars, whose principal school ^^® Masontes. 
flourished at Tiberias in the beginning of the sixth century. They 
compared the codices, noted the various readings, (Keri and Chetib,) 
and even anxiously numbered the words and syllables. To them 
we likewise owe the vowel-signs, pointings, etc. Among Christians, 
meritorious services were rendered by Origen (f 254), who com- 
pared the Greek versions of the LXX, of Aquila, Theodotion, and 
Symmachus with the Hebrew original (Hexapla) ; and by Jerome, 
who improved the existing Latin version (Itala) and published a 
version of his own (Vulgata), which soon came into general use and 
acquired ecclesiastical authority in the Western Church. The prej- 
udices which this man, usually so anxiously cautious, was compelled 
to encounter in connexion with this "work, are well known. The 
"two-legged asses," as he terms his opponents, even went to the 
length of calling him falsarius, sacrilegus, corruptor sanctarum 

Scriptnrarum ! The New Testament was gradually collected. The 
15 



210 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

originals are no longer extant. The most ancient MSS. do not reach 
back further than the fourth century. An inclination to adulterate 
the text was apparent at an early day, against which the Church was 
obliged to guard. Copies were made, in the first instance, for the 
use of Churches, and "without any philological supervision." It 
Avas reserved for science in later ages to divide the different codices, 
according to their age (Uncials and Cursives), or according to the 
countries in which they originated (Oriental and Occidental), into 

„ ^. _ ^ families and recensions. The most important MSS. of 

Most 1 mportant ^ 

Mss.oftheNew the New Testament are, The Cod. Alexandrinus (A) in 
men . ^-^^ British Museum at London ; the Yaticanus (B) at 
Rome; the Codex Kegius (Parisiensis) ; also the Cod. Ephraem Syr. 
(a palimpsest) at Paris (C) ; and the Codex Cantabrigiensis (D). 
To these must be added, as of highest importance, the Codex Si- 
naiticus (.^), discovered by Tischendorf in 1859 and published in 
1862; comp. Stud. u. Krit., 1860, 4; 1862, 1, 4; 1864, 3 (by Wies- 
eler); Gott. Gelehrt. Anzeigen, 1860, No. 177; Prot. Kirchenzei- 
tung, 1862, No. 50; Zarncke's Centralbl., 1860; Literaturbl., 1863, 
No. 69; Hilgenfeld's Zeitschr., 1864, 1, and *Yolbeding: Constantin 
Tischendorf, 1862; Tischendorf, Die Sinaibibel, etc., 1871. See 
also article on Sinaitic Manuscript in M'Clintock and Strong's Cy- 
clopaedia, and Harman's Introduction, Appendix. This Codex is 
distinguished not only by its age (Tischendorf assigns it to the for- 
mer half of the fourth century, which is, however, already denied 
by otheis) but also by its completeness, even the Epistle of Barna- 
bas, in the Greek text, and the Shepherd of Hermas being included 
in it. 

But little was done for criticism during the Middle Ages. Al- 
cuin, about A. D. 802, improved tlie Yulgata based on 
cisminthe the translation of Jerome, by the command of Charle- 
Middie ges. magne. New revisions were undertaken by Lanfranc 
in the eleventh century and Cardinal Nicholas in the twelfth. At 
about this time the Correctoria biblica appeared (concerning which 
see De Wette, Einleitung, p. 108, sq.). The work of Cardinal Hugo 
de St. Caro in the thirteenth century, who divided the Bible into 
chapters, was rather mechanical than critical. The division of the 
New Testament into verses was not performed until the sixteenth 
century, when Robert Stephens devised the present arrangement. 
The undertaking of the Cardinal Ximenes, shortly before the Refor- 
mation, was, on the other hand, a magnificent conception, to which 
we owe the so-called Complutensian Polyglot, which was followed 
by those of Antwerp, Paris, and London, being critical collocations 
of the text and versions after the manner of Origen. A rich bil- 



THE RATIONALISTIC CRITICISM. 217 

Heal apparatus was given in the prolegomena to the London Poly- 
glot (also published separately) of Brian Walton (f 1661). The 

first critical edition of the New Testament was issued 

First critlcflil sdi— 

by Erasmus (Basle, 1516) at nearly the time when the tion of the New 
Complutensian Polyglot w^as completed. Testament. 

All this work was text criticism; but the Reformation called 
into life a universal spirit of inquiry. Luther permitted himself to 
form independent opinions respecting various parts of the Scrip- 
tures, though he w^as rather influenced by subjective feeling than 
by scientific considerations. The progress of an unbiassed criticism 
was long hindered afterward by the strictness with which the Prot- 
estant Church clung to the principle of adherence to the letter of 
Scripture, and to the idea of inspiration connected with that prin- 
ciple. The Reformed Formula Consensus raised even the inspira- 
tion of the vowel-points into a dogma! A new critical impulse 
was given, on the other hand, to the Roman Catholic Church in 
the seventeenth century by Richard Simon, who expressed inde- 
pendent views, among other things, with regard to the composition 
of the Pentateuch, etc. (In relation to him see Bernus, Richard 
Simon et son histoire critique du vieux Test., Lausanne, 1869.) The 
dogmatists of both Churches were, however, unceasing in their 
efforts to fill up the way which he had opened, to use Lessing's ex- 
pression, " with floods of rubbish constantly renewed." The criti- 
cism of the text likewise came to an end, after the age had become 
accustomed to regard the textus receptus of the sixteenth century 
as an authority. A new interest in it was excited by Revival of Bib- 
the English scholars Fell, Mill, Bentley, and Kennicott jjj'^ieisthce™ 
(the latter in Old Testament criticism). When Wet- tury. 
stein, having been encouraged by Bentley, was preparing his critical 
edition of the New Testament, about the middle of the eighteenth 
century, he was exposed to severe attacks of opposition (comp. 
Hagenbach in Illgen's Zeitschr. f. hist. Theologie, 1839, 1) ; but 
Bengel nevertheless undertook to perform in behalf of orthodox 
theology what Wetstein had begun in sympathy with a more scep- 
tical habit of thouscht. While these scholars confined their efforts 
more particularly to the department of text-criticism, Semler, on 
the other hand, after the middle of the eighteenth century, excited 
numerous doubts with regard to the genuineness of entire books 
in the Bible by his Free Examination of the Canon. Beginning 

With Semler begins the period of independent re- 'l;?^ ?f°^^^^?^ 

^ ^ ^ . . the Rational- 

search in this field, but also of abuse and subjective arbi- istic criticism. 

trariness. Sober science, however, continued to pursue its assured 

course in the midst of such fluctuations. On the one hand, diplo- 



218 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

matic text-criticism continued to gain in settled principles and in 
historic ground through paleographic researches which were steadi- 
ly prosecuted, through the comparison of MSS., etc., and various 
systems were developed in this direction, upon which the processes 
of criticism rest. (The labours of Hug, Griesbach, Schulz, Scholz, 
Lachmann, Tischendorf.) On the other hand, inquiry was more in- 
telligently directed toward the several parts of the Old and the 
New Testament canon. Single books in either Testament were at 
first attacked, without the recognition of any definite principle, but 
rather under the influence of the personal impressions of critics; 
but the investigation gradually secured firmer points of connexion 
with historical facts. The inquiry has been chiefly directed upon 
the Pentateuch, the Books of Chronicles, the Prophets, (the second 
part of Isaiah, Daniel.) the Psalms, and the writings of Solomon in 
the Old Testament, and the Gospels, (their origin and relation- to 
each other,) the Pastoral epistles and the second epistle to the Thessa- 
lonians, the epistle to the Hebrews, Second Peter, and the Apocalypse 
in the New. Such fragmentary operations do not cover the whole 
ground that has been gone over, however; but after the latest spec- 
The Tubingen ulative (Tubingen) school, Baur, Zeller, Schwegler, k 
tendency critics, ^i ^ jj^d attempted an historical construction of Chris- 
tianity from its principles, it involved the entire canon of the New 
Testament books in the critical process of disintegration connected 
with that attempt, assigning most of them to a later date, and, at 
the same time, charging them with, subserving tendencies which 
are not always reconcilable with the purity of purpose belonging 
to an apostle. It can be confidently affirmed that despite the bold, 
though often widely divergent, conclusions of the more recent 
critics, (Hilgenfeld, Volckmar, Holsten, Overbeck,) genuine science 
can still hold an assured footing for a further advance in the service 
of truth. 

The leadership in biblical criticism was successfully maintained 
by English scholars in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries for 
eighty years (1657-1737). The fifth volume of Brian Walton's 
London Polyglot contained the text of the New Testament in six 
languages, with a large collection of various readings. He did not, 
however, undertake to form a revised text. Bishop Fell (1625- 
1686) added much to this stock of critical material, and was besides 
the friend at d patron of Dr. John Mill (1645-1707.) Thirty la- 
borious years were spent by Mill on his Greek Testament. He re- 
collated all the codices used by Walton for the London Polyglot, 
and accumulated a mass of readings from many sources, which he 
exhibits in his prolegomena. " Of the criticism of the New Testa- 



EDITIONS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 219 

ment in the hands of Dr. John Mill," says Scrivener, " it may be 
said that he found the edifice of wood and left it marble." Rich- 
ard Bentley (1662-1742) projected a revision of the text of the 
New Testament, which he never completed. We can readily con- 
jecture what his extraordinary critical sagacity would have accom- 
plished in this field. From the time of Bentley little was done by- 
English scholars in New Testament criticism for more than a hun- 
dred years. Samuel Prideaux Tregelles issued from 1857 to 1872 his 
Greek Testament from the most ancient MSS. and from ancient 
versions. Tregelles bases his text on a small number of manuscripts. 
Frederick Henry Scrivener has contributed a valuable Introduction 
to the Criticism of the New Testament (Cambridge, 1861, 1874). 
Messrs. Westcott and Hort have, since the appearance of the revised 
English Testament, published a text which had been long in prepa- 
ration, and also a companion volume containing an appendix and 
introduction to their work. Although the revisers of the English 
Testament have not attempted " to construct a continuous and 
complete Greek text," the text adopted by them has been published 
by their secretary, E. Palmer. (Oxford, 1881.) 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE, 

1. Critical Editions of the Old Testament in Hebrew. 

An Interlinear Hebrew-English Psalter. The Book of Psalms in Hebrew, with a 
closely literal Englisli Translation under each word. 8vo, pp. 240. London, 
1822. 

Davidson, Samuel. Revision of the Hebrew Text of the Old Testament. Synopsis 
of Readings, Revised from Critical Sources. 8vo, pp. 234. London, 1882. 

Hahn's Hebrew Bible. New ed. Revised by Isaac Leeser and Joseph Jaquett. 
8vo. Philadelphia. 

Hebrew and English Psalms. The Hebrew Text of Van der Hooglit, with the Au- 
thorized Translation of 1611. In parallel columns, 8vo, pp. 100. London, 1882. 

Hebrew Psalter. 32mo. Andover, 1864. 

Hughes, Joseph, The Prophecy of Joel. The Hebrew Text printed Metrically, 
with a New English Translation and Critical Notes. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Letteris, Myer Levi. The Hebrew Bible, Revised and Carefully Examined. With a 
Key to the Masoretic Notes. 8vo, pp. 1404. New York, 1872. 

Modern Polyglot Bible in Eight Languages. Giving the Hebrew Text, the Septuagint, 
and the Vulgate, and a Series of the best European Translations. To which 
is added the Peshito-SyriacNew Testament, with Tables of the various Readings 
of the Hebrew, the Septuagint, the Greek, and Syriac New Testaments, etc 
Crown folio, 2 vols. London, 1882. 

Dvnn "IDD. The Book of Psalms in Hebrew and English. Arranged in Parallel- 
isms. Andover, 1862. 

The Hebrew and English Scriptures of the Old Testament. Consisting of the Orig- 
inal Hebrew Text, and the Authorized English Version. "With Appendices and 
Clavis to the Masoretic Notes. 4to, small. London, 1882. 



220 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The Hebrew Bible of the Polyglot Series. Tlie Text after Van der Hooght. Also 

the various Readings of the Samaritan Pentateuch. 8vo, pp. 635. London, 

1882. 
Walton's Polyglot. Biblia Sacra Polyglotta. Edidit Brianus Waltonus. 6 vols., 

folio. With Castell's Lexicon Heptaglotton, Hebrew, Chald., Syr., Samar., etc. 

2 vols., folio. Together, 8 vols., folio. 1657-69. 
Wright, C. H. H. The Book of Genesis in Hebrew ; with a Critically Revised Text, 

various Readings, and Grammatical and Critical Notes. Svo. London, 1859. 

2. Critical Editions of the Septuagint 

Hexaglot Bible ; comprising the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments in 
the Original Tongues: together with the Septuagint, the Syriac (of the New 
Testament), the Vulgate, the Authorized English and German, and the most 
approved French Versions, arranged in parallel columns. Vols. I, JI, III (to 
be completed in 6 vols.). 4to. London, 1811-73. 

Lagarde, Paulus de. Librorum Veteris Testamenti Canonicorum pars prior Graece, 
Pauli de Lagarde studio et sumptibus edita. Large octavo, pp. xvi, 544. Got- 
tingae, 1883. 

Septuagint Text, with Variorum Readings. 5 vols., folio. London, 1880. 

Swete, H. B. The Old Testament in Greek According to the Septuagint. Edited by 
the Syndics of the University Press. 3 vols, Svo. Vol. I, pp. 1-827. Cam- 
bridge, 1887. 

The Greek Septuagint. With an English Translation in parallel columns. 4to. 
London, 1882. 

The Septuagint According to the Vatican edition. Together with the real Septua- 
gint Version of Daniel and the Apocrypha, including the Fourth Book of Mac- 
cabees, and an Historical Account of the Septuagint and the Principal Texts in 
which it is Current. 8vo, pp. 958. London, 1882. 

The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament. Tables of the Various Readings of 
the Alexandrine Text, and the Septuagint According to the Vatican Text. 8vo, 
pp. 689. London, 1882. 

Tischendorf, ^Constantinus. Vetus Testamentum Graece Juxta LXX. Interpretes. 
Svo. Leipsic, 1869. 

Vetus Testamentum, Ex Versione Septuaginto. Interpretum — post Grabe et Lee Ed. 
J. J. Breitinger 'Turigi Helvetiorum, 1730-32. 4 vols, 4to. (" This edition is a 
correct reprint of Dr. Grabe's edition, to which are added, at the foot of the 
page, the various readings of the Roman or Vatican editions and of three man- 
uscripts belonging to the library of tlie Academy of Basle. The beauty of its 
typography and its paper and its critical value concur to render this edition 
highly esteemed ; it is consequently both scarce and dear. Michaelis pro- 
nounces it to be the best edition of the LXX. ever printed, that is, up to his 
time." Home, In trod. p. 723.) 

Vetus Testamentum, Graece. Juxta LXX. Interpretes. Pp. 1088. Oxford, 1859. 
(Gives the Hebrew and Greek Texts in parallel columns.) 

Vetus Testamentum, Graece Juxta LXX. interpretes. Textus Vatic. Rom. emend, ed. 
argum. et locos N. T. parallel notavit, lect. var. subj., comment, isag. prsetexuit 
Const, de Tischendorf. (Edition VI.) Prolegomena rec. Nestle. 2 vols. 
1880. 

Vetus Testamentum Graecum, cum. variis Lectionibus, edidit Robertus Holmes et 
Jacobus Parsons, Oxonii, 1798-1827. 5 vols, folio. (" This is a beautifully ex- 



CRITICAL EDITIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 231 

edited edition of the Septuagint. The Pentateuch and Prophecy of Daniel 
were completed by Dr. Holmes, but the remainder of the work was done by Mr. 
Parsons, who executed it in the same learned and accurate manner. Tliere are 
many practical hindrances to the advantagecms use of the edition. The author- 
ities are not clearly expressed, and even the Alexandrian MS. is commonly 
quoted only amongst the printed ediUons.^') 



3. Editions of the Vulgate. 

The Latin Bible. Biblia Sacra Vulgata Editionis Sixli V. et Cleraeutis YIII. 8vo, 

pp. 773. London, 1882. 
The Vulgate New Testament, compared with the Douay Version of 1582. Parallel 

columns. Small 4to. London, 1882. 



4. Critical Editions of the New Teatainent. 

Abbot, Ezra. Novum Testamentum Graece ad antiquissiraos testes denuo receri- 
suit apparatum criticum apposuit Constantinus Tischendorf; editio octava 
critica maior. Volumen iii. Prolegomena Scripsit Casparus Renatus Gregory. 
Pars Prior. 8vo, pp. vi, 440. Leipzig and New York. (Con'ains Life of 
Tischendorf, a catalogue of his publications, the laws observed by him in con- 
structing the text, the form and history of the text and the uncial manuscripts.) 

A) ford, Henry. The Greek Testament, witli a Critically Revised Text; a Digest of 
various Readings, etc., and a Critical and Exegetical Commentary. 4 vols., 
8vo, pp. civ, 924 ; Ixxxvii, 723 ; cxxix, 485 ; cclxxxviii, 750. London, 1868. 

Alford, Henry. Greek Testament; with English Notes. Abridged by B. H. Alford. 
8vo. London, 1869. 

Bagster's Critical New Testament, Greek and English, containing the Greek Text of 
Scholz, with Readings, both Marginal and Textual, of Griesbach, and variations 
of Stephens, Beza, and the Elzevir. 16mo, pp. 624. New York, 1868. 

Bagster's Large Print Greek Testament, with various Readings from Griesbach, 
Scholz, Lachmann, and Tischendorf, and References to Parallel Passages. 8vo, 
London. 

Bloomfield, S. T. The Greek Testament with English Notes, Critical, Philologicfj! 
and Exegetical. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 629, 631. Philadelphia, 1868. 

Buttz, Henry A. The Epistle to the Romans in Greek, etc. "With References to 
the New Testament Grammars of Winer and Buttmann. 8vo, pp. 42. New York, 
1876. 

Cambridge Greek Testament. Ex Editione Stephani Tertia, 1550. 12mo. Cam- 
bridge. . 

Codex Vaticanus. Novum Testamentum Graece ex Anliquissimo Codico Vaticano 
cdidit Angelus Maius S. R. E. Carl. Ad fidem Editionis Romanae Accuratius 
Impressum. 8vo, pp. 502. Loudon, 1859. 

('owper, B. H. Codex Alexandrinus, H KAIXH AIA0HKH, etc. Ad Fidem Ipslus 
Codicis Denuo Accuratius edidit. 8vo. London, 1800. 

Dobbin, Orlando T. The Codex Montfortianus. A Collation of this Celebrated MS. 
throughout the Gosnels and Acts, with the Greek Text of "Wettstein, and with 
certain MSS. in the University of Oxford. 8vo, pp. 280. London, 1882. 

I'airbairn, P. The Pastoral Epistles ; the Greek Text and Translation. 8vo, London, 
1874. 



222 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Gebhardt, Oscar de. Novum Testamentum Graece: recensionis Tischendorfianae 
ullimae texturn cum Tregellesiauo et Westcottio-Hortiano Contiilit, etc. 8v(v 
pp. xii, 492. Lipsiae, 1881. Also New York. 

Green, T. S. The Twofold New Testament. A newly-formed Greek Text, with 
new Translation into English. In parallel columns, 4lo, pp. 466. London, 
18S2. 

Grinfield, E. "VV". Novum Testamentum Gruecum, Editio Helli^nistica. Scliolia, 
Hellenistica in Novum Testamentum. 4 vols., 8vo. London, 1843-1848. 

Hahn, A. Greek Testament, edited by E. Robinson. 12mo, pp. 536. New York, 
1842. New and enlarged edition, 1873. 

Hall, Isaac H. American Greek Testaments. A Critical Bibliography of the Greek 
New Testaments as Published in America. Pp. 82. Philadelphia, 1883. 

Hansen, E. H, The New Testament. The most Ancient MSS. of the Original 
Greek, printed in parallel columns, with a Collation of the Sinaitic Codex. 3 
vols., 8vo. London, 1880, 

Hitchcock, Roswell D. The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ 
Translated out of the Greek ; being the version set forth A. D. 1611, Compared 
with the Most Ancient Authorities and Revised A. D. 1881, with the Readings 
and Renderings Preferred by the American Committee of Revision Incorporated 
into the Text. New York, 1881. 

Leigh, Edwin. The Sinai and. Comparative New Testament. The Authorized En- 
glish Yersion ; with Introduction and various Readings from the Three Most 
Celebrated MSS. of the Original Greek Text, by Constantine Tischendorf ; with 
the various Readings so inserted in the Text that the wliole Scripture according 
to either the Sinai, Vatican, Alexandrian, or the Received Greek can be read 
• by itself, while the Variations are all Compared with Pacility. New York, 
1881. 

Major, J. R. The Gospel According to St. Mark, in the Original Greek, with a Di- 
gest of Notes from various Commentators. 16mo. London, 1871. 

New Testament, Griesbach's Text, with the various Readings of Mill and Scholz, 
Marginal References, and Parallels, and a Critical Introduction. 12mo, pp. 650. 
London, 1859. 

Novum Testamentum. Graece et Latine. Car. Lachmannus recensuit, Phil. Buit- 
raannus graecae lectionis auctoritates apposuit. 2 torn. Berolini, 1832-50. 

Novum Testamentum Textus Stephanici, A. D. 1550. Accedunt variae Lectiones 
editionum Bezae, P^lzeviri, Lachmannii, Tischendorfii, et Tregellesii. Curante 
F. H. Scrivener. 18mo. Cambridge, 1872. 

Scrivener, F. H. An Exact Transcript of the Codex Augiensis, a Graeco-Latiu MS. 
of St. Paul's Epistles, etc., etc. With a Critical Introduction. 8vo. Cambridge, 
1859. 

Scrivener, P. H. A. Full Collation of the Codex Sinaiticus, with the Received Text 
of the New Testament; to which is Prefixed a Critical Introduction. 16mo. 
London, 1867. 

Scrivener, F. H. Bezae Codex Cantabrigiensis, being an exact copy, in ordinary 
type, of the celebrated Uncial Graeco-Latin MS. of the Four Gospels and Acts, 
etc., etc. With a Critical Introduction, etc. Svo. Cambridge, 1864. 

Scrivener, F. H. Novum Testamentum Graecum. 18mo. New York. 

Stuart, C. E. Textual Criticism of the New Testament, for English Bible Students. 
2d ed. Revised and Corrected. The Authorized Version Compared with Crit- 
ical Texts. Svo. London, 1882. 

The Apochryphal New Testament. Being all the Gospels, Epistles, and other Pieces 



CRITICAL EDITIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 223 

now Extuut Attributed in the First Four Centuries to Jesus Clirist, His Apos- 
tles, aud tlieir Companions, and not Included in the New Testament by iis Com- 
pilers. 8vo. New York, 1884. 

The Apocryphal Gospels, Acts, and Revelations. Translated b}' Alexander Walker. 
Svo, pp. xxiv, 547. Edinburgh, IBVO. (This is Yol. XVI of the Ante-Nicene 
Christian Library. It contains translations of twenty-two Apocryphal Gospels, 
thirteen Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, and seven Apocryphal Apocalypses, 
together with Introduction and Indexes.) 

The Codex Zacynthius. Editedby S. P. Tregelles. Folio. London, 1882. 

The English Hexapla. Six Translations of the New Testament : Wiclif, 1380 ; Tyn- 
dale, 1554; Cranmer, 1539 ; Genevan, 1557 ; Anglo-Rhenish, 1582; Authorized, 
1611, arranged in parallel columns, beneath the Original Greek Text by Scholz. 
With a History of English Translations and Translators. London, 1841. 

The Englishman's Greek New Testament. Giving the Greek Text of Stephens, 
1550: With various Readings of Elzevir, 1624, Griesbach, Lachmann, Tischen- 
dorf, Tregelles, Alford, and Wordsworth ; with an Interlinear Literal Translation. 
To which is added the Authorized Version of 1611. Crown Svo. London, 1882. 

The Greek Testament. With Critical Appendices. Lloyd and Sanday. 12mo, pp. 
XX, 199. Oxford, 1889. 

The Greek Testament. With the Readings adopted by the Revisers of the Author- 
ized Version. 16mo, pp. 560. Oxford, 1881. 

The New Testament. Greek and English, in parallel columns. Edited by J. Schole- 
field. New Edition, with Marginal References, by Dr. Scrivener. IBmo. Lon- 
don, 1880. 

The New Testament in the Original Greek. The Text Revised by B. F. Westcott 
and F. J. A. Hort, with Introduction and Appendix by the Editors. 2 vols. 
Cambridge and New York, 1881-82. 

The New Testament in the Original Greek. The Text Revised by Brooke Foss 
Westcott, D.D., Canon of Peterborough and Regius Professor of Divinity, Cam- 
bridge, and Fenton John Anthony Hort, D.D., Hulsean Professor of Divinity, 
Cambridge, American Edition, with an Introduction by Philip Schnfif, D.D., 
LL.D., Professor in Union Theological Seminary, New York, President of the 
American Bible Revision Committee. 12mo, pp. 580. New York, 1881. 

The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Clirist, Translated out of the 
Greek; being the version set forth A. D. 1611, Compared with the Most 
Ancient Authorities, and Revised A. D. 1881. Oxford, 1881, 

Tregelles, S. P. A Collation of the Critical Texts of Griesbach, Scholz, Lachmann, 
and Tischendorf, with the Received Text. Svo, pp. 96. London, 1882. 

Tregelles, S. P. The Greek New Testament, edited from Ancient Authorities. 
5 parts, 4to. London, 1879. 

Wordsworth, Christopher. The New Testament in the Original Greek. With Notes 
and Introductions. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1866. 

Wordsworth, John. Old Latin Biblical Texts : No. 1. The Gospel According to St. 
Matthew, from the St. Germain MS, (g, 1), now numbered Lat. 11,553 in the 
National Library at Paris. Oxford, 1883. 

5. The Johannean Controversy. 

Abbot, Ezra. The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel. External Evidences. Svo, 
pp. 104. Boston, 1880. (This essay has been pronounced by critics to be the 
best exhibition of the external evidence for the genuineness of John's gospel 
yet written. To a candid reader it will be conclusive.) 



224 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Abbot, Peubody, and Liglitfoot, Essays by. The Fourth Gospel. Evidences External 
and Internal, of its Joliannean Authorship. 8vo, pp. 171. New York, 1891. 
(A collection by Dr. Peabody of three important essays on the subject, one of 
them his own. Bishop Lightfoot's essay deals with the internal evidence, and 
was published in 1890, only a short time before his death.) 

Bleek, Eriedrich. An Introduction to the New Testament, Translated by William 
Urwick. 2 vols., 8 vo, pp. 448, 426. Edinburgh, 1869, 1870. 

Brettschneider, Karl Gottlieb. Probabilia de evangelii et epistolarum Joannis apos- 
toli indole, et origine, etc. 8vo, pp. xvi, 224. Leipzig, 1820. (Dr. Brettschneider 
opens the question of the genuineness of John's gospel, and refers it to tlie 
judgment of scholars. The grounds of his doubt are stated at length. A long 
controversy followed in Germany the publication of tlie Probabilia. In his Dog- 
matic (published in 1828) he admits that sufficient proofs of the genuineness 
and authority of John's gospel had been called out by his book, and that the 
case was settled for him.) 

Davidson, Samueh An Introduction to The New Testament. 3 vols., 8vo. Yoh I. 
The Four Gospels. Pp. xxvi, 430. London, 1848. (In this earlier edition Dr. 
Davidson decides for the authenticity of the fourth gospel, and argues the case at 
great length: see Yoh I, pp. 203-313. Subsequently he changed his opinion, and 
in the edition of 1868 denied the authenticity of this gospel.) 

De Pressense, Edward. Jesus Christ, His Times, Life, and Work. Translated by 
Annie Harwood. Second Edition, 12mo, pp. xx, 496. New York, 1868. 
(Chapter lY of Book I examines the sources of the History of Jesus Christ. 
The authenticity of the fourth gospel is defended.) 

Evanson Edward. The Dissonance of the Four Generally Received Evangelists, and 
the Evidence of their Authenticity Examined. 8vo. Ipswich, 1792. (Evanson is 
considered to be the originator of the Joliannean controversy. He maintained 
that the fourth gospel was written by a Platonist of tlie second century. He was 
answered by Doctor Joseph Priestley, and David Simpson. To these Evanson 
replied in " A Letter to Dr. Priestley's Young Man; with a Postscript concern- 
ing the Rev. Doctor Simpson's Essay in answer to Evanson's Dissonance and 
Yolney's Ruins." London, 1794. He was also answered by Thomas Falconer 
in the Barnpton Lectures for 1810 (published in 1811). A sketch of the hfe of 
Evanson appears in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1805, pp. 1073, 1074, and also 
an additional sketch in the same volume, pp. 1233-1236.) 

Falconer, Thomas, of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Certain Principles in Evan- 
son's Dissonance of the Four Generally Received Evangelists Examined, in 
Eight Discourses, delivered before the University of Oxford in the year 1810. 
8vo, pp. 400. Oxford, 1811. (These are the Bampton Lectures for the year 
named. The author, Mr. Falconer, says that in " 1807 a canon of the New Tes- 
tament was published according to the selection of Mr. Evanson in his Disso- 
nance.") 

Fisher, George P. Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity, with special 
reference to the Theories of Renan, Strauss, and the Tiibingen school. 8vo. pp. 
xxxviii, 620. New York, 1870. (Chapter II treats of the Genuineness of the 
Fourtli Gospel ; Chapter Y, of Baur on the Origin of Catholic Christianity; Chap- 
ter YI, of the Mythical Theory of Strauss.) 

Hemphill, Samuel. The Diatessaron of Tatian. A Harmony of the Four Gospels, 
Compiled in the Third Quarter of the Second Century. Now first edited in an 
English Form, with Introduction and Appendices. 8vo, pp. xxxi, 78. London, 
1888. (The object of this book is to show that the Commentary of Ephraem 



THE JOHANNEAN CONTROVERSY. 225 

the Syrian, on a certain harmony of the gospels, is in fact a commentary on 
Tatian's Diatessaron. To prove this a comparison is made, passage by passage, 
of tlie Commentary as rendered into Latin, and edited by Moesinger, with the 
Arabic and Latin versions of the Diatessaron, published by Ciasca, one of the 
Vatican Librarians.) 

Hutton, Richard Holt. The Historical Problems of the Fourth Gospel. An essay, 
theological and literary. Vol. I, essay vi. (The historical credibility of the 
Gospel is maintained.) 

Leathes, Stanley. Tlie Witness of St. John to Christ The Boyle Lectures for 1870, 
with an Appendix on the Authorship and Integrity of St. John's Gospel, and 
the Unity of the Johannine Writings. 8vo, pp. xxii, 368, London, Oxford, 
and Cambridge, 1810. (The discussion in the Appendix is almost wholly cort- 
fined to the internal evidences of the Johannean authorship. This is copious,, 
however, extending from p. 267 to p. 332.) 

Lightfoot, J. B. Essays on the Work entitled Supernatural Religion. Reprinted 
from the Contemporary Review. 8vo., pp. 324. London and New York,. 1889. 
(Severe in its criticism of Supernatural Religion, but rich in learning. The 
topics, after the Introduction, are : the Silence of Eusebius, the Ignatian Epis*- 
tles, Polycarp of Smyrna, Papias of Hierapolis, the Later School of St. John^ 
the Churches of Gaul; Tatian's Diatessaron.) 

Luthardt, Christoplier Ernst. St. John, the autlior of the Fourth Gospel. Trans- 
lated by Caspar Rene Gregory. 8vo, pp. viii, 369. Edinburgh, 1875. (This is 
a new edition, much enlarged, of the original work of Dr. Luthardt, published iu 
Nuremberg, 1852-53. It handles the subject in a masterly manner. Dr. Greg- 
ory has appended the literature of the controversy, German and English, to the 
extent of four hundred and ninety-one titles.) 

Mackay, R. W. The Tiibingen School and its Antecedents. A Review of the His- 
tory and Present Condition of Modern Theology. 12mo, pp. xv, 390. London 
and Edinburgh, 1863. (A thorough-going follower of Banr. The book gives a 
history of the Tiibingen school, and an outline of its arguments.) 

Moesinger, Georgius. Evangelii Concordantis Expositio; Facta a Sancto Epliraemo, 
Doctore Syro. 8vo, pp. xii, 290. Venice, 1876. (A rendering into Latin, from 
the Armenian, of the Commentary of Ephraem Syrus on Tatian's Diates- 
saron. The version from the Armenian was made in 1841 by Aucher, a 
Mechitarist Father of a Monastery near Venice, but its publication was long 
delayed.) 

Norton, Andrews. Evidences of the Genuineness of the Gospels. 3 vols, 8vo. 
1572. Cambridge, 1846-1848. 

Present Day Tracts on the Higher Criticism, by R. Payne Smith, A. B, Bruce, Henry 
Wace, F. Godet, J. S. Howson. 16mo. Rehgious Tract Society, London. (Df 
Bruce's Essay is on Baur, and his History of the Origin of Christianity; Dr 
Godet's on the Authorship of the Fourth Gospel.) 

Sanday, William. The Gospels in the Second Century. 12mo. London, 1876. 
(Unfortunately this excellent work is almost wholly out of print. It argues 
strongly for the genuineness of John.) 

Schenkel, Daniel. The Character of Jesus Portrayed ; a Biblical Essay. Translated 
by W. H. Furness. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. xxvi, 279, and iv, 359. Boston, 1866. 
(Doctor Schenkel concludes that " the apostolic origin of the fourth gospel can- 
not be fully established by any external evidences." He considers the internal 
evidence as still more decisive against its genuineness. See vol. I. Introduction 
Chapter 11.) 
15 



22G SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Strauss, David Frederick. The I^ife of Jesus Critically Examined. Translated from 
the Fourth German Edition. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. 423, 454, 446. London, 184G. 
(Strauss holds that there is no sufficient evidence that John wrote the fourth 
gospel.) 

Supernatural Religion. An Inquiry into the Reality of Divine Revelation. 3 vols., 
8vo, pp. xcviii, 486. 479, 613. London, 1879. Sixth edition. (An anonymous 
publication. The author denies the possibility of a revelation attested by mira- 
cles. He denies also the authenticity of the fourth gospel, and argues that its 
peculiarities render the supposition that it was written by the apostle John in- 
credible. The ancient references to supposed citations from this gospel are 
examined with great fullness. See part III, vol. II, pp. 249-479.) 

Tatiani Evangcliorum Harmonias, Arabice. Nunc Primum Ex Duplici Codice Edidit, 
Et Translatione Latina Donavit P. Augustinus Ciasca. 4to, pp. xv, 108. 
(After p. 108 follows the Arabic Version ; the whole is concluded with a double 
page photograph of so much of one of the two manuscripts. This is a reproduction 
in print of the Arabic Yersion of Tatian's Diatessaron, with a Latin translation of 
tlie Arabic added by Ciasca, one of the Yatican librarians. The preface traces 
the history of the Arabic Yersion. One glance suffices to show that the fourth 
• evangelist of Tatian's Harmony is John.) 

Van Oosterzee, J. J. John's Gospel : Apologetical Lectures. Translated, with addi- 
tions, by J. F. Hurst. 12mo, pp. xiv, 256. Edinburgh, 1869. (The first lecture, 
pp. 1-57, discusses the authenticity of this gospel. There is also added a brief 
table of the apologetical literature.) 

Watkins, William Henr3^ Modern Criticism Considered in its Relation to the Fourth 
Gospel. Being the Bampton Lectures for 1890. 8vo, pp. xxxix, 502. London, 
1890. (A most valuable contribution to the history of the Johannean contro- 
versy. The testimonies to the genuineness of John's gospel furnished by the 
writers of the first four centuries are exhibited ; this is followed by a review of 
modern criticism, doubt, and defense from Evanson to the critics of our own 
time.) 

6. Synopses and Harmonies. 

Abbott, Lyman, and Gilmore, James R. The Gospel History, Life of Jesus, Woven 
from the Texts of His Original Biographers, the Four Evangelists. New revised 
ed. 12mo, pp. 840. New York, 1888. 

Alexander, Wm. Lindsay. The Connection and Harmony of the Old and New Tes- 
taments. 12rao. London, 1853. 

Andrews, Samuel J. The Life of our Lord upon Earth. Considered in its Histor- 
ical, Chronological, and Geographical Relations. 8vo, pp. xxiv, 624. New 
York, 1868. (A harmony of the gospels with each other and with contempo- 
rary history.) 

Buck, D. D. The Closing Scenes of the Life of Christ. Being a Harmonized Com- 
bination of the Four Gospel Histories of the Last Year of the Saviour's Life. 
12mo, pp. 293. Philadelphia,- 1869. 

Buck, D. D. Our Lord's Prophecy, and its Parallels throughout the Bible, Harmon- 
ized and Expounded : comprising a review of the common figurative theories 
of interpretation, with a particular examination of the principal passages relat- 
ing to the second coming of Christ, the end of the world, the new creation, the 
millennium, the resurrection, the judgment, the conversion and restoration of the 
Jews, and a synopsis of Josephus's History ot the Jewish war. 8vo, pp. 472. 
Nashville, 1857. 



SYNOPSES AND HARMONIES. 227 

Calvin, John. A Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Translated by Rev. AY. 
Pi ingle. 3 vols., 8vo. Jldinburgh, 1845. 

Clark, George W. A New Harmony of the Four Gospels in English, according to 
the Common Version. 12mo, pp. 365. New York, 1870. 

Foley, George C. An Outline Harmony of the Four Gospels. "With Brief Notes. 
New York, 1890. 

Fuller, J. M. Tlie Four Gospels, arranged in the form of a Harmony from the Text 
of the Authorized Version ; with four maps. 12mo. New York, 1875. 

Gardiner, Frederick. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the 
Text of Tischendorf, with a Collation of the Textus Receptiis and of the 
Texts of Griesbach, Lachmann, and Tregelles. Revised eJ., 8vo. Andover, 1882. 

Gardiner, Frederick. A Harmony of the Four Gcspels in English, according to the 
Authorized Version. Svo, pp. 287. Andover, 1871. 

Gardiner, Frederick. Diatessaron. The Life of Our Lord in the Words of the Gos- 
pels. 16mo, pp. 259. Andover, 1871. 

Genung, George F. The Fourfold Gospels. 12mo, pp. 118. Boston, 1891. 

Gresvvell, Edward. Dissertations upon the Principles and Arrangement of a Har- 
mony of the Gospels. 2d ed., 4 vols., 8vo, pp. 618, 654, 708, 930. Oxford, 
1837. 

Haley, John W. An Examination of the Alleged Discrepancies of the Bible. With 
an Introduction by Alvah Hovey. Svo, pp. xii, 473. Andover, 1882. 

Macknight, James. Harmony of the Gospels with Paraphrase and Notes. 2 vols., 
Svo. London, 1819. 

Moon, G. Washington. The Monograph Gospel, being the Four Gospels Arranged in 
One Continuous Narrative in the Words of Scripture, Without Omission of Fact 
or Repetition of Statement. New improved ed. 24mo, pp. vi, 307. New York, 
1887. 

Page, W. M. New Light from Old Eclipses ; or. Chronology Corrected, and the Four 
Gospels Harmonized, by the Rectification of Errors in the Received Astronom- 
ical Tables ; with an Introduction by Rev. J. H. Brooks, D.D. Svo, pp. xv, 590. 
St. Louis, Mo., 1889. 

Pierson, Arthur T. One Gospel ; or, the Combination of the Narratives of the Four 
Evangelists in one Complete Record. New York, 1890. 

Pittenger, W. The Interwoven Gospels, the Four Histories of Jesus Christ Blended 
into a Complete and Continuous Narrative in the Words of the Gospels. 12rao. 
New York, 1889. 

Robinson, Edward. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the 
Textof Hahn; newly arranged, with Explanatory Notes. Svo. Boston, 1868. 

Robinson, Edward, Harmony of the Four Gospels in English. 12mo. Boston, 1868. 

Rushbrooke, W. G. Synopticon. An Exposition of the Common Matter of the 
Synoptic Gospels, with Appendices. London, 1880. 

Strong, James. Harmony of the Gospels in the Greek of the Received Text, for the 
use of Students and Others. 12rao, pp. 406. New York, 1854. 

Strong, James. Harmony and Exposition in English. Svo, pp. 569. New York, 
1852. 

Stroud, Wm. A New Greek Harmony of the Four Gospels, comprising a Synopsis 
and a Diatessaron ; together with an Introductory Treatise, and Numerous Ta- 
bles, Indexes, and Diagrams. 4to, pp. 602. London, 1853. 2d ed. 1868. 

Taylor, William M. The Life of Our Lord in the Words of the Four Evangelists. 
Being the Four Gospels Arranged in Chronological Order, and Interwoven to 
Form a Continuous Narrative. 18mo,pp. 203. New York, 1877. 



228 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The Gospels Consolidated. The Four Gospels Consolidated into one Continuous 
Narrative. 4to. London, 1882. 

The Treasury of Scripture Knowledge. A Selection of more than 500,000 Scripture 
References and Parallel Passages ; together with a Harmony of the Four Evan- 
gelists. Svo. London, 1882. 

Tischendorf, Constantine. Synopsis Evangelica. lY. Evang. ordiue chronolog. con- 
cinnavit, brev. comment, illustr. 4th ed. Leipsic, 1878. 

"Wiesler, Karl. Chronological Synopsis of the Four Gospels. Translated by E. 
Yenables. Svo, pp. 459. London, 1864. 

•vi'?^"'"" " 1. Helps to the Study of Criticism. 

Abbott, Ezra. The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel, and Other Critical Essays. 
Edited by J. H. Thayer. Svo, pp. 501. Boston, 1888. (Some of the "other 
critical essays " are : "The Comparative Antiquity of the Sinaitic and Vatican 
Manuscripts of the Greek Bible," " Wesf^cott and Hort's edition of the Greek 
Testament," " The New Testament Greek Text," " The Reading ' Only-begotteu 
God,' in John i, 18," etc. They are marked by Dr. Abbott's accuracy and 
thoroughness of investigation.) 

Allen, T. W. Notes on Abbreviations in Greek Manuscripts ; with eleven pages 
of facsimiles, by photolithography. 8vo, pp. 40. New York, 1889. 

Barrett, Richard, Synopsis of Criticisms upon those Passages of the Old Testament 
in which Modern Commentators have diflfered from the Authorized Version. 
5 vols., Svo. London, 1847. 

Birks, P. R. Essay on the Right Estimation of Manuscript Evidence in the Text of 
the New Testament, London, 1880. 

Boardman, Curtiss, and Scott, Professors of Chicago Theological Seminary. Current 
Discussions in Theology. Vol. I. Introductory, Svo, pp. 218. Chicago. 

Boyce, "W. B. The Higher Criticism of the Bible. A Manual for Students. 12mo, 
pp. xxi, 473. London, 1881. 

Briggs, Charles A. Biblical Study. Its Principles, Methods, and History. Together 
with a Catalogue of Books of Reference. 12mo. New York, 1883. 

Burgon, John W. The Last Twelve Verses of the Gospel according to St. Mark Vin- 
dicated against Recent Critical Objectors and Established. Svo. Oxford, 1871. 

Carpenter, William. Popular Lectures on Biblical Criticism and Interpretation. 
Svo, pp. X, 446. London, 1829. 

Crowfoot, J. R. Observations on the Collation in Greek of Cureton's Syriac Frag- 
ments of the Gospel. 4to, London, 1872. 

Davidson, Samuel. A Treatise on Biblical Criticism, exhibiting a Systematic View 
of that Science. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 463, 484. Boston, 1853. 

Dingle, Edward. How Readest Thou ? The First Two Chapters of Genesis Consid- 
ered in Regard to the Direct Text. 12mo, pp. 79. London, 1886. 

Gerard, Gilbert. Institutes of Bibhcal Criticism ; or, Heads of the Course of Lect- 
ures on that Subject, read in the University of King's College, Aberdeen. Svo. 
Boston, 1823. 

Ginsburg, C. D. The Massorah. Compiled from Manuscripts Alphabetically and 
Lexically Arranged. Vol.1. Aleph-Jodh. London, 1880. Vol. 11, 1S83. A 
third volume is to follow. 

Girdlestone, R. B. Synonyms of the Old Testament ; their Bearing on Christian 
Faith and Practice. London. 1871. 

Girdlestone, R. B. The Foundations of Biblical Studies in Old Testament Criticism. 
2d ed., 12mo, pp. xix, 215. London, 1891. 



HELPS TO THE STUDY OF CRITICISM. 229 

Green, Thomas S. A Course of Developed Criticism on Passages of the New Testa- 
ment materially affected by various Readings. 8vo, pp. 202. London, 1882. 

Hammond, C. E. Outlines of Textual Criticism applied to the New Testament. 
(Clarendon Press Series.) 16mo, pp. 146. Oxford, 1872. 

Hatch, Edwin. Essays in Biblical Greek. These Essays comprise the author's lect- 
ures on the Septuagint delivered as Grinficld Lecturer at Oxford. They discuss 
the Yalue and Use of the Septuagint ; the meanings of selected words and 
psychological terras; quotations from the Septuagint, and the text of the books 
of Job and Ecclesiastes. 8vo, pp. x, 29H. Oxford, 1889. 

Horsley, Samuel. Biblical Criticism: or, the First Fourteen Historical Books of the 
Old Testament; also the First Nine Proplietical Books. 2d ed., 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 
484,511. London, 1845. 

Ladd, George T. "What is the Bible? An Inquiry into the Origin and Nature of 
the Old and New Testaments in the Light of Modern Biblical Study. 12mo. 
New York, 1888. 

Levita, Elias. The Massoreth ha-Massoreth, being an Exposition of the Massorelic 
Notes on the Hebrew Bible, or the Ancient Critical Apparatus of the Old Testa- 
ment in Hebrew. With an English Translation and Critical and Explanatory 
Notes, by C. D. Ginsburg. London, 1867. 

Marsh, Herbert. Lectures on Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible, with Two 
Preliminary Lectures on Theological Study and Theological Arrangement 
New ed. 8vo, pp. x, 511, 16. Cambridge, 1828. 

Miller, Edward. A Guide to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament. 12mo. 
pp. 147, London, 1886. (The topics discussed are : The history of textual 
criticism, the school of extreme textualism and its rival, history of the tradi- 
tional texts, the materials, a'.id principles of criticissm.) 

Milligan, William, and Roberts, Alexander. The Words of the New Testament, as 
Altered by Transmission and Ascertained by Modern Criticism. 12mo, pp. 
262. Edinburgh, 1873. 

Moss, J. J. Criticism, Exegesis, and Interpretation of Scripture References. 8vo, 
pp. iv, 261. Cincinnati, 1887. 

Porter, J. S. Principles of Textual Criticism. 8vo. London, 1848. 

Roberts, Alex. Companion to the Revised Yersion of the English New Testament. 
12mo, pp. viii, 213. New York, 1881. 

Rushbrooke, W. G. Synopticon. An Exposition of the common matter of the 
Synoptic Gospels, with Appendices. London, 1880. 

Sargent, Frederick. A Compendium of Biblical Critici^;m on the Canonical Books 
of the Holy Scriptures; Revised and Enlarged. 8vo. London, 1871. 

Schafif Philip. Companion to the Greek Testament and English Version. New 
York, 1883. 

Scott. James. Principles of New Testament Quotation, Established and AppUed to 
Biblical Criticism, and especially to the Gospels and the Pentatc uch. 2d ed., 
12mo, pp. xi, 169. Edinburgh, 1877. 

Scrivener, F. H. Lectures on the Text of the New Testament and the Ancient 
MSS. which contain it. Crown 8vo. New York. 3d ed., London, 1883. 

Scrivener, F. H. A Plain Introduction to tlie Criticism of the New Testament. 3d 
ed. Cambridge, 1883. (The nuihor begins with a discussion of the importance of 
textual criticism as applied to the New Testament, and the value of its results. 
He answers the charge that it tends to unsettle Scripture, maintaining the op- 
posite. Then follow a description and treatment of the uncial MSS., ihe cur- 
sive MS'^.. and Lectionaries of the New Testament. The Ancient Versions and 



230 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

patristic citations receive due attention, and a full account is furnished of the 
early printed and later critical editions. The canons of internal evidence and the 
limits of their legitimate use are clearly defined. A brief but comprehensive 
history of the text is given and the recent views of comparative criticism are 
discussed, as well as the peculiar character and grammatical form of tlie dialect 
of the New Testament. One of the most valuable features of the work is the 
author's direct application of the principles laid down by him, to the criticism 
of fifty selected passages taken from all parts of the New Testament.) 

Stuart, C. E. Textual Criticism of the New Testament for English Students. 18rao. 
London, 1861. 

Stuart, Moses. Critical History and Defence of the Old Testament Canon. 12 mo, 
pp. 454. Andover, 1871. 

Tregelles, S. P. An Account of the printed Text of the Greek New Testament ; 
with Remarks upon its Revision upon Critical Principles. Svo, pp. 374. London, 
1854. 

Turpie, David M'C. The Old Testament in the New. A Contribution to Biblical 
Criticism and Interpretation. Svo, pp. 279. London, 1868. 

Warfield, Benjamin B. An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testa- 
ment. 12mo, pp. 225. London, 1886. 

8. Concordances. 

A Handy Concordance to the Septuagint, Giving Various Readings from the Codices 
Yat., Alex., Sin., and Ephr. ; with an Appendix. London, 1889. 

Brown, John. A Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testa- 
ments. A new ed., carefully revised by Samuel Ives. Thick 24mo. London, 
1867. 

Butterworth, Rev. J. A New Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. Being the Most 
Comprehensive and Concise of Any Before Published. 8vo. Boston, 1821. 
2d American ed. 

Companion to the Bible, and Supplement to the Comprehensive Commentary ; being 
a Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1854. 

Cruden, Alexander. A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. Royal Svo. 
New York, 1871. Condensed ed. Svo. Boston. 

Davidson, B. Hebrew Concordance of the Hebrew and Chaldee Scriptures. 2 vols., 
royal Svo. London, 1882. 

Eadie, John. An Analytical Concordance to the Holy Scriptures ; or, the Bible Pre- 
sented under Distinct and Classified Heads or Topics. Royal Svo. Boston, 1 862. 

Eadie, John. A New and Complete Concordance on the Basis of Cruden. Crown 
Svo. London, 1870. 

Eastwood, J., and Wright, W. Aldis. The Bible "Word-Book: A Glossary of Old 
Enghsh Bible Words. 18mo, pp. 564. London, 1866. 

Englishman's, The, Greek Concordance of the New Testament. Being an Attempt 
at a Yerbal Connection between tlie Greek and the English Texts. 4to, pp. 
482. New Yo-^^k, 1879. 

Englishman's, The, Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance of the Old Testament. 2 vols., 
royal Svo. London, 1866. 

Henderson, William. A Dictionary and Concordance of the Names of Persons and 
Places, and of Terms which occur in Scripture. Svo, pp. 689. Edinburgh and 
New York, 1869. 

Hudson, Charles F. A Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testa- 
ment. Prepared under the direction of Horace L. Hastings, Revised and Com- 



CONCORDANCES. 231 

pleted by Dr. Ezra Abbott. Boston, 1870; also 1883. (Compact, convenient, 
and peculiarly iiit' resting from the fact that no "copy'' of it was prepared? 
tlie author, also a practical printer, having set up the material as he com- 
posed it.) 

Schmidt, Erastus. A Greek Concordance to the New Testament. A Concordance 
of the Words of the Greek New Testament, with their Context. 8vo, pp. 283. 
London, 1882. 

Strong, James. The Exhaustive Concordance to the Bible. Together wiih a Com- 
parative Concordance of the Authorized and Revised Versions, Including the 
American Variations. Also Brief Dictionaries of the Hebrew and Greek Words 
of the Original, with References to the English Words. 1 vol., 4to. New York, 
1893. 

Student's Concordance to the Revised Version of 1881. New York, 1883. (Shows 
changes in all words referr d t~>.) 

Thorns, John Alexander. A Complete Concordance to tlie Revised Version of the 
New Testament; Embracing the Marginal Readings of the English Uevisers as 
well as those of the American ComraiLjee. 8vo., pp. 532. New York, 1882. 

"Wigram, G. V. The Hebraist's Vade Mecum ; a first attempt at a Complete Verbal 
Index to the Hebrew and Chaldee Scrptures. London, 1867. 

Wigram. G. V. The Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance of the Old 
Testament. Being an Attempt at a Verbal Connection between the Original 
and the English Translations. 2 vols, 8vo. London, 1843. 

Young, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Every word in al habetical 
order, with Hebrew or Greek Oriiiioal. Edinburgh and New York, 1881. 

Young, Robert. Twofold Concordance to the New Testament. Concordance to the 
Greek New Testament, Exhibiting Every Root and Derivative, with their S^eral 
Prefixes and Terminations in all their Occurrences, with the Hebrew Originals 
of which they are Renderings in the LXX. Together with a Concordance and 
Dictionary of Bible Words and Synonyms. Also a Concise Concordance to 
Eight Thousand Changes of the Revised Testament. 4to. Edinburgh, 1884. 

9. Biblical Dictionaries and Cyclopcedias. 

A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects, and Doctrines. Being a con- 
tinuation of "The Dictionary of the Bible." Edited by William Smith, D.C.L., 
LL.D., and Henry Wace, M.A., Professor of Ecclesia-^tical History in King's Col- 
lege, London. 4 vols., 8vo. London, 1875. (A work of the greatest value to 
the student ; it embodies the results of the latest discovery and research.) 

A Religious Encyclopaedia ; or. Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and 
PiliCtical Theology, Based on the Real-Encyclopadie of Herzog, Plitt, and 
Hauck. P^dited by Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. ; as<'ociate editors. Rev. Samuel 
M. Jackson, M.A., and Rev. D. S. Scliaff. 3 vols., 8vo. New York, 1887, 
with Supplementary Volume. (The latest edition is in four volumes of equal 
size.) 

Abbot, Lyman. A Dictionary of Religious Knowledge. New York, 1875. 

Addis, W. E., and Arnold, Thomas. A Catholic Dictionary, containing some account 
of the Doctrine, Discipline, Rites, Ceremonies, Councils, and Religious Orders of 
the Catholic Church. 2d ed., 8vo. London, 1884. 

Ayre, John. The Treasury of Bible Knowledg. Bring a Diet ionay of ihe Books, 
Persons, Places, Events, etc., in the Holy Scriptures. 18m'\ New York, 
1SG6. 
16 



282 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Barnum, Samuel W. ' A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Bible. Abridged from 
Smith, with Additions. 8vo, pp. 1219. New York and Loudon, 1868. 

Benham, Rev. W., editor. The Dictionary of Religion: An Encyclopaedia of Chris- 
tian and other Religious Doctrines, Denominations, Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiasti- 
cal Terms, History, Biography, etc. 4to, pp. 1148. New York, 1887. (Treats 
of ecclesiastical history and doctrine, of the religions of the ancient and modern 
world, and also the persons connected therewith.) 

Blunt, John H. A Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology. By various 
Writers. Royal 8vo. Philadelphia, 1870. 

Blunt, John H. A Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, and Schools 
of Religious Thought. Royal 8vo. Philadelphia, 1 874. 

Brown, John. A Dictionary of the Bible, etc 8vo. London, 1868. 

Cassell's Bible Diction iry. Illustrated with nearly six hundred Engravings. 2 vols. 
in one. 4to, pp. 1159. London, 1869. 

Darling, James. Cyclopsedia Bibliographica : a Library Manual of Theological and 
General Literature, and Guide to Books, etc. 2 vols., royal 8vo. Vol. I, 
Authors; columns, 3,338. Vol. II, Subjects, Holy Scriptures ; columns, 1,920. 
■ London, 1854-59. 

Davidson, D. Pocket Biblical Dictionary, Condensed from Calmet, Brown, Clarke, 
Jones, and the most Recent Sources of Information. New ed., 24mo. London, 
1868. 

Eadie, John. A Biblical Cyclopaedia ; or, Dictionary of Eastern Antiquities, Geography,. 

' Natural History, Sacred Annals, etc. ISthed., 8vo, pp. viii, 690. London, 1870. 

Encyclopasdia of Religious Knowledge; or, Dictionarj"- of the Bible. Theological, 
Religious, Biographical, etc. Royal 8vo. Philadelphia, 1870. 

Fairbairn, P. The Imperial Bible Dictionary. Historical, Biographical, Geographical, 
and Doctrinal, etc. lUus. 2 vols., royal 8 vo, pp. x, 1007, 1151. London, 1866. 

Farrar, John. A Biblical and Theological Dictionary ; Illustrative of the Old and 
New Testaments. 3d ed., 12mo, pp. 663. London, 1852. 

FausseT, A. R. The Englishman's Critical and Expository Bible Cyclopsedia. 
Illustrated. 4to. London, 1878. 

Freeman, James. Hand-book of Bible Manners and Customs. 12mo, pp. 515. New 
York, 1874. 

Herzog's Protestant, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Encyclopaedia; with Additions 
by J. H. A. Bomberger, assisted b}" distinguished Theologians of various Denom- 
inations. 2 vols., royal 8vo. Philadelphia, 1858-60. (This translation was 
never completed.) 

Inglis, James. The Bible-Text Cyclopaedia: a Complete Classification of Scripture 
Texts in the form of an Alphabetical Index of Subjects. Post 8vo, pp. 528. 
London, 1861. New ed., 1865. 

Journal of Sacred Literature. Edited by Drs. Kitto, Burgess, etc. The Five Series 
complete. 40 vols., 8vo. London, 1848-60, 

Kitto, John. A Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature. Edited by W. L. Alexander. 
3 vols., Bvo, pp. 872, 876, 872. Edinburgh, 18.62-66. , 

Martindale, Miles. Dictionary of the Holy Bible, revised and corrected by Rev. 
Joseph Benson. 8vo, pp. 631. New York, 1823. 

M'Clintock and Strong. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Lit- 
erature. lOvols., 8vo. New York, 1867-80. With Supplement in 2 vols. 1887.. 

Sch'aflF, Philip. A Religious Encyclopaedia ; or, Dictionary of Biblical, Doctrinal, 
and Practical Theology. 3 vols., Bvo, New York, 1882. (The Schaff-Herzog 
Encyclopaedia noticed above.) 



BIBLICAL DICTIONARIES AND CYCLOPEDIAS. 233 

Schaff, Philip, A Dictionary of the Bible, including Biography, Natural History, 
Geograpliy, Topograph}', Archaeology, and Literature. Pp. 960. 5th ed. Phila- 
delphia, 1890. 

Smith, William and Cheetham, Samuel. A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, com- 
prising the History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church from 
the Time of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 
]875. (A most valuable work.) 

Smith, "William. Dictionary of the Bible. American ed. by Hackett and Abbot 
4 vols., 8vo. New York, 1867-70. The same Abridged. Ivol, 8vo. Boston, 
1865. 

Staunton "Wm. An Ecclesiastical Dictionary, containing Definitions of Terms per- 
taining to the History, Ritual, Discipline, "Worship, Ceremonies, and Usages of 
the Christian Church. 8vo. New York, 1861. 



234 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION xvin. 

HERMENEUTICS. 

G. Seyffarth, uber Begriff, Anordnung und Umfang der Hermeneutik des N. T. (Lpz. 1824), 
womit jedoch zu vergleichen die Recens. in Winers und Engelhardts Journal Bb. 4. S. 324 ff. 
A. Tholuck, iiber den Mangel an Uebereinstimmung unter den Auslegem des N. T. (tbeoL 
Studlen und Kritiken Jahrg., 1832, S. 325) . Planck's Sacred Philology and Interpretation, trans- 
lated by Turner ; Kitto's Cyclopaedia, vol. ii, p. 20. For a very full history and bibliography, 
see Terry's Hermeneutics, Part III. 

Biblical Hermeneutics treats of the principles on which Scripture 
is to be explained. These principles are, upon the whole, the same 
Definition of t^^* ^PP^Y *^ ^^7 work of human origin, and Hermen- 
Hermeneutics. eutics, as a theological science, differs from the science 
in its general (philosophical and philological) character simply with 
regard to the object upon which it is employed. In this connexion 
the peculiarly religious character of the Bible certainly demands 
recognition. 

Hermeneutics from epfirjvevG) (which is to be traced back to the 
Hermes of the ancients^) is, in Schleiermacher's language, an art- 
doctrine ; " for the complete understanding of a discourse or writ- 
ing is a work of art, and requires a technical apparatus." ^ It 
Distinguished Stands in an inverted relation to rhetoric, in so far as 
from rhetoric, ^j^g latter is dependent on logic ; for while the logical 
part of rhetoric furnishes the laws by which our thoughts are to be 
connected, arranged, and presented, Hermeneutics teaches how to 
apprehend the given discourses or writings of another person, and 
how to follow and interpret them. In proportion as the logically 
ordered thinking in a discourse or book becomes clear, as it will 
when the matter to be imparted is developed before the mind of 
the hearer or reader in a well-arranged style, will the need of ex- 
planation and of an art of explanation be small ; for which reason, 
e. g., purely mathematical lectures need no hermeneutics if defini- 
tions are first understood. But when the logic is hidden in the dis- 
cussion, and when the words do not represent mere formulas and 
figures (the expression of magnitudes), but are, according to the 
nature of the subject under consideration, the not fully adequate 
signs of a profoundly apprehended original, when they are the 
bearers, borrowed from the world of sense, of ideas which are in- 
visible, there arises the need of an interpreter who shall know 
how to trace back to the original idea the letter which was first 
correctly apprehended through the mechanical processes of gram- 
mar, and who shall thus restore the written or spoken word, so 

* See Creuzer, Symbolik, i, pp. 9-15 : 365 sqq. ; ii, p. 617. 

• Schleiermacher, § 132. 



PECULIARITIES OF BIBLE LANGUAGE. 235 

that it becomes for the reader or hearer what it was to the 
writer or speaker from whom in the freshness of its originality it 
emanated. 

For this reason the ancients already joined divination to her- 
meneutics ; and this likewise indicates why an exposition according 
to rules of art is more necessary with poets, epigrammatists, and 
poetizing philosophers, than with simple prose-writers.^ Works, 
moreover, that belong to a distant age, and are written causes which 
in a language which has itself passed through many his- ^^^^^^^3 ^neee»^ 
torical vicissitudes, are more likely to engage the atten- sary. 
tion of hermeneutics than writings and discourses belonging to our 
own times, whose meaning is more apparent to us by reason of their 
nearness. And, lastly, the allusions contained in a discourse or 
writing will need a key to their interpretation, in proportion as they 
bear upon individual matters, which is especially the ease in episto- 
lary compositions. If we apply these considerations to the Bible, 
it will appear that it needs the art of hermeneutics in each of 
these regards. Few books, in the first place, in the form of expres- 
sion, fall so much behind their wealth of contents, and .j^g reasons 

few, accordingly, belong so fully to the class of pregnant why the Bible 

T ^, T ^ , j^ f needs care in 

writmgs, as do these modest envelopments oi supreme its mterpreta- 

ideas. Luther strikingly likens them to the swaddling- ^^°^* 

clothes in which the Christ-child lay, and the great Reformer 

was led to use the expression that the words in Scripture are not 

merely "written words, but living words," whence it becomes a 

frequent necessity to read between the lines. But the Bible at the 

same time shares with all works of antiquity, including the less 

pregnant also, the fortune of having been written in times, and 

among a people, into whose circumstances we must enter and live, 

and in languages with whose spirit and expression we must become 

familiar, if we desire to accurately understand what is written.' 

* " There is no lack of examples in our own experience of an author's mind being, 
e. g.^ exalted to such an intuitive penetration of its object as to be enabled to speak 
of it with an unusual pregnancy of word and meaning which his own reflection is un- 
able to resolve into details ; it even happens that when he descends from his intuitive 
center-point to hie ordinary level of thought, his own work will appear like a strange 
object, respecting the development of whose meaning he finds as much difficulty as 
do others." — J. T. Beck, EniL in das Syst. d. Chr. Lehre, p. 253. An example is found 
in Hamann. 

'^ " He who would interpret, needs, by drawing as near as may be possible, to de- 
scend to the condition of the first readers and hearers." — Lutz (Hermeneutic). " Pour 
ne pas errer sur le sens que nous appelons exterieur, il faut avoir une idee precise de 
la langue des auteurs, je veux dire de la valeur des signes et des formes de cette 
langue, compares aux formes et aux signes correspondants de notre propre langue. 



.236 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

How thoroughly individual, too, is the Bible, never dealing in ab- 
stract generalities, always singling out the concrete instance, the 
special condition and its needs, the disposition and mode of culture 
of persons and communities ! ' How natural, then, that we should 
seek to obtain a key ! This can be no magic key, however, which 
some angel must bring down from the third or the seventh heaven, 
or whose possession is restricted to a sacred caste ; but, generally 
The key to speaking, the same art has its application here, which 
JouiS^^in^e^ must be employed, according to the natural laws of a 
meneutics. historico-logical method of estimating the past, upon 
every work that requires explanation. This art belongs to the 
higher department of the science of language, of philology, and 
hence of applied philosophy. 

Biblical ber- ^^ ^^ ^ theological science merely in its special appli- 
meneutics a cation to this obiect ' for every rule established by the- 

branch of gen- ,.,, "'.» ,*^ .. /.lo- 

erai herme- ological hermeneutics lor the exposition oi the ocript- 
neutics. ^j.^g j^^^i \)q based upon the general principles of her- 

meneutics or deducible from them, and all that can be done in the 
interest of the Bible is that such principles be properly applied. 
Arbitrary departure from them, or making so-called " exceptions to 
such rules," is never beneficial. When the latter course is fol- 
lowed the proper inference is that the general law itself has not 
been apprehended, or that confusion or a misconception is in- 
volved. Should a one-sided, scanty legislation confine the inter- 
pretation of the Scriptures to the purely external meaning of the 
letter so exclusively as, while considering the notation of the let- 
ter (the grammar), to forget the notation of the spirit, should it 
designedly seek to blot out the individuality and originality of an 
author, in order to put in the place of the forms which reveal a rich 
fulness of ideas, the vaguely outlined shadows of abstract common- 
places, it will of course be exposed to the danger of seeing those 
who are not content with such meagre fare forsake its school and 
submit themselves to the impression of an undefined feeling. This 
is a result the more likely to come to pass because of the failure 

En d'autres termes, il faut savoir d quel taux il faut prendre le mots principaux, qui 
reviennent le plus souvent et entrant dans le passages les plus importants." — Vinet 
(Homiletique), p, 124. 

^ Comp. Schleiermacher, § 135 : " The explanation of the New Testament Scriptures 
is especially difficult, both on account of the nature of their contents, and by reason 
of external conditions." 

• Schleiermacher, § 13Y, sq. It is evident that within this specifically biblical her- 
meneutics, another and yet more special (Old and New Test., Pauline, Johannean, etc.) 
may be conceived of and wrought out. Comp. ib., § 136. 



WHO IS THE COMPETENT INTERPRETER? 237 

of such teachers to instil the scientific principles sought at their 
hands. 

If hermeneutics has regard to the deeper psychological fea- 
tures of the writers to be explained, whether they occupy the field 
of poetry, philosophy, or religion, and if it establishes as the lead- 
ing principle that he only is competent to correctly appreciate an 
author whose mind possesses elements related and analogous to that 
author's, or, at least, who has learned how to think himself into the 
mental state of his author,' it certainly has also the right to require 
an unconditional submission to its rules on the part of the expositor 
of the Bible. All the wanderings of the so-called allegorical in- 
terpretation find their excuse in narrow hermeneutics, whether of 
the orthodox or the rationalist letter, and may be corrected and 
finally laid aside by the application of the true science of spiritual 
exposition.'* 

The science of hermeneutics could not be formed before frequent 

experiments in interpretation had been made, and such ^ , , 
^ . 1 1 • 1 Gradual 

practice had resulted m the more or less conscious ap- growth of her- 
plication of the laws of interpretation which were de- ™^^6"*^<^s- 
veloped in the way of practical exposition. Even then it remained 
" an aggregate of separate, often valuable and praiseworthy, obser- 
vations," ^ rather than a systematic art, " whose precepts would con- 
stitute a system resting upon clear principles deduced from the 
nature of thought and of language." This experience belongs 
alike to general and biblical hermeneutics. 

' " Who will the poet understand must journey into poet-land," Luther already 
observed that the Eclogues of Yirgil are thoroughly plain to him alone who has lived 
with shepherds, and that he alone can properly understand Cicero's epistles " who has 
served twenty years in a first-class regiment." Lutz observes similarly (in Herme- 
neutik), " The contents (of the Scripture) are understood only by him who apprehends 
and values them in the spirit of one who is saved by Christ and out of interest for 
the Christian Church." Comp. also Schenkel, Dogmatik, i, p. 327, and Krauss, Be- 
deiitung des Glauhena filr die Schriftauslegung. 

^ Diestel (infra), p. 778, justly observes, in opposition to one-sided tendencies in 
exegesis, that only an all-sided illumination can do justice to the object to be ex- 
plained. He designates (1) the rational, (2) the historico-philosophical, and (3) the 
religious principles, as elements which must interpenetrate each other in any truly 
theological method of investigation. At the same time we are to remember that " an 
absolute knowledge of the religion of the people of God will continue to be a far-off 
goal that twinkles in the distance, so long as human development shall continue ; and 
in the same measure, even as Christianity likewise can never be exhausted, and the 
knowledge of it, in its depth and fulness can only represent a constant approxima- 
tion toward the highest ideal." 

^ Schleiermacher, Outline of Theology, § 133. See also the succeeding paragraphs 
to 8 140 inclusive. 



238 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

1. Uermeneutics. 

Alexander, Archibald. Principle of Design in the Interpretation of Scripture. 
Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review for July, 1845. 

Apthorp. East. Discourses on Prophec}'. Warburtoniau Lectures. 2 vols., 8vo. 
London, 1786. (One of these lectures is on the Canons of Interpretati'^n.) 

Arnold, Thomas. Sermons chiefly on the Interpretation of Scripture. New ed. 
London, 1878. 

Barrows, E. P. A New Introduction to the Study of the Bible. Part lY. Biblical 
Interpretation. 8vo. London. 

Blunt, J. 11. Key to the Knowledge and Use of the Holy Bible. 8vo. London, 
1873. IGnio. Pliiladelphia, 1873. 

Bosanqiiet, S. R. Interpretation ; being Rules and Principles assisting to the Read- 
ing and Understanding of the Holy Scriptures. 12nio. London, 1874. 

Briggs, Charles Augustus. Biblical Study; its Principles, Metliods, History, etc. 
12mo. New York, 1883, 1891. (Chapter x discusses "The Interpretation of 
Scripture, "j 

Campbell, George. The Four Gospels, with Preliminary Dissertations. 4 vols., 8vo. 
Boston, 1811. (Dissertation I Y is on the right method of proceeding in the 
critical examination of the New Testament.) 

Cellerier, J. E. Biblical Uermeneutics, chiefly a Translation of the Manuel D'Her- 
meneutique Biblique, par J. E. Cellerier. By Charles Elliott and William J. 
Harsha. 8vo. New York, 1881. 

Conybeare, J. J. An Attempt to Trace the History and to Ascertain the Limits of 
the Secondary and Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture. Bampton Lectures for 
1824. 12mo, pp. xii, 331. Oxford, 1824. 

Conybeare, W. D. An Elementary Course of Lectures on the Criticism, Interpreta- 
tion, and Leading Doctrines of the Bible. 12mo. London, 1836. 

Davidson, Samuel. Sacred Hermeneutics Developed and Applied; including a His- 
tory of Biblical It)terpretation from the Earliest of the Fathers to the Reforma- 
tion. 8vo, pp. 760. Edinburgh, 1843. 

Dixon, Joseph. A General Introduction to the Sacred Scriptures in a Series of Dis- 
sertations, Critical, Hermeneutical, and Historical. 2 vols., 8vo. Dublin, 1852. 
2 vols, in one, 8vo. Baltimore, 1853. (A Roman Catholic work.) 

Dobie, David. A Key to the Bible, being an Exposition of the History, etc., of Sa- 
cred Interpre a ion.. 12rao. New York, 1856. 

Doedes, J. J. Manual of Hermeneutics for tlie "Writings of the New Testament. 
Translated by G. W. Stegman, Jr. 12mo, pp. 134. Edinburgh, 1867. (Part 
First of this Manual is a " Review of the Different Exegetical Schools which 
have exercised an Influence on the Interpretation of the New Testament." 
Part Second Discusses the " Theory of the Exegesis of the New Testament." 
Under this head come the Grammatical Interpretation, the Historical Interpre- 
tation, and the Dogmatical Interpretation.) 

Duugan, D. R. Hermeneutics: A Text Book. 12mo, pp. xv,400. Cincinnati, 1888. 

Ellicott, C. J. Scripture and its Interpretation. One of the Essays in Aids to Faith. 
Replies to Essays and Reviews. 8vo. London, 1863. 

Elliott, C, and Harslia, W. J. Biblical Hermeneutics, New York. (A translation 
of the French "Work of Cellerier, noticed above.) 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 239 

Ernesti, J. A. Elementary Principles of Interpretation. Translated from the Latin 
and Accompanied by Notes, from Morus, Beck, Keil, and Henderson. Edited by 
Moses Stuart. 4th ed. Andover and New York, 1842. (This is Ernest i's most 
important theological work ; in it he explains the system of grammatico-historical 
interpretation, now universally adopted. The principles of Biblical interpreta- 
tion are set forth by h m, in a series of a pliorismatic paragraphs.) 

Fairbairn, Patrick. Hermeneutical Manual ; or, Introduction to the Exeaetical 
Study of the New Testament. 8vo, pp. 492. Edinburgh, 1858. Philadel- 
phia, 1859. 

Fairbairn, Patrick. Prophecy Viewed in Respect to its Distinctive Nature, Special 
Function, and Proper Interpretation. 8vo. New York, 1866. 

Fairbairn, Patrick. The Typology of Scripture ; Viewed in Connection with the 
"Wliole Series of Divine Dispensations. 5th ed., 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 504, 555. Ed- 
inburgh, 1870. New York, 1877. 

Farrar, Frederick W. History of Interpretation : Bampton Lectures for 1885. 8vo. 
London, 1886. 

Home, Thomas Hartwell. Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. 
2vols., Svo. Philadelphia, 1841. ISih.ed., 4 vols., 8vo. London, 1872. (Part II, 
Vol. 1, treats of interpretation.) 

Immer, A. Hermeneulics of the New Testament. Translated from the German, by 
Rev. Albert H. Newman. With Additional Notes and Full Indexes. New ed. 
Crown 8vo, pp. 413. Andover. 

Irons, W. J. The Bible and its Interpreters. Miracles and Prophecies. 2d ed. 
London, 1869. 

Jones, Wm. Course of Lectures on the Figurative Language of the Scriptures. Svo. 
London, 1789. (Also in Vol. IV of Theological and Miscellaneous "Works. 
1810.) 

Jowett, Benjamin. On the Interpretation of Scripture. One of the Essays in Essays 
and Reviews, by Eminent English Churchmen. 8vo. London, 1861. 

Lamar, J. S. The Organon of Scripture; or, the Inductive Method of Biblical Inter- 
pretation, 12mo. Philadelphia, 1860. 

Lee, Sam u eh The Study of the Holy Scriptures. Svo. London, 1830. (Contains a 
dissertation on the interpretation of prophecy.) 

Macknighc, James. Concerning the Right Interpretation of the Writings in which 
the Revelations of God are Contained. (Essay VIII, appended to his Transla- 
tion and Commentary on the Apostolic Epistles. Many eds.) 

Maitland, Chas. The Apostles' School of Prophetic Interpretation, with its History 
to the Present Time. Svo, pp. 472. London, 1849. 

Maitland, S. R. Eight Essays on the Mystical Interpretation of Scripture, etc. Svo. 
London, 1852. 

Marsh, Bishop Herbert. Lectures on the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible, 
with the History of Biblical Interpretation. Svo. London, 1828, 1838, 1842. 

M'Clelland, Alexander. Manual of Sacred Interpretation, for the Special Benefit of 
Junior Theological Students. 12mo. New York, 1842. 

.M'Clelland, Alexander. A Brief Treatise on the Canon and Interpretation of the 
Holy Scriptures. New York, 1850. (Above book enlarged.) 

Muenscher, Joseph. Manual of Biblical Interpretation, 16mo, pp. 318. Gambier, 
Ohio, 1865. 

Pareau, John Henry. Principles of Interpretation of the Old Testament. Trans- 
lated by Patrick Forbes. 16mo, 2 vols., pp. 302, 344. Edinburgh, 1835. 
(This excellent Manual forms a part of Clark's Biblical Cabinet.) 



240 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Pierce, B. K. The "Word of God Opened. Its Inspiration, Canon, aud Interpretation 
Considered and Illustrated. New York, 1868. 

Planck, G. J. Introduction to Sacred Philology and Interpretation. Translated 
from the Original German by Samuel H. Turner. Edinburgh, 1834. 16rao, pp. 
288. New York, 18:54. 

Sawyer, Leicester A. The Elements of Biblical Interpretation ; or, an Exposition of 
the Laws, by which the Scriptures are capable of being Correctly Interpreted. 
12mo. New Haven, 1836. 

Scott, J. Principles of New Testament Quotation Established and Applied to Bib- 
lical Science. Edinburgh, 1875. 

Seller, G. P. Biblical Hermeneutics ; or, the Art of Scripture Interpretation. From 
the German. 8vo. London, 1835. 

Smith, John Pye. Principles of Interpretation as Applied to the Prophecies of Holy 
Scripture. London, 1829. 2d ed., 1831. 

Spurgeon, C. H. Commenting and Commentaries. Two Lectures Addressed to the 
Students of the Pastor's College, . . . together with a Catalogue of Biblical Com- 
mentaries and Expositions. 12mo. New York, 1876. 

Stuart, Moses. Hints on the Interpretation of Prophecy. 12mo. Andover, 1842. 

Terry, M. S. Biblical Hermeneutics ; a Treatise on the Interpretation of Scripture. 
8vo, pp. 787. New York, 1883. 

Tholuck, Augustus. On the Use of the Old Testament in the New, and especially 
in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Translated by J. E. Ryland. Yol. XXXIX of 
Biblical Cabinet. 16mo. Edinburgh, 1842. 

Tholuck, Augustus. Hints on the Interpretation of the Old Testament. Translated 
by R. B. Patton. Yol. II of Edinburgh Biblical Cabinet. 16mo. Edinburgh, 
1833. 

Turner, S. H. Thoughts en the Oric;in, Character, and Interpretation of Scriptural 
Prophecy. 12mo. New York, 1860. 

Turpie, David M'C. The Old Testament in the New. A Contribution to Biblical 
Criticism and Interpretation, etc. Royal 8vo. London, 1868. 

Yan Mildert, William. An Inquiry into the General Principles of Scripture Inter- 
pretation. Bampton Lectures for 1814. 8vo. Oxford, 1815. 3d ed. London, 
1838. 

Wemyss, Tliomas. A Key to the Symbolical Language of Scripture, etc. 16mo, 
pp. 520. Edinburgh, 1835. 

"Winthrop, Edward. Premium Essays on the Characteristics and Laws of Prophetic 
Symbols. 12mo. New York, 1860. 

"Whitaker, "William. On the Interpretation of Scripture. Cambridge, 1849. 

"Whitby, Daniel. Dissertatio de SS. Scripturarum Interpretatione secundum Patrum 
Commentarios. 8vo. London, 1714. (Elicited by the Arian Controversy.) 

"Whittaker, John William. A Historical and Critical Enquiry into the Interpretation 
of the Hebrew Scriptures. London, 1819. 

"Wickes, William. JiDX '''OV^, A Treatise on the Accentuation of the so-called Poet- 
ical Books of the Old Testament — Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. With an Appen- 
dix containing a Treatise, assigned to R. Jehuda Ben-BiVam, on the same subject 
in the Original Arabic. 8vo, pp. xii, 120. Oxford, 1881. (According to the 
author the design of the accents was to fix the modulation. The full lists of 
both the prose and poetical signs or accents are given, but the accentuation is 
limited to the poetical books.) 

Wordsworth, C. On the Interpretation of Scripture. An Essay in reply to Essays 
and Reviews. 8vo. London, 1862. 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 241 



2. Inspiration. 

Alexander, Archibald. Evidences of the Authenticity, Inspiration, and Canonical 
Authority of the Holy Scriptures. 12iiio, pp. 308. Philadelphia. 

Alwell, W. E. Pauline Theory of the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptuies. 8vo. 
London, 1878. 

Eagley, Benjamin. An Essay on Inspiration. 8vo. London, 1707. 2d ed., 1708. 

Bannerman, James. Inspiration: the Infallible Truth and Divine Authority of the 
Holy Scriptures. 8vo, pp. 595. Edinburgh, 1865. 

Barry, William. An Inquiry into the Nature and Extent of the Inspiration of the 
Apostles and other "Writers of the New Testament. 8vo. London, 1797. 2d 
ed., 1822. 

Baylee, Joseph. Yerbal Inspiration the True Characteristic of God's Holy "Word. 
8vo. Londcn, 1870. 

Boyle, W. R. A. The Inspiration of the Book of Daniel, and other Portions of Script- 
ure. 8vo. London, 1863. 

Burgon, John W. Inspiration and Interpretation ; Seven Sermons Before the Univer- 
sity of Oxford. 8vo. London, 1874. 

Calamy, E. The Inspiration of the Holy Writings of the Old and New Testament 
Considered and Improved. 8vo. Loudon, 1710. 

Carson, Alexander. The Theories of Inspiration of the Rev. Daniel Wilson, Rev. 
Dr. Pye Smith, and Rev. Dr. Dick. Proved to be erroneous, with Remarks on 
the Christian Observer and Eclectic Review. 12rao, pp. 223. Edinburgh, 1830. 
(The author holds that " the Bible as originally given is divine in every word.") 

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit. 16mo, pp. 129. Bos- 
ton, 1841. (Also in his collected works.) 

Curtis, S. F. The Human Element in the Inspiration of the Sacred Scriptures. 
12mo, pp. 386. New York, 1867. 

Dewar, Daniel. Divine Revelation : its Evidences, External, Internal, and Collateral. 
Together with its Canonical Authority and Plenary Inspiration. 2d ed., 8vo. 
London, 1859. 

Dick, John. An Essay on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. 4th ed., 8vo. 
Glasgow, 1840. 

DcyJdridge, Philip. A Dissertation on the Inspiration of the New Testament, etc. 
In works. Vols. IV and VIII. 

Elliott, Charles. A Treatise on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. Edinburgh 
and New York, 1877. 

Eindlay, Robert. The Divine Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures asserted by St. 
Paul, 2 Tim. iii, 16. London, 1803. 

Fowle, E. W. The Reconciliation of Religion and Science, being Essays on Immor- 
tality, Inspiration, Miracles, and the Being of Christ. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Garbett, E. God's Word Written : the Doctrine of the Inspiration of Holy Scripture 
Explained and Enforced. 12 mo, pp. 365. Boston, 1867. 

Gaussen, S. R. L. Theopneusty ; or, the Plenary Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. 
From the French, by E. N. Kirk. 12mo, pp. 343. New York, 1842. 

Given, John James. Truth of Scripture in Connection with Revelation, Inspiration 
and the Canon. Edinburgh, 1881. 

Haldane, J. A. The Inspiration of the Scriptures. 1 2mo. Boston. 

Hannah, J. The Relation between the Divine and the Human Element in tlie 
Scriptures. Bampton Lectures for 1863. Pp. xix, 364. London, 1863. 
16 



242 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Headeraon, Ebenezer. Divine Inspiration ; or, tlie Supernatural Influence exerted in 

the Communication of Divine Truth, etc. 8vo. London, 1836. 4th ed.^ 1852. 

(A work highly commended for impartiality.) 
Hinds, Samuel, An [nquiry into the Proofs, Nature, and Extent of Inspiration, and 

into the Authority of Scripture. 8vo. Oxford, 1831. 
Hopkins, Theodore. Tlie Doctrine of Inspiration; an Outline Historical Study. 

Pamphlet. 8vo, pp. 106. Rochester, 1881. 
Home, Thomas Hartwell. Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. 8vo, 

2 vols. Philadelphia, 1841. (The opening chapters, iv to vi, both inclusive, 

treat of inspiration.) 
Horton, Robert F. Inspiration and the Bible. An Enquiry. 12mo, pp. x, 256. 

London, 1888. 
Jamieson, Robert. The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. Baird Lectures for 

1873. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1874. 
Lee, William. The Inspiration of the Scriptures. Its Nature and Proof. 8vo, pp. 

478. New York, 1876. 
Lewis, Tayler. The Divine Human in the Scriptures. 12mo, pp. 400. New York, 

1860. (Holds that the language of the Bible is, in a certain sense, inspired, and 

yet rejects verbal inspiration.) 
Liber Librorum: its Structure, Limitations, and Purpose. 16mo, pp. 232. New 

York, 1867. (Holds that reason enlightened by the Spirit is the verifier of rev- 
elation.) 
Lord, Eleazer. The Plenary Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. 12mo. New York, 

1858. (Takes an extreme view.) 
Lord, Eleazer. Inspiration not Guidance nor Tuition ; or, the Plenary Inspiration 

of the Holy Scriptures. Second Series. 12mo, pp. 331. New York, 1858. 
Lord, Eleazer. The Prophetic Office of Clirist as Related to the Verbal Inspiration 

of the Holy Scriptures. 12 mo, pp. 154. New York, 1859. 
Lowth, Wm. A Vindication of the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the Writings 

of the Old and New Testaments. 8vo. Oxford, 1692. (An answer to Le Clerc.) 
Mahan, Milo. Palmoni ; or, the Numerals of Scripture a Proof of Inspiration. A 

Free Inquiry. 12mo. New York, 1863. 
Manly, Basil. The Bible Doctrine of Inspiration Explained and Vindicated. 12mo. 

New York, 1888. 
M'Gaul, Alexander. Testimony to the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the 

Holy Scriptures, as Taught by the Church of England. 12mo. London, 18C2. 
iTLeod, Alexander. View of Inspiration. 12mo. Glasgow, 1827. 
Moore, James Lovell. Inspiration of the New Testament. 8vo. London, 1793. 
Morell, J. D. The Philosophy of Religion. 12mo, pp. 359. New York, 1849. 

(Chapter vi treats of inspiration.) 
Noble, S. Plenary Inspiration of the Scriptures Asserted. Bvo. London, 1856. 
Owen, John. The Divine Original and Plenary Inspiration of Scripture. Works, 

Vol. IX. Philadelphia, 1871. 
Price, Jacob Embury. The Book Divine ; or, How Do I Know the Bible is the Word 

of God ? New York, 1889. (Prepared for popular use.) 
Rennell, Thomas. Proof of Inspiration ; or. Grounds of Distinction between the 

N'CW Testament and the Apocryphal New Testament. 8vo. London, 1822. 
Rowe, C. A. The Nature and Extent of Divine Inspiration. 8vo, pp. 439. London, 

1864. 
Ryle, John Charles. Bible Inspiration. Its Reality and Nature. 2d ed. London, 

1883. 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 243 

Scott, Thomfis. A vindication of the Divine Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures and 
of the Doctrines Contained in thera ; being an answer to the two parts of Mr. T. 
Paine's Age of Reason. 18ino, pp. 202. London, 1197. 

Smith, J. A. The Spirit in the "Word: or, Letters to a Bible Class on the Canon of 
Scripture and its Interpretation. 16mo. Chicago, 1865. 

Spring, Gr. The Bible not of Man ; Divine Origin of Scripture drawn from the Scrip- 
tures themselves. 12 mo. New York, 1847. 

Wakefield, Gilbert. An Essay on Inspiration : Considered Chiefly with respect to 
the Evangelists. 8vo, pp. 4!). "Warrington and London, 1781. (Lays down 
the proposition that all that is necessary for the validity of any relation of tacts 
is — a sound understanding — competent information and integrity of heart.) 

Warington, George. The Inspiration of Scripture; its Limits and Effects. 16mo, 
pp. 284. London, 1867. 

"Whytehead, Robert. The "Warrant of Faith : or, a Hand-book to the Canon and In- 
spiration of the Scriptures. 12mo. London, 1854. 

"Woods, Leonard. Lectures on the Inspiration of the Scriptures. 12mo. Andover, 
1829. 

"Wordsworth, Christopher. On tlie Inspiration of Scripture ; or, the Canon of the 
Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha. 8vo, pp. 447. London, 1851. 



244 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, 

SECTION XIX. 

EXEGESIS. 

Exegesis, as an art product, accomplishes that for which herrae 
Deflnition of Tieutics, the theory, lays down the rules, and toward 
exegesis. which the other auxiliary sciences direct their efforts, 

namely, the exposition of holy Scriptures, based on comprehension 
of the languages and antiquities involved. 

Reference must be made for the sake of clearness to the terms 

in common use, though in this as in many other instances the usage 

is arbitrary. The words epiirjvela smd e^^yrjaig have at bottom the 

^. ^. . ^ ^ same meaning • but exegesis has come to denote the 
Distinguished ^ ° ^ . ° . 

from herme- action of the expositor himself, and hermeneutics the 
neuics. theory of the art of exposition. 

In the broad sense of the term, exegesis includes both the inter- 
inciudes both pretation and the explication of Scripture. The former 
interpretation of these confines its endeavors solely to the apprehend- 

dnd explica.- 

tion. ing of facts narrated by an author, or of doctrines pre- 

sented by him, in a purely objective light; while the latter brings 
them into relation with other facts or doctrines, or possibly with 
the judgment of the expositor himself with respect to the facts as 
stated, or the doctrines as presented. Mere interpretation will, ac- 
cordingly, be less susceptible to influence from the individual views 
of the expositor than explication, which is more open to the infu- 
sion of elenients derived from his subjectivity. The former cor- 
responds to translation, and is its authentication; the latter finds its 
expression in paraphrases. 

We follow the accepted usage, though it might well be reversed, 
since the expositor in fact does nothing more than simply explain 
the meaning and throw light upon what is dark, while the inter- 
preter still further subdivides and spreads out the matter that has 
been explained.* Thus it is said of a preacher that he knows how 
to interpret a text when he not only clears up what is dark to the 
mind, but when he at the same time develops in every direction 
what has been made plain, for the purpose of a fuller understand- 
ing of it. In the terminology of the science, however, the words 
have come to bear the above signification. The work of the inter- 

* Comp. Eberhard, Synon. Handvoorterhwch^ s. v. erklaren, auslegen, deuten, p. 1 01 ; 
Ast, p. 184: "To explain is to develop and lay down the meaning; for explanation 
presumes understanding and rests upon it, since only what has been rightly conceived 
and comprehended, what is understood, can be imparted and explained as such to 
others." 



PREDISPOSITION NOT ALWAYS PREJUDICE. 245 

pres is ended when the author's meaning has been simply stated,' 

€. a., when it has been shown that he records a mir- „^ , ^. 

. ^ . . The functions 

at-le, or that he teaches a certain doctrine. The com- of the mter- 

mentator, however, goes further, seeking to understand tor^^commen- 
how the author came to narrate and teach as he does, tator dis tin- 
He compares him with himself, with his contempora- ^"^^ 
ries, with the spirit of the time in which he lived (historical, as 
contrasted with merely grammatical exposition), and he finally 
brings practically what he has ascertained into connexion with 
the sum total of tlie facts possessed. This will indicate the extent 
to which it is possible to speak of pure objectivity in connection 
with exegesis. Interpretation must certainly remain independent 
of every existing dogmatical system,'* and it has become interpretation 
increasingly so in recent times. Rationalism especially should be inde- 
has ceased to dispose of miracles, by perverting them, dogmatical sys- 
in the way of an exegesis framed to favor its system. *^°^s- 

It would even appear that the negative tendency of the present 
day finds, in connection with its so-called avoidance of predisposi- 
tion, a special pleasure in placing a greater burden in this respect 
on the biblical writers than is admitted to belong to ^Yhe so-caiied 
ihem by an unprejudiced exegesis, in order, however, avoidance of 
it must be admitted, to afterward throw overboard the sition" aprej- 
whole, as being without substance and meaning^. But ^*^^^* 
this very absence of predisposition is governed by a prejudice, that 
of "modern culture," and this has its influence upon exposition, 
even though the interpretation may not be affected thereby. In- 
stead of quietly, and with unbiassed spirit, entering upon the sub- 
ject in hand, the exposition assumes a hostile attitude toward the 
writer at the beginning, and treats him with injustice. The school 
w^hich occupies the purely grammatical and historical point of ob- 
servation, and abstains from judging at all, avoids such impas- 
sioned courses, and its position is certainly more worthy of respect 

^ On the distinction between sense, signification, and understanding, see Sehleier- 
macher, Hermeneutik, p. 41. 

^ '' To ascertain the contents of Scripture in obediencie to the accepted views of tke 
Church remains, despite all exceptions and provisos, a dishonest procedure from the 
outset, by which we have before we seek^ and find what we already have." — Meyer, 
preface to Krit.-exeget. Handb.^ 2 ed., p. 12, sq. " Seek to discover the real meaning 
of your author by the use of all proper means at your command ; lend him nothing 
that is yours, but take nothing from what is his. Never insist upon what he should 
say, but never be alarmed at what he does say." — Riickert (see Rheinwald, Repert. 
1839, 5. p. 9*7). Comp. Kling in Stud. u. Krit, 1839. Bengel cries to the expositor 
of the Scriptures, in similar language, " Non timide, non temere," and adds the 
counsel, "Te totum applica ad textum et totum textum applica ad te." 



24G SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

in both a moral and a scientific light. But is it satisfactory? 
Does not the ultimate and really scientific profit consist 
position essen- in transforming what learned industry has discovered 
ri htinte *^re! ^^^^ ^ possession of the mind? Why concern myself 
tation of the about an author who is nothing to me, and who confers 
^^^^^' nothing upon me, and with whom I am not inwardly 

conscious of being in any wise connected ? As only a poetic intel- 
lect is capable of interpreting a poet, so is a religious disposi- 
tion the only one that can apprehend and understand a religious 
writer, or, more particularly, only a Christian intellect can cor- 
rectly render a Christian author. And as the letters of an ab- 
sent member of the family are understood in their profoundest 
meaning at home, while the stranger finds in them a mere surface 
matter too tedious for consideration, so is it with these writings of 

^ ._,, , the ffift conferred by love divine.' The exegete w^ill 

The spirit of o •' n -i • i • t, 

the true exe- accordingly reveal the bottom of his heart m the man- 

^^^^' ner in which he explains his author, and his subjectivity 

will be a disturbing element so long only as it remains out of har- 
mony with the key tone of the spirit of the Bible." This does not 
imply that the exegete must, from the first, make an unconditional 
surrender of his own thoughts. He should retain sufficient men 
tal independence and freedom from prejudice to properly esti- 
mate the personal peculiarities of his author, and whatever may 
belong to his individual culture, his relations to his age, etc. He 
may, in one respect, occupy a position above his author, while in 
another he must be subordinate to him. Here, too, a living inter- 

' " Verily I say unto you that Lord Byron would, with a scanty knowledge of the 
Hebrew language, have given a rendering of the chief penitential psalm of David 
(the fifty-first) superior to that of many of the most celebrated grammarians." Um- 
breit (Review of Tholuck's Comment zu d. Psalmen, in Stud, u. Krit.^ 1845, 1, p. 
177). 

2 " He who lacks a profound apprehension and a living conception must, with every 
degree of technical skill for interpreting Nature or the holy Scriptures of the New as 
well as the Old Testament that he may possess,. remain a bungler who gnaws away at 
the shell and never penetrates to the intellectual heart in which the idea sparkles in 
its^everlasting truth." Umbreit in Stud. u. Krit., 1832, No. 3, p. 656. Usteri {Comm. ilher 
d. Brief, an d. Galater^ p. vi) expresses a similar opinion : " It appears to me that the 
grammatico-historical principle is merely the conditio sine qua non, or the negative rule 
of interpretation ; the positive task of the exegete seems to me to require, so to speak, 
that he should sink himself wholly into the spirit of the author, in order that the 
picture drawn in the Scripture, with its accessories of time and place, may afterward 
be held up before the I'eader's eye in the light of his researches in language and 
matters of fact." Comp. Billroth, Comm. t%i d. Brief en a. d. Corinther, p. v. ; Liicke 
in Stud. 11. Krit., 1834, 4, pp. 769-71 ; Schleiermacher, Herm., p. 50; Bunsen,6^o« tn 
d. Geschichtc, p. 122, sqq. ; Krauss, supra. 



THE APPLICATION OF EXEGESIS. • 247 

action, a sympathetic yielding to the spirit of the work, and an 
incorporation of the results of the inquiry with what before existed, 
are needed to further the exposition/ It is apparent, as a general 
truth, that exegesis is not finished at one effort. He who complete exe- 
reads an author for the tenth time, and the hundredth ^®f^ ^*^p^,°^: 

' ent on spiritual 

time, will explain him otherwise than he who reads but growth. 
once.' Such multifarious intellectual activity in the work of exegesis, 
such harmonizing of the grammatico-historical with the higher, ideal, 
and sympathetically religious interpretation, has been termed panhar- 
monic interpretation, (Germarus), and subsequently the name pneu- 
tnatic has come into favor (Beck). The word is of no importance; 
but our age largely feels and acknowledges that while the human 
standpoint must be retained in the explaining of the human ele- 
ment in the Scriptures (which will ever be the necessary barrier 
against all the perversions of superstition), the Holy Spirit himself 
must in the final instance be the real interpreter of his words, the 
angelus interpres who opens for us the meaning of the Bible.^ 

SECTION XX. 

THE APPLICATION OF EXEGESIS. 

The application of the Scriptures finally should carefully be 

distinsjuished from both the interpretation and the „ . 

f . ... ' . Scnpture,wheii 

exposition ; for while it is based upon the former, it interpreted, to 

yet belongs, according to its nature, to a different de- appiied^^^^^^^^ 
partment — the practical. 

The holy Scriptures were at first explained for devotional pur- 
poses — the Old Testament by the writers of the New, and both 
the New and the Old by the Church fathers, although some among 
the latter already began to distinguish between practical and sci- 
entific exposition. It is still the ottice of exegetical study to pro- 
duce fruit for the benefit of the Church, of the exegesis of the 
schools to serve the exegesis of the pulpit, a principle practical exe- 
often overlooked from a spirit of scientific supercilious- gesis the re- 
ness. But is scientific exegesis to govern itself from the entinc. 

^ So Liicke also speaks of a mental disposition on the part of the exegete to im- 
merse himself in, and to emerge from, the spirit of the work he seeks to explain 
Comp. Herm. Sehultz, Tiber doppelt.^ Schriftsinn, {Stud. ti. Krit., 1866, 1, p. 37). 

^ Thus Luther boasts that he had read the Bible through twice a year for several 
years, and that he had each time beaten off a few more fruits from its branches and 
twigs. 

' According to Luther (comp. Liicke's Supplement to Neander in his N. T. Herme- 
nentik\ or, according to Flaccius, "In order that God himself should remain the 
supreme Lord and Judge in all controversies and debated questions." In Pelt, p 
1T5. 

17 



248 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

outset by the demands of the pulpit, so as to accept from the start 
the idea that the interpretation which will best promote the work 
of edification is the true one ? Or is a special kind of interpreta- 
tion (with Kant '), the churchly-practical (or, in his language, the 
moral), to be established beside the scientific in such a way that both 
shall remain independent of each other ? Neither of these. Prac- 
tical exegesis must result from scientific, and a conscientious 
preacher will present no interpretation to the people which cannot 
be scientifically justified. Such an interpretation could lay no 
claim to the title " moral," but would be thoroughly immoral, like 
every thing that is not of the truth. The preacher should, how- 
ever, bring the truth oi Scripture to bear in every direction 
upon the religious needs of the age and congregation. He should 
Process by eliminate, from the immediate surroundings in which 
whichexege^is j^ -^ f^^j^jj ^^y tlie exegete, the passage of Scripture 
ticai. upon which his remarks are based, and without doing 

violence to its original meaning, should endeavor, now to generalize 
its teaching, and again to apply it to the most individual and spe- 
cial matters, so as to transform what is outwardly and historically 
given into a picture of inward states, and into an exponent of the pres- 
ent situation; for what was said to the Churches at Rome, Corinth, 
Philippi, etc., is still said by the Spirit to the Churches of to-day. 

It Av^ould, however, be a serious confounding of different de- 
partments for scientific exegesis to apprehend the statements im- 
mediately in their subjective application to human conditions,'^ as 

^ Religion inncrhalb d. Grenzen d. blossen Vernunft, Konigsb., 2 ed., 1*794, p. 158, 
sq(j. ; per contra^ Rosenmiiller's Bemerkungen^ Erl., 1794. 

* This applies especially to the Old Test., where it is the task of exegesis to appre- 
hend the writer from out of his own age, and to comprehend even the so-called Mes- 
sianic sections in their immediate historical surroundings. While it furnishes the 
threads which lead over into the New Test., it must yet refer their connection to other 
branches, and never should " Old Test, exegesis in its known scientific and artistic 
limitations be confounded with the retrogressive Christian inquiries which have their 
starting-point in the New Testament," (Umbreit, siipra^ against v. Meyer and his 
school). A different view in Kurtz, Gesch. des Alien Bundes, p. 8 : " The nature of 
prophecy is entirely misunderstood when its principal importance is found in the 
service it renders to Christianity — in which, of course, all prophecy comes to its ful- 
filment — by attesting its divine origin. Christianity would be in an unfortunate pre- 
dicament, were it still unable to dispense with the attestation derived from the actual 
fulfilment of predictions, and it would be even worse for prophecy were it to remain 
without meaning and significance until hundreds or thousands of years should have 
passed away. Prophecy is designed — every other signification is secondary and sub- 
ordinate to this — to open up the understanding of the present, its position and its duty, 
not only the immediate present in which it was first given, but also eve7\i/ subsequent 
preaent (?) to the extent to which the latter has substantially the same basis, the same 
needs, and the same task." 



RELIGIOUS EARNESTNESS IN EXEGESIS. 240 

the preacher is authorized to apprehend them, or for the preacher 
to timidly content himself with the most immediate and apparent 
meaning of the letter.^ The scientific expositor may likewise 
ex-plain the writer to the edifying of his hearers; but this is assur- 
edly not done by entering upon edifying observations, or by con- 
structing a patchwork of passages taken from ancient and modern 
ascetics. He must rather proceed by a quiet stating and unfolding 
of the sense of Scripture which confines itself within self-imposed 
limitations, and in this he resembles and excels the mathematician, 
who is able, by the cogency of his proofs, even to excite the feelings 
of persons who attentively follow his demonstration. Hints rela- 
ting to the further praciical development may be given in connec- 
tion with scientific exegesis,'* but the practical work, in the proper 
sense, and for homiletical purposes, belongs to practical theology. 
It follows, accordingly, that interpretation, exposition, and appli- 
cation, reach over into a further theological field, the interpreta- 
tion into history, exposition into dogmatics, and application into 
practical theology. 

SECTION XXI. 

THE METHOD OF APPLYING EXEGESIS. 

In the carrying forward of exegesis it may be handled either 
cursorily or statedly. Both modes of instruction are to be united. 
The use of learned commentaries will be of real value com^nentaries 
to him only who has tried his own powers in the way not to be too 
of exposition ; for too many aids rather confuse than ™"^ 
guide aright, and the beginner needs to be on his guard against 
relying upon the authority of others as greatly as against a mis- 
taken striving after originality. A moral and religious earnest- 
ness when approaching the holy Scriptures, and a mind decidedly 
devoted to the cause of the Bible and Christianity, will be the 
most efficient aids to preserve him from error and to secure that 
self-renunciation without which no work of real greatness can be 
accomplished. 

^ Rosenkranz, Encykl, 1 ed., p. 125: "The distinction . between popular and scien- 
tific exposition lies in the reference to the original limitation of the sense. The 
former must be governed by the principle of treating the sense of Scripture in as 
fruitful and manifold a way as is admissible : it may freely make every addition to 
the text that it will bear, avoiding only what is strained and directly perverted. The 
latter, on the other hand, is to ascertain the sense of Scripture which it was origin- 
ally designed to bear." Comp. Yinet, Homiletics, pp. 146, ff^ who distinguishes 
between amplification and paraphrase, so that the former would be suitable for prac- 
tical use, but not the latter. Comp., too, Hagenbach, Pref. to Festpredigten, Basic, 
1830, ix-xi. 

' De Wette, Prakt. Erkl'drung der Psalmen. 



250 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Before entering upon theology the student should have read his 
Bible through many times, and especially the New Testament, 
while the more important parts should have been perused in the 
, original. Private reading should be also regularly 
self-training in continued while the course of theological study is pur- 
exegesis. sued ; for we are to live in the Scripture, as it were to 

arise and lie down in it. Thus only can we receive living impres- 
sions from it; while if it be regarded solely as the object of purely 
scientific inquiry it will remain external to our minds, and not be 
inwardly assimilated with our being. Let, furthermore, the thought 
be banished, that it is necessary from the beginning to intrench 
one's self behind a wall of commentaries. This has the appearance 
of greater thoroughness than is warranted by the truth, and it often 
becomes impossible to see the forest because of the mass of trees. 
It is better to practice the writing of translations of the section to 
be explained, and it may be well even for instructors to precede or 
follow their expositions with an English or Latin translation. 
The latter will be more suitable in proportion as the version par- 
takes of the nature of a paraphrase, the former (i. e., the writ- 
ing by the student,) as it is confined to a mere verbal rendering, 
which itself needs further explanation. It will be also useful to 
look up and compare the parallels adduced in connection with 
the lecture, and carefully to compare the quotations in the New 
Testament from the Old with the original and the LXX. before 
entering upon the use of commentaries. It is a grave error to 
suppose that the task of exegesis is confined to the selection of one 
from among the different versions which already exist, rather than 
to engaging in personal investigation and examining with an inde- 
pendent eye.^ 

When, however, additional helps are employed it will still be 
Addlt* onai advantageous to consult those chiefly which, after the 
helps to self- manner of the scholiasts, afford grammatical and Ijis- 
training. torical aid (Schoettgen, Lightfoot, Grotius, Wolf, Ben- 

gel), and only subordinately those which develop the writer's train 
of thought in his peculiar fashion.'^ The latter should form the 

* In harmony with this, Melanchthon, Postille II, 626, already counsels, " Amate doc- 
trinam et scripta Pauli et saepe legite ; id magis proderit, quam si legatis raagnos 
acervos coram entariorum. Qui ordinem observat in Epistolis Pauli et saepe relegit, 
plus discit, quam qui multos evolvit commentaries." Gaussenius, diss. 1, p. 26 : 
*'Atque illud est, quod soleo studiosis usque ad fastidium inculcare, ut ad commen- 
tarios non adeant, quin prius illis aqua haereat neque ultra possint in loci examine 
proprio remigio pergere," 

' " Caeterum, cum commentarios dico, eos intelligo, qui scripturam brevibus ad 
sensum literalem accommodatis observationibus illustrant ; non qui occasione scrip- 



HISTORY OF INTERPRETATION. 251 

crown of the industrious research. On the other hand, the false 
ambition to construct new and independent expositions will be less 
prevalent where the number already extant is not known (if 
known it could now excite nothing more thMn a desire to add an- 
other one to the many already in existence), and the confirmation 
given by an approved exegete, who is afterward consulted, to the 
results obtained by our own independent effort, will only serve to 
increase our satisfaction. This does not mean, however, that in 
every instance the support of some learned authority is necessary 
to warrant confidence in the explanation arrived at by independent 
effort; for we must, as Protestants, admit that liew expositions, 
that is to say, such as are more thoroughly sustained by the lan- 
guage and historical data, are always possible, in proportion as 
philology and historical studies advance among us, although dis- 
trust of our own powers of observation, which cannot be too 
highly recommended, should lead us in such matters to apply the 
strictest and most searching tests. In this regard, too, a straight- 
forward, simple disposition is often able to discover the best 
method.* Woe to him who converts the Bible into a medium for 
exhibiting his vanity ! To him truth in its pureness will certainly 
not be disclosed, even though he should succeed in extracting some 
particulars which cover him with an ephemeral distinction. But 
blessed is the exegete by whose side, as by that of the picture of 
St. Matthew, the evangelist, the angel stands with a face of infan- 
tile innocence and unprejudiced acceptance of the truth! 

Sketch of the History of Interpeetation. 

Comp. Diestel, supra. 
The exposition of the Bible, as has already (sec. xx) been remarked, 
was at first intended to meet a practical want. It was j^rst exposi- 
of primary importance to master the contents of the sa- ^^^^^ ^whofiy 
cred books. To settle their original form, and distinguish practical. 

turae suas, quas locos communes vulgo vocant (ihre Dogmatik) in medium protru- 
dunt, quibusque adeo libri sacri non tam sunt commentaiiorum argumentum, quam 
praejudiciorum loci quidam atque indices." — Gaussenius 1, 1, p. 2Y. 

^ " Certe, quemadmodura vina, quae sub primam calcationem molliter defluunt, sunt 
suaviora, quam quae a torculari exprimuntur, quoniam baec ex acino et cute uvae 
aliquid sapiant, similiter salubres admodum et suaves sunt doctrinae, quae ex Scrip- 
turis leniter expressis emanant, nee ad controversias . . . trahuntur." — Baco Verul. 
de augmentis scientiar. IX, p. 488. Sam, Werenfels, in the Dissertation mentioned 
below, likewise warns against those who rather seek their argutiolas, allegoriolas, 
allusiunculas, etc., in the Scriptures than the direct and simple meaning. The sim- 
ple lay-mind occasionally finds the true goal more readily than the vision of the 
learned exegete befogged with the vapors of the school. 



252 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

the consciousness of the time of their origin from that of a later 
period was reserved to become the task of a subsequent reflective 
age. (Comp. Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, p. 186, sqq.) But after the 
Jews, particularly those of Alexandria, became acquainted with 
the wisdom of the Greeks, they were, above all, concerned to show 
that the divine, with which they believed themselves here also to 
be in contact, was grounded in the Scriptures, and to discover the 
germs of a profound gnosis beneath its humble guise ; on the other 
hand, their Palestinian brethren held fast to the historical inter- 
pretation. The former tendency led to the allegorical method,* 
Rise of the which must be regarded as a stage in the natural de- 
alt egoricai velopment of the history of Bible exposition, rather 
Srp-efauon!"" than as the arbitrary invention of certain persons. 

When Christianity had been introduced into the world, and the 
prophecies and expectations of former times had thus been realized, 
it was natural that an age, yet wholly under the influence of the 
mighty impression which the appearance of Christ had left behind, 
should find the Messiah everywhere in the Old Testament, and 
should discover traces of his beino- in the most incidental matters. 
"The brighter and more glorious the light which Jesus shed over 
the Old Testament at large and as a whole, for the Israelites who 
had learned to believe in him, the more confident were they that 
every particular in the sacred book, however dark, would receive 
light from the same source." (Rothe, p. 196.) Every red cord 
became a type of the blood that was shed, and every thing that 
even remotely resembled a cross was held to prefigure the cross on 
Calvary. (Comp. Barnabas, Justin Martyr, et al.) This was the 
case even before Origen (f A. D. 254). He was not the discoverer 
Or I gen the of the allegorical interpretation, but the first among 

ciiief of the ai- Christians^ to raise it into a canon, and to assiern to it 

legoncal inter- ^ . ' * . 

preters. a place approved by science, beside the grammatico- 

historical method. The contrast between the allegorical and the 
grammatico-historical methods now became apparent, and Origen 
sought to harmonize this contrast. He taught a threefold sense in 

^ The word uXXriyopilv^ from uXko and dyopevsiv, is found in Gal. iv, 24 (part): 
*' The most hurtful diversion in this direction is the cabalistic interpretation, which, 
in the effort to find every thing in every thing, turns to particular elements and their 
signs." Schleiermacher, Herrneneutik, p. 23. It likewise originated among the Jews 
after the captivity (the book Sohar), and passed over from them to the Christian 
world. Comp. Z. Frank el, Einjiuss d. Palaest. Ezegese auf d. Alexandr. Hermeneutik^ 
Leips. 1851, and Hirschfeld, Die Halachische Exegese^ Berl. 1840 ; Die Hogedische 
Exegese, Berl., 1847. 

' Among the Jews, Philo had previously made a conscious distinction between the 
esoteric and the exoteric sense. 



MIDDLE AGE EXEGESIS. 253 

Scripture (answering to the body, soul, and spirit in man) — the 

literal, the moral, and the spiritual. Whatever cannot ^ . , .^ 

' . ' ^ Origens three- 

be justified by the letter, as derogatory to the honor fold sense of 

of God and the liible, is to be explained allegorically. ^^''^p*"^®- 

The anagogical and the tropological are related to the allegorical 

(with reference to which further particulars are given in connection 

with the history of herrneiieutics). This Origenistic-Alexandrian 

hermeneutics was opposed in the fifth centur}^ however, rj,,^g school of 

by the more sober school of Antioch, whose representa- Antioch. 

tives, as opposed to the fanatical Cyril, were Diodorus of Tarsus, 

Theodore of Mopsuestia, John Chrysostom, Ephraem Syrus, and 

Theodoret. 

From this time the historico-theological method, which had 

been employed at an earlier date, however, was cultivated side 

bv side with the allegorical. Amonff Latin teach- ^^ 

^ .... The exegesis 

ers Jerome and Ambrose were distinguished in exege- of the Latin 

sis ; while Augustine owed his fame less to exegetical ^ ®^* 
learning and precision than to the originality and depth of intel- 
lect with which he dominated his age. fie, too, was partial to al- 
legorizing, and held to a fourfold sense in Scripture. Gregory the 
Great (f 604), the Bishop of Kome, was allied to Augustine. In- 
dependent research now gradually began to give way before the 
authority/ of the Church, and in proportion as people became accus- 
tomed to beMeve the Gospel through the Church, the traditional 
and churchly method of interpretation became general, and mu^t 
be considered another stage in the development. Nearly all the 
expositors during the Middle Ages held to this method. Middle Age ex- 
Collections of what good things and less good things e^esis. 
had been said by the Church teachers about the Scriptures (oelQaiy 
aatenae patriim) ' constituted the generally accepted authorities ; 
and, besides these, the mystics especially practised a fanciful alle- 
gorizing. 

The neglect of the study of the Bible and ignorance of the orig- 
inal languages dei)rived scholastic theology of an assured Scrip- 
tural basis. Importance attaches, however, to the Jewish Old Testa- 
ment expositors in the Middle Ages, especially after the eleventh 
century, e. g., the rabbins Jarchi, Aben Ezra, David and Moses Kim- 
ciii, Maimonides (R. Mose Ben Maimon, abbreviated Rambam), 
and others. Christian exegesis likewise liegan to appear after the 
study of Hebrew had been renewed among Christians through the 
influence of Nicholas Lyra (f 1340), Laurentius Valla (f 1457), and 
Reuchlin (f 1522), and after the spread of Greek literature conse- 
' On these exegetical collections see Herzog, Encykl.^ iv, p. 282, sqq. 



2-)4 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

quent upon the capture of Constantinople (1453). The stability of 
a traditional and Church interpretation, and the arbitrariness of a 
fanciful allegorical method, were again threatened by a sober, taste- 
ful, and philologically grounded exegesis as developed by Erasmus, 
which was adopted by the more intelligent minds of the century; 

bui a still broader ranse was ffiven to exegiesis by the 
Effect of the ^ ^ . t t T -. • , -, 

Reformation Keiormation. Luther directed attention to the deeper 
on exegesis. elements of the Scriptures, and prepared the way for 
the spiritualizing (pneumatic) mode of interpretation. His posi- 
tion as a tianslator of the Bible for the people is unique (Comp. 
note 9, infra. — Drs. M. JLutheri exegetica opera latina, curaveinint 
J. M. Irmischer et Hy. Schmidt, vol. xxii, Francof., 1860); but it 
should be remembered that he was aided by the more exact lin- 
guistic learning of Melanchthon and others. Zwingle, whose clas- 
sical training was of great value to him, proceeded with a more 
measured pace; but Calvin (see Tholuck, Verm. Schriften, part 2) 
was distinguished above all others for exegetical keenness and pre- 
cision. His pupil, Theodore Beza, proved a not unwor.hy associate 
in this work. 

The study of the Holy Scriptures was prosecuted, upon the 
whole, more generally in the Reformed Church than 
and Lutheran in the Lutheran, the latter giving larger attention 
exegesis. ^^ systematic theology; and Lutheran exegesis, more- 

over, again became dependent on the confessional teaching of the 
Church, thereby contradicting the principles of Protestantism; "for 
it is a fundamental proposition in the writings of the reformers 
that the interpretation of the Scriptures is independent of the dic- 
tum of the Church and of all human authority whatsoever." (Clau- 
sen, Ilermeneutik, p. 230.) The orthodoxy of the Reformed 
Churches likewise was exposed to the danger of establishing a 
The Remon- ^^^*^^*^ exegesis ; but the Remonstrants (Arminians) 
strants — Gro- who had come out of the Reformed Church, and among 
them especially Grotius, advocated the grammatico- 
historical principle, though often with a regard for facts that was 
but one sided. In opposition to that principle Coeceius defended 
the doctrine that a pregnant meaning lies everywhere in the Scrip- 
tures, which was applied with special fulness in the search for Mes- 
sianic features in the Old Testament. Sam. Werenfels, on the 
other hand, developed very sound hermeneutical principles in his 
Ernesti there- ^"'^'^ ^^ scopo interpretis, j>Tmted in the Opuscula. 
storer of sound Ernesti (f iVSl) is regarded in the German Lutheran 
exegesis. Church as the restorer of a grammatical and historical 

method of interpretation, independent of dogmatics.' The adher- 



DE WETTE, GESENIUS, AND WINER. 255 

ents of this method continually increased in numbers; it recom- 
mended itself to the spirit of the times, which yearned for emanci- 
pation from the yoke of orthodoxy. That spirit itself, however, 
succeeded only too speedily in enlisting the services of exegesis in 
its own behalf, and proceeded to vaunt its expositions Riseof neciog- 
as timely in proportion to their shallowness. Neology icai exegesis. 
— whether because it retained a remnant of respect for the author- 
ity of Holy Scripture, or because of fraudulent intentions — had 
long accustomed itself to find its system taught in the Bible. 
Miracles and mysteries, a number of which had been unnecessarily 
explained into the Bible by a former age, were now explained out 
of it and interpreted away by every conceivable art, often in oppo- 
sition to the most explicit language. The rationalists were not 
alone liable to this charge, however, for the supernaturalists, acting 
in the interests of apologetics, understood how to fit much of the 
Bible to their views, and in point of fact taught the rationalists this 
lesson (false and impracticable attempts at constructing harmonies). 
Kant endeavoured to restrain such indecorous behav- Kant's separa- 
iour by severing scientific (theological) from practical JcTrom^^etMcaJ 
(ethical) interpretation. The Church, however, could exegesis. 
not long support this unnntural separation, which, as has already 
been observed, even depends upon an immoral principle. The age 
strove to effect a reconciliation between science and life. The 
rationalistic school was purged by the influence of thorough exe- 
getical studies, and the loose methods of procedure in vogue were 
ended by a thorough philological discipline, such as Rise of the 
De Wette and Gesenius introduced in the Old Testa- ^^^^^ ^^^ ^l 
ment field, and Winer in the New. The conflict of senius. 
parties was relegated to the domain of dogmatics and the philoso- 
phy of religion, and the territory occupied by exegesis became 
neutral ground. The neutrality could not, however, be observed 
with entire strictness, for reasons developed above. The orthodox 
party again directed attention to the underlying sense of Scripture, 
which was not, however, to be ascertained by the setting aside of 
grammatical and historical facts, but by ascending to a loftier and 
more far reaching point of view. A glance over the exegetical 
literature of the most recent decades will, in fact, reveal a gratify- 
ing progress in this regard, even though there has been no lack of 
errors and deplorable lapses into the devious courses of former 
times. ^ 

* See articles on Interpretation in Kitto's Cyclopaedia, and the Biblical and Theo- 
logical Cyclopaedia of M'Clintock and Strong; also title "Interpretation," in Index 
of the Bibliotheca Sacra, p. 116. 



256 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

1. Commentaries on the Whole Bible. 

Calvin, John. Commentaries. 45 vols. Edinburgh: Calvin Trans. Society. 

Clarke, Adam. The Holy Bible, containing" the Old and New Testaments. The 
Text carefully printed from the most correct Copies of the present Authorized 
Translation, including the Marginal Readings and Parallel Texts, with a Com- 
mentary and Critical Notes. 6 vols., 8vo, pp. 884, 829, 902, 865, 920, 1070. 
New York, 1832. 

Cowles, Henry. Commentary on the "Whole Bible. 17 vols., 12mo. New York, 
1866-83. (A noteworthy feature is the incorporation in the Appendix of 
essays on special topics, such as the Atonement, Inspiration, Future Punisli- 
ment, and the Premillennial Advent ) 

Jeuks, Wm. The Comprehensive Commentary on the Holy Bible, containing the 
Text of the Authorized Version; Scott's Marginal References; Matthew Henry's 
Commentary, condensed, etc. 6 vols., 8vo. Supplement with Cruden's Con- 
cordance. Philadelphia, 1848. 

Lange, John Peter. A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures, Critical, Doctrinal, and 
Homiletical, with Special Reference to Ministers and Students, Translated from the 
German and Edited with Additions, Original and Selected, by Philip Schaff, in 
Connection with American Divines of Various Evangelical Denominations. 25 
vols., 8vo. New York, 1867-82. Genesis, with a General Introduction to the 
Old Testament", by J. P. Lange, Translated with Additions by Tayler Lewis and 
A. Gosman; Exodus, by C. M. Mead; Leviticus, by P. Gardiner, with General 
Introduction by H. Osgood ; Numbers, by J. P. Lange, Translated and Enlarged 
by Samuel T. Lowrie and A. Gosman ; Deuteronomy, by F. W. J. Shroeder, Trans- 
lated and Enlarged by A. Gosman; Joshua, by F. R. Fay, Translated, with Ad- 
ditions, by George R. Bliss ; Judges and Ruth, by Paulus Cassel, Translated, 
with Additions, by P. H. Steenstra ; Samuel, by C. F. D. Erdmann, Translated, 
Enlarged, and Edited by C. H. Toy and J. H. Broadus; Kings, by K. C. W. 
F. Bahr — Book I, Translated and Enlarged by Edwin Harwood ; Book II, 
Translated and Enlarged by W. G. Sumner ; Chronicles I and II, by Otto 
Zockler, Translated, Enlarged, and Edited by James G. Murphy; Ezra, by Fr. 
"W. Schultz, Translated, Enlarged, and Edited by Charles A. Briggs; Nehemiah, 
Translated by Howard Crosby; Esther, by Fr. W. Schultz, Translated, Enlarged, 
and Edited by James Strong ; Job, A Rhythmical Version, with an Introduction 
and Annotation by Tayler Lewis ; A Commentary by Otto Zockler, Translated 
from the German, with Additions, by L. J. Evans, together with an Introduc- 
tory Essay on Hebrew Poetry by Philip Schaff; The Psalms, by Carl Bernliard 
Moll, Translated, with Additions, by C. A. Briggs, John Forsyth, J. B. Ham- 
mond, and J. F. McCurdy, with a New Metrical Version of the Psalms and Philo- 
logical Notes by T. J. Conant ; Proverbs, by Otto Zockler, Translated by C. A. 
Aiken ; Ecclesiastes, by 0. Zockler, Translated by Wm. Wells, with Additions 
and a New Metrical Version by Tayler Lewis ; The Song of Solomon, by O. 
Zockler, Translated, with Additions, by W. H. Green ; Isaiah, by C. W. E. 
Naegelsbach, Translated, with Additions, by Samuel T. Lowrie and Dunlop 
Moore; Jeremiah, by C. W. E. Naegelsbach, Translated and Enlarged by S. R. 
Asbury; Lamentations, by C. W. K. Naegelsbach, Translated and Enlarged by 
W. H, Hornblower ; Ezekiel, by F. W. J. Schroedor, Translated, Edited, and 
Enlarged by Patrick Fairbairn and William Findlay, aided by Thomas Crerar 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 257 

and Sinclair Manson ; Daniel, Translated, Edited, and Enlarged by Jan>es Strong; 
The Minor Prophets, Hosea, Joel, and Amos, by Otlo SclimoUer, Translated, with 
Additions, by James E. McCiirdy, John Forsyth, and Talbot W. Chambers^ 
respectively ; Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah, by Paul Kleinert, Translated, with 
Additions, by Charles Elliott ; Haggai, by James E. McCurdy ; Zechariah, by 
T. W. Chambers ; Malachi, by Joseph Packard ; Index to the 14 vols, oa the 
Old Testament by B. Pick; Matthew, with a General Introduction to the New 
Testament, by J. P. Lange, Translated, with Additions, by Philip Schaff ; Mark, 
by J. P. Lange, Revised from the Edinburgh Translation, with Additions by W. 
G. T. Shedd ; Luke, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, Translated, with Additions, by Philip 
Schaff and Charles C. Starbuck; John, by J. P. Lange, Translated by E. D. 
Yeomans and Evelina Moore, with Additions hy E. R. Craven and Philip Schaff*; 
Acts, by G. V. Lechler and Charles Gerok, Translated, with Additions, by C. F. 
Schaeffer; Romans, by J. P. Lange and F. R. Fay, Translated by J. F. Hurst, 
Revised and Enlarged by P. Schaff and M. B. Riddle ; Corinthians, by Christian 
F. Kling, Translated, with Additions, by D. W. Poor; Galatians, by Otto 
Schmoller, Translated by C. C. Starbuck, with Additions by M. B. Riddle ; 
Pliilippians, by Karl Braune, Translated and Enlarged by H. B. Hackett; 
Ephesians and Colossians, by Karl Braune, Translated and Enlarged by M. B. 
Riddle; Thessalonians, by Auberlen and Riggenbach, Translated, with Additions, 
by John Llllie; Timothy, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, Translated, with Additions, 
by E. A. Washburn and E. Harwood ; Titus, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, Translated, 
with Additions, by George E. Da}'- ; Philemon, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, Trans- 
lated, with Additions, by H. B. Hackett ; Hebrews, by Carl B. Moll, Translated, 
with Additions, by A.C. Kendrick ; James, by J. P. Lange, J. J. Van Oosterzee; 
Peter, by P. F. C. Fronmiiller; John, by Karl Braune; Jude, by P. S. C. Fron- 
muller, all translated, with Additions, by Isidor Mombert; The Revelation of 
John, by J. P. Lange, Translated by Evelina Moore, Enlarged and Edited by 
E. R. Craven; together with Alphabetical Index to the ten vols, on the New 
Testament by John H. Woods. 

Nicoll, W. Robertson. The Expositor's Bible. A Series of Expository Lectures on 
all the Books of the Bible. 8vo. 30 vols. New York, 1891-92. Genesis, by 
Marcus Dods; Exodus, by G. A. Chad wick ; Leviticus, by S. H. Kellogg; 
Judges and Ruth, by R. A. Watson; I and II Samuel (in 2 vols.), by W. G. 
Blaikie; Job, by R. A. Watson; Psalms, by A. Maclaren; Proverbs, by R. P. 
Horton ; Ecclesiastes, by Samuel Cox ; Isaiah (in 2 vols.), by G. A. Smith ; Jere- 
miah, by C. J. Ball ; Matthew, by J. Monroe Gibson ; Mark, by G. A. Chadwick; 
Luke, by Henry Burton ; John (in 2 vols.), by Marcus Dods ; Acts (in 2 vols.), 
by G. F. Stokes; I Corinthians, by Marcus Dods; Galatians, by G. G. Findlay; 
Ephesians, by G. G. Findlay; T and II Thessalonians, by James Denney ; Pas- 
toral Epistles, by A. Plummer ; Colossians and Philemon, by A. Maclaren ; 
Hebrews, by C. T. Edwards; James and Jude, by A. Plummer; Epistles of John, 
by W. .Mexander; Revelation, by William Millisran. 

Perowne, John J. S. The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. 27 vols., 
16mo. London. (A series of commentaries on the books of the Bible.) 

Poole, Matthew. Annotations upon the Whole Bible. 3 vols., royal Svo, pp. 1030, 
1008. New York, 1880. 

Spence, H. D. M., and Exell, Joseph S. The Pulpit Commentary. London and New 

York, 1880-92. 28 vols., 8vo. Genesis, by T. Whitelaw, with an Introduction 

to the Study of the Old Testament by W. F. Farrar, and an Introduction to the 

Pentateuch by H. Cotterill ; Exodus, by G. Rawlinson ; Leviticus, by Fred. 

17 



258 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Meyrick; Numbers, by R. Witlierbothara ; Deuteronomy, by W. L. Alexander; 
Joshua, by J. J. Lias, and an Introduction to the Historical Books by A. Plum- 
mer; Judges, by A. C. Hervey; Ruth, by James Morrison; I and H Samuel, 
by R. Payne Smith ; I and II Kings, by Joseph Hammond; I and II Chronicles, 
by P. C. Barker; Ezra, Neliemiali, and Esther, by G. Rawlinson ; Job, by G. 
Rawlinson ; Proverbs, by W. J. Deaue ; Isaiah, by G. Rawlinson; Jeremiah, by 
T. K. Cheyne; Ezekiel, by E, H. Plumptre ; Hosea, by J. W. Deaue ; Joel, by S. J. 
Given; Matthew, by J. R. Lumby ; Mark, by E. Bickersteth; Luke, by Canon 
Spence ; John, by H R. Reynolds; Acts, by A. C. Hervey; Romans, by James 
Morrison ; I and II Corinthians, by W. P. Farrar ; Epliesians, by W. G. Blaikie; 
Philippians, by J. J. S. Perowne ; Colossians, by G. G. Findlay ; I and II Thes- 
salonians, by P. J. Gloag ; I and TI Timothy, by E. H. Perowne ; Titus, by J, S. 
Howson; Philemon, by S. J. Eales; Hebrews, by A. B. Bruce; James, by W. 
F. Moulton ; I and II Peter, by David Brown ; I, II, and III John, by A. Plura- 
mer ; Revelation, by A, Plummer, 

The Apocrypha of the Old Testament, with Historical Introductions, a Revised Trans- 
lation, and Notes, Critical and Explanatory, by E. C. Bissell. 

The Holy Bible according to the Authorized Version (A. D. 1611). With an Explan- 
atory and Critical Commentary and a Revision of the Translation, by Bishops and 
other Clergy of the Anglican Church, Edited by F. C. Cook, M.A., Canon of Ex- 
eter. 10 vols. London and New York, 1871-81. Genesis, by E. H. Browne; 
Exodus, chapters i-xix, by F. C. Cook, and chapter xx to the end, by Samuel 
Clark; Leviticus, by Samuel Clark; Numbers and Deuteronomy, by T. E. 
Espin; Joshua, by T. E. Espin; Judges, Ruth, and Samuel, by Arthur Hervey; 
First Kings, by George Rawlinson ; Second Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, 
and Esther, by George Rawlinson; Job, by F. C. Cook; Psalms, by G. H. S. 
Johnson and C. J. Elliott; Proverbs, by E. H. Plumptre; Ecclesiastes, by W. T, 
Bullock; Song of Solomon, by T. L. Kingsbury; Isaiah, by "W.Kay; Jeremiah 
and Lamentations, by R. Payne Smith; Ezekiel, by G. Curry; Daniel, by H. J. 
Rose and J. M. Fuller; The Minor Prophets, by E. Huxtable, F. Meyrick, R. 
Gandell, Samuel Clark, F. C. Cook, and W. Drake; Matthew, by H. Longueville 
Mansell; Mark, by F. C. Cook; Luke, by W. Basil Jones and F. C. Cook, with 
a General Introduction by Wra. Thompson; John, Introduction, Commentary, 
and Critical Notes, by B. F. Westcott ^ Acts, Introduction by F. C. Cook, Com- 
mentary and Critical Notes by W.u. Jacobson ; Romans, by E. H. Gilford ; Corin- 
thians, by Evans and Joseph Waite ; Galatians, by J. S, Howson; Ephesians, 
by F. Meyrick ; Philippians, by J. Gwynn ; Colossians, Thessalonians, and Phile- 
mon, by Wm. Alexander ; Timothy and Titus, by H. Wace and John Jackson ; 
Hebrews, by W. Kay; James, by Robert Scott; John, by Wm. Alexander; 
Peter and Jude, by J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Lumby; Revelation, by Wm. Lee. 

Whedon, D. D. A Commentary on the Old and New Testaments. Intended for 
Popular Use. 13 vols., 12mo. New York, 1866. Old Testament not yet 
complete. 

Wordsworth, Christopher. The Holy Bible, in the Authorized Version. With Notes 
and Introduction. New ed. 7 vols., 8vo. London, 1864-72. 

2. Commentaries on the Old Testament. 
Barry, Alfred. The Parables of the Old Testament. 8vo. London, 1889. 
Eilicott, C. J. An Old Testament Commentary for Englisli Readers. By Various 
Writers. Edited by C. J, Eilicott, D.D., Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. 
■• 5 vols., 4to. London, 1882-84. 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 259 

Hengstenberg, E. W. Christology of the Old Testament and a Commentary on 

the Messianic Predictions. 4 vols., 8vo, pp. 523, 474, 410, 410. Edinburgh, 

1854-59. 
Hunter, P. H. After the Exile: A Hundred Years of Jewish History and Literature. 

Part I. The Close of tlie Exile to the Coming of Ezra. Edmburgh and London. 

1890. 
Keil, C. F., and Delitzsch, F. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. 25 vols., 

8vo. Edinburgh, 1864-78. 
Murphy, James 0. Critical and Exegetical Commentaries, with New Translations. 

4 vols., 8vo. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Psalms. London and Andover, 1863 

and years following. 

3. Commentaries on the New Testament 

Alford, Henry. New Testament for English Readers ; containing the Authorized 
Version, with a Revised English Text, Marginal References, and a Critical and 
Explanatory Commentary. New ed., 4 parts, or 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1868. 

Barnes, Albert. Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the New Testament, De- 
signed for Sunday-school Te.ichers and Bible Classes. 25th ed., revised and 
corrected. 11 vols., 12mo. New York, 1859. 

Bengel, John Albert. Gnomon of the New Testament. 3d ed., 5 vols., 8vo. Ed- 
inburgh, 1860. Also 2 vols., Svo. Philadelphia, 1874. 

Butler, J. G. The Bible- Reader's Commentary. The New Testament in Two 
"Volumes. The Text Arranged in Sections; with Brief Readings and Complete 
Annotations, selected from the "Choice and Best Observations" of more than 
Three Hundred Eminent Christian Thinkers of the Past and Present. Pp. 685, 
831. New York, 1879. 

Chrysostom, John. Homilies on the New Testament. 8vo. Oxford, 1848. 

Doddridge, Philip. The Family Expositor ; or, a Paraphrase and Version of the 
New Testament. Svo, pp. 1242. London, 1829. New ed., 1862. 

Ellicott, C. J. A New Testament Commentary for English Readers, by various 
writers. 3 vols. London, 1877-79. 6th ed. New York, 1884. 

Meyer, H. A. W. Commentary on the New Testament. An American Edition, 
with Preface, Notes, and Introduction by several Eminent American Scholars. 
11 vols., Svo. New York, 1890. Matthew, Edited by George R. Crooks; Mark 
and Luke, Edited by M. B. Riddle ; Jolm, Edited by A. C. Kendrick ; Acts, Edited 
by William Ormiston; Romans, Edited by Timothy Dwight; I and II Corinthi- 
ans, Edited by T. W. Chambers; Galatians and Ephesians, Edited by Henry E. 
Jacobs ; Philippians, Colossians, I and II Thessalonians and Philemon, Edited 
by Timothy Dwight ; I and II Timothy, Titus, and Hebrews, Edited by Timothy 
Dwight ; James, I and II Peter, I, II, and III John, and Jude, Edited by Tim- 
othy Dwight; Revelation, Edited by Henry E. Jacobs. 

Olshausen, Hermann. Biblical Commentary on the New Testament. First American 
ed., by A. C. Kendrick, to which is prefixed Olshausen's Proof of the Genuine- 
ness of the Writings of the New Testament, translated by D. Fosdick, Jr. 
6 vols., Svo, pp. 621, 624, 615, 586, 624, 624. New York, 1858. 

Riggs, Elias. Notes on Difficult Passages of tlie New Testament. 12mo, pp. 259. 
Boston, 1889. (Where a definite decision cannot be made he states fully the 
grounds of decision and doubt.) 

Schaff, Philip. A Popular Commentary on the New Testament, by English and 
American Scholars of Various Evangelical Denominations. In 4 vols., royal 
Svo. Profusely Illustrated. New York, 18T8 



2G0 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The International Revision Commentary on the New Testament. Based on the Re- 
vised Version of 1881. By Hlnglish and American Scholars, and Members of 
the Revision Comniittee. Edited by Philip Schatf, D.D., LL.D. An Abridged 
Edition of the P]ditor's " Popular Commentary." (A valuable work.) 

4. Parables and Miracles. 

Belcher, T. W. Our Lord's Miracles of Healing, Considered in Relation to Some 
Modern Objections and to Medical Science, with Preface by Archbishop Trench. 
12mo. London, 1872. 2d ed., revised. London, 1890. 

Bourdillon, Francis. Tlie Parables of our Lord Explained and Applied. 12roo. 
London, 1886; also New York. 

Bruce, A. B. The Miraculous Element in the Gospels. A Course of Lectures on 
the " Ely Foundation," delivered in Union Theological Seminary, 8vo, pp. 391. 
New York, 1886. 

Bruce, A. B. Tiie Parabolic Teaching of Christ: a Systematic and Critical Study of 
the Parables of our Lord. Svo, pp. 515. New York: Loudon, 1882. (The para- 
bles are arranged in three groups: (1) " Tfteoretic parables contaiuing the general 
truth concerning the Kingdom of God ; (2) the Evangelical parables, setting forth 
the divine goodness and grace as the source of salvation and the law of Christian 
life ; (3) the Prophetic parables, proclaiming the righteousness of God, as the 
Supreme Ruler, rewarding men according to their works.'') 

Drummond, D. T. K. The Parabolic Teaching of Christ ; or, the Engravings of the 
New Testament. Svo., pp. 440. New York, 1855. (The book is divided into 
six parts, namely: Tiie parables relating to the kingdom of darkness; those re- 
lating to the person and character of Christ; the salvation of the sinner; the re- 
ception and progress of the Gospel; the dispensation of the Gentiles; the second 
coming of Christ.) 

Goebel, Siegfried. The Parables of Jesus: a Methodical Exposition. Translated by 
John S. Banks. Edinburgh, 1883; also New York, 1883. 

Grcswell, E. B. D. Exposition of the Parables and other Parts of the Gospels. 5 vols., 
8vo. Oxford, 1834-35. (A work of great learning, famous in its day.) 

Laidlaw, J. The Miracles of our Lord. Expository and Homlletic. London, 
1890. 

Lisco, F. G. The Parables of Jesus Explained and Illustrated. From the German 
by the Rev. P. Fairbairn. 16rao, pp. 406. Edinburgh, 1848, (The train of 
thought contained in each parable is pointed out with great clearness.) 

Lonsdale, John G. Exposition of the Parables. Intended Chiefly for the Use of 
Teachers in Elementary Schools. 16mo, pp. 138. London, 1855. (Where the 
text occurs in more than one Gospel it is arranged in parallel columns,) 

Nevin, Alfred. The Parables of Jesus. 12mo, pp. 503. Philadelphia, 1881. 

Richey, Thomas. The Parables of the Lord Jesus, according to St. Matthew. Ar- 
ranged, Compared, and Illustrated. Svo, pp. 405. New York, 1888. 

Roberts, Arthur. Sermons on our Lord's Parables. Preached to a Village Congre- 
gation, 12mo, pp. 290. London, 1860. 

Steinmeyer, F. L. The Miracles of our Lord, in Relation to Modern Criticism. 
Translated from the German, by L, A. "Wheatley. Svo, pp. 274, Edinburgh, 
1875. (The miracles are divided into four groups : Miracles considered as signs 
of the kingdom of heaven; as symbols ; as witnesses of the power of the king- 
dom of heaven ; miracles as prophecies,) 

Taylor, William M, The Parables of our Saviour Expounded and Illustrated. Svo, 
New York, 1886. 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 261 

Trench, Richard Chenevix. Notes on the Miracles of our Lord. 8vo, pp. 375. New 
York, 1852, and in other editions. 

Tiench, Riciiard Chenevix, Notes on the Parables of our Lord. Svo, pp. 425, New 
York, 1850, and other editions. (The expUcations of the Parables are beauti- 
fully conceived and as beautifully expressed.) 

5. Commentaries on Particular Books, 

1. Old Testament. 

(a) The Historical Books. 

Ainsworth, Henry. Annotations on the Five Books of Moses, the Psalms, and the 
Song of Solomon. Folio. London, 1639. (One of the Brownists who was com- 
pelled to seek a rufuge in Holland. His annotations have been much quoted 
by scholars.) 

Alford, Henry. The Book of Genesis and Part of the Book of Exodus ; a Revised 
Version, with Marginal References and an Explanatory Commentary. Svo. 
London, 1872. 

Birks, T. R. The Exodas of Israel : Its Difficulties Explained and its Truths Con- 
firmed. Svo. 1863. 

Bush, George. Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of Genesis. Designed as 
a General Help to Biblical Reading and Instruction, 26th ed., 2 vols., 12mo, 
pp. XXXV, 338, 444. New York, 1863. Also on Exodus, Leviticus, Joshua, 
Judges, and Numbers, the whole with Genesis in S vols. 

Calvin, John. Commentaries on the First Book of Moses, called Genesis. Translated 
from the Original Latin, and compared with the French Edition. By John King. 
2 vols. Edinburgh, 1847-50. 

Davidson, A. B. Lectures, Expository and Practical, on the Book of Esther. Edin- 
burgh, 1859. 

Haley, John W. The Book of Esther. A New Translation, with Critical Notes, 
Excursuses, Maps and Plans, and Illustrations. Svo, pp, 200. Andover, 1885. 

Hervey, A. C. The Books of Chronicles in Relation to the Pentateuch and the 
"Higher Criticism." New York, 1892. 12mo, pp. 175. 

Howard, Henry E. J. The Books of Exodus and Leviticus according to the Version 
of the LXX. Translated into English, with notices of its omissions and inser- 
tions, and with notes on the passages in which it differs from our Authorized 
Translation. 12mo, pp. 408. Cambridge, 1857. (The exegesis is brief but 
scholarly.) 

Jacobus, M. "W. Notes on the Book of Genesis. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 304, 256. 
New York, 1865. Also on Exodus. 

Kalisch, M, M, Historical ?nd Critical Commentary on the Old Testament, with a 
New Translation. Vol. T, Genesis; Vol. II, Exodus; Vols. HI and IV, Levit- 
icus. London, 1858-72. 

Lumbj'', J. R. The First and the Second Book of Kings. "With Introduction and 
Notes. 12mo, pp. 310. London, 1887. 

Murphy, J. G. A Critical Commentary on the Book of Genesis, with a Translation. 
With a Preface by J. P. Thompson, D.D, 8vo, pp, 535. Andover, 1866. Also 
on Exodus, pp. 385, and Leviticus, pp. 318, both Svo. 

Watson, F. The Book of Genesis a True History. Svo. London, 1892. (Deals 
with questions raised by the Higher Criticism.) 

Wright, C. H. H, Book of Ruth in Hebrew. With Grammatical and Critical Com- 
mentary. Svo, London, 1864. 



263 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

(6) The Poetical Books. 

Alexander, Joseph Addison, The Psalms, Translated and Explained. 6th ed., 3 
vols., pp. xvi, 436, 349, 316. New York, 1866. 

Augustine. Exposition of the' Psalms. Translated, with Notes. 6 vols.. 8 vo. Ox- 
ford, J. H. Parker, 1848. 

Barnes, Albert. Notes, Critical, Illustrative, and Practical, on the Book of Job. 
With a New Translation and an Introductory Dissertation. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 
cxxvi, 311, 384. New York, 1857. New ed., 1881. Also on Psalms, 2 vols., 
12mo. 

Barry, Alfred. The Parables of the Old Testament. 12mo, pp. 264. London and 
New York, 1889. (Classifies the Old Testament Parables as (1) Parables of 
narrative ; (2) Riddles and symbolic visions ; (3) Proverbs ; (4) Figurative 
poetry.) 

Bradley, O. G-. Lectures on the Book of Job, delivered in "Westminster Abbey. 8vo, 
pp.333. New York, 1888. 

Bridges, Charles. An Exposition of the Book of Ecclesiastes. 12rao, pp. 319. 
London, 1860. (Considers Solomon to be the author without any doubt.) 

Bridges, Charles. Exposition of Psalm cxix, as Illustrative of the Character and 
Exercises of Christian Experience. 8vo, pp. 303. New York, 1849. 

Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Psalms of David. 3 vols. London, 1840. 

Cheyne, T. K. Tlie Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter in the Light of 
Old Testament History and the History of Religions. With an Introduction and 
Appendices. (This volume contains the Bampton Lectures delivered before the 
University of Oxford by the author in 1889. He takes the extreme view that 
the entire Psalter, with the possible exception of Psalm xviii. is post-exilian.) 

Coles, Abraham. A New Rendering of the Hebrew Psalms into English Terse, with 
Notes, Critical, etc., and an Historical Sketch of the French, English, and Scotch 
Metrical Versions, 12mo, pp. Ixviii, 296. New York. 1888. 

Cox, Samuel. A Commentary on the Book of Job, with a Translation. 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1880, 

Cross, J. A. Notes on the Book of Psalms. 12mo. London, 1888. 

Davidson, A. B. A Commentary on Job, Grammatical and Exegetical, with a Trans- 
lation. 8vo. London, 1862. Also 12mo. London, 1884. 

Ewald, Heinrich. A Commentary on the Book of Job. Translated from the German 
byJ. F.Smith. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Ewald, Heinrich. A Commentary on the Psalms, Translated by E, Johnson. Svo, 
2 vols. London, 1880. 

Gilbert, G. H. The Poetry of Job. 16mo, pp. iv, 224. Chicago, 1889. (The trans- 
lation is rhythmical, followed by an analysis.) 

Ginsberg, C. D. The Song of Songs; with a Commentary, Historical and Critical. 4to. 
London, 1857. (The work of a famous rabbinical scholar.) 

Ginsburg, Christian 0. Koheleth, or Ecclesiastes; translated with a Commentary. 
8vo. London, 1857. 

Gregory the Great. Magna Moralia, On the Book of Job, Translated with Notes and 
Indices, 4 vol,, Svo, Oxford, 1848. 

Griffis, W. E. The Lily Among Thorns. A Study of the Biblical Drama entitled 
" The Song of Songs," Boston, 1890. 

Hamilton, James, The Royal Preacher, Lectures on Ecclesiastes. London, 1865; 
also New York. 

Hapstone, Dalman. The Ancient Psalms in Appropriate Metres : A Strictly Literal 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 263 

Translation from the Hebrew, witli Explanatory Xotes. 8vo, pp. 316. Edin- 
burgh, 1867. (Tlie notes, though not full, are snggestive.) 

Hengstenberg, E. W. Commenlary on the Psaltns. 4th ed.. 8 vols., Svo, pp. 539. 
479, 647. Edinburgh, 1860. Also on' Ecclesiastes, with Appended Treatises; 
Svo, pp. 448. Edinburgh, 1860. 

Hibbard, F. G-. The Psalms Chronologically Arranged, with Historical Introductions. 
Svo. New York, 1856. 

Home, George. A Commentary on the Book of Psalms, with an Introductory Espay 
by Edward Irving. Glasgow, 1860 ; Xew York, 1849. (A much-prized devo- 
tional commentary wbich has appeared in many editions. The first was pub- 
lished in 1771 in 4to.) 

Ker, John. The Psalms in History and Biography. Svo. Edinburgh, 1886 ; New 
York, 1888. (Not a commentary, yet illustrative of the meaning and applica- 
tion of the Psalms.) 

Malan, C. S. Original Notes on the Book of Proverbs. London, 1890. 

Meyer, F. B. The Shepherd Psalm. 16mo. New York, 1890. 

Neale, J. M., and Littledale. R. F. A Commentary on the P.^alms, from the Primitive 
and Mediaeval Writers, and from the various office books and hymns of the Roman, 
Mozarabic, Ambrosian, Galilean, Greek, Coptic, Armenian, and S^'rian Rites. 4 
vols., Svo. London, 1860-74. 

Noyes, G. R. A Translation of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, with Explana- 
tory Notes. 12mo. Boston, 1846. Also a volume of the Psalms. Boston, 
1876. 

Perowne, J, J. Srewart. The Book of Psalms ; a New Translation, with Introduc- 
tion and Notes, Critical and Explmatory. New ed., 2 vols., 8vo., pp. 534, 477. 
Andover, 1876. 

Plumptre, E. H. Ecclesiastes ; or, the Preacher, with Notes and Introduction. 
Cambridge, 1881. 

Spurgeon, Charles H. The Treasury of David: containing Original Expositions of 
the Book of Psalms. 7 vols., Svo. New York, 1880. 

Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 12mo, pp. 432. New 
York, 1852. Also on Ecclesiastes. 12mo. Andover, 1864. 

Tholuck, Augustus. A Translation and Commentary on the Book of Psalms, for the 
Use of the Ministry and Laity of the Christian Church. Translated from the 
German by J. Tsidor Mombert. 12mo, pp. xv, 497. Philadelphia, 1858, 

Umbreit, D. F. W. A New Version of the Book of Job, with Expository Notes. 2 
vols., 12mo. Edinburgh, 1836-37. 

Yan Dyke, H. The Story of the Psalms. 12mo, pp. vi, 259. New York, 1887. 
(Analyzes eighteen of tlie most familiar Psalms. Gives also a list of works 
consulted.) 

Vincent, Marvin R. Gates into the Psalm Country. 12mo. New York, 1878. New 
ed., 1883. 

Withington, Leonard. Solomon's Song. Translated and Explained. 12 mo, pp. 3^39. 
Boston, 1861. 

"Wright, C. H. H. The Book of Koheleth, commonly called Ecclesiastes, Considered 
in Relation to Modern Criticism and to the Doctrines of Modern Pessimism; 
with a Critical and Grammatical Commentary and a Revised Translation. The 
Donnellan Lectures for 1880-81. Svo, pp. xxiv, 516. London, 1882. 

Young, Loyal. A Commentary on the Book of J*>clesi^stes. With Introductory 
Notices by the Rev. A. T. McGHl and the Rev. K W. Jacobus. Svo, pp. 276. 
Pliiladelphia, 1865. 
18 



264 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 



(c) The Prophetical Books. 

A Commentary on the Book of Daniel, by Jephet Ibn Ali, the Karaite. Edited and 
Translated by D. Mursronliouth. Part III. Vol. I of Semitic Series. Oxford, 1.890. 

Alexander, Josepii Addison. The Prophecies of Isaiah. Translated and Explained. 
2 vols., 8vo. New- York, 184'7. Eevised ed., pp. SOT, 482. 1869. 

Auberlen, Carl A. Tiie Prophecies of Daniel and the Revelation of St. John 
Viewed in their Mutual Relation. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1856. 

Barnes, Albert. Xotes on Isaiah. 2vols., 12mo. New York, 1881. Also on Dan - 
itl. 1 vol., 12mo. New York. 

Burroughs, Jeremiah. An Exposition of tlie Prophecies of Hosea. 4 vols. London, 
1643-51 ; Edinburgh, 1863. (One of the old Puritan divines, the friend and asso- 
ciate of Greenhill. The commentary is a collection of expository discourse?, 
and though now over two hundred j'ears old is still held in high esteem.) 

Cheyne, T. K. The Prophecies of Isaiah. A New Translation, with Commentary 
and Appendices. In two volumes (bound in one). 3d ed., revised. Vol. I, pp. 
310: Vol. I[, pp. 315. New York, 1884. 

Ewald, Heinricli. Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testament. Translated 
from the German by J. P. Smith. 5 vols., 8vo. London, 1875-81. 

Fairbciirn, Patrick. Ezekiel and the Books of his Prophecy. An Exposition. 2d 
ed., 8vo, pp. 512. Edinburgh, 1851. 

Fairbairn, Patrick. Jonah's Life, Character, and Mission. ]2mo. Edinburgh, 1849. 

Greenhill, William. Exposition of Ezekiel. 5 vols., 1645-6*7. Revised and Cor- 
rected by James Sherman. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1863. (A work by one of the old 
Puritan divines, and full of good matter.) 

Henderson, E. The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah, and that of the Lamentations. 
Translated from the Original Hebrew. With a Commentary, Critical, Philologi- 
cal, and Exegeiical. 8vo. London, 1851 ; Andover, 1868. 

Henderson, E. Commentaries, Critical, Philological, and Exegetical. Translated 
from the Original Hebrew. 3 vols. The Books of the Twelve Minor Prophets ; 
Jeremiah and Lamentations ; Ezekiel. 8vo. Andover, 1845, 1860. 

Ilengstenberg, E. W. The Prophecies of Ezekiel Elucidated. Translated by A. C. 
and J. G. Murphy. 8vo, pp. 545. Edinburgh, 1869. Also on Daniel. 1 vol., 
Svo, Edinburgh. 

KaHsch, M. M. Bible Studies. Part I, The Prophecies of Balaam ; Part II, The Book 
of Jonah. 8vo. London, 1878. 

King, John. Lectures upon Jonah. Oxford, 1600; Edinburgh, 18C4. 

Lowe, W. H. The Hebrew Students' Commentary on Zechariah, Hebrew and the 
LXX. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Lowth, Robert. Isaiah. A New Translation, with a Preliminary Dissertation and 
Notes, Critical, Philological, and Explanatory. 2d ed. Lmdon, 1779. 

Moore, T. V. The Prophets of the Restoration; or, Haggai, Zechariah, andMalachi. 
A New Translation, with Notes. 8vo, pp. vii, 408. 1856. 

Pocock, Edward. Commentary on Hosea. Oxford, 1685. On Joel, Micah, and 
Malachi. Oxford, 1691. (A work by the greatest Oriental scholar of his gener- 
ation.) 

Pusey, E. B. Daniel, the Propliet. Nine Lectures delivered in the Divinity School 
of the University of Oxford. With Copious Notes. 2d ed., 8vo, pp. 755. Ox- 
ford, 1868. 

Pusey, E. B. The Minor Prophets, with a Comtnentary, Explanatory and Practical. 
Pp. 427. New York, 1885. Also complete in 1 vol., 4to. London. 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 265 

Raiiiolds, John. The Prophecies of Obadiah Opened and Apphed. 4to. 1613. 
Original" published in three parts. Edinburgh, 1864. 

Smith, R. Payne. The Authenticity and Messianic Interpretation of the Prophecies 
of Isaiah Vindicated, in Sermons, before the University of Oxford. 8vo. London, 
1862. 

"Workman, G-. C. The Texts of Jeremiah ; or, a Critical Investigation of the Greek 
and Hebrew, with the "\rariations in the LXX. retranslated into the Original and 
Explained. "With an Introductory Notice by Franz Deiitzsch. Edinburgh, 
1889. 

"Wright, C. H. H. Zechariah and his Prophecies. 12mo, pp. Ixxv, 614. Bampton 
Lectures for 1878. London, 1879. 

"Wright. C. H. H. Tlie Fifty-third Cliapter of Isa'ah According to the Jewish Inter- 
preters. Texts edited from printed books and MSS. by Ad. Neubauer; transla- 
tion by S. R. Driver and Ad. Neubauer. "With an introduction to the transla- 
tions by E. B. Pusey. 2 vols. Oxford, 1876-77. 

IL The New Testament. 

(a) Gospels akd Acts. 

Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Gospel According to Matthew Explained. 12mo, 
pp. 460. New York, 1867. Also Mark. 1 vol., 12mo. New York, 1874. 

Alexander, Joseph A. The Acts of the Apostles Expounded. 3ded. 2 vols., 12mo. 
New York, 1867. 

Arnot, "William. The Church in the House. A Series of Lessons on the Acts of the 
Apostles. New York, 1891. 12mo. pp. xii, 464. 

Aquinas, Tliomas. Catena Aurea. Commentary on the Four Gospels, Collected out 
of Works of the Fathers. 4 vols. Oxford, 1 844, 

Baumgarten, M. The Acts of the Apostles ; or, The History of the Church in the 
Apostolic Age. From the German. 3 vols., 8vo, pp. 457, 459, 383. Edinburgh, 
1854. (A work of rare merit.) 

Bliss, George R. Commentary on the Gospel of Luke. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1885. 
(The fourth volume of the "Complete Commentary of the New Testament," pre- 
pared under the general editorship of Alvah Hovey, D.D.) 

Broadus, J. A. Commentary on the Gospel by Matthew. 8vo, pp. 664. Philadel- 
phia, 1887. 

Carpenter, J. E. The First Three Gospels : their Origin and Relations. London, 1890. 

Clark, George "W. Notes on the Acts of the Apostles, Explanatory and Practical. 
12mo, pp. 415. Philadelphia, 1892. 

Gloag, P. J. A Commentary, Exegetical and Critical, on the Acts of the Apostles. 
2 vols., 8vo, pp. 439, 456. Edinburgh, 1870. 

Godet, F. A Commentary on the Gospel of St. John, with a Critical Introduction. 
From the French. 3 vols., pp. 462, 413, 366. Edinburgh, 1877. 

Godet, F. A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. Translated from the French 
by E. W. Shalders and M. D. Cusin. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1875. 

Hackett, H. B. A Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the Apostles. 
Newed., revised and greatly enlarged. 8vo, pp. 480. Boston, 1866. (A judi- 
cious and sensible exposition.) 

Hengstenberg, E. "W. Commentary on the Gospel of St. John. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 480, 
541. Edinburgh, 1865. 

Lindsay, Thomas M. The Gospel of St. Luke, with Introduction, Notes, and 
Maps. 2 vols, 8vo. Edinburgh, 1887. 



266 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Lindsay, Thomas M. The Acts of the Apostles, with Notes. 2 vols. 8vo. Edin- 
Dur^rb, 1884-85; also New York. 

Luthardfc, C. E. St. John's Gospel Described, and Explained according to its 
Pecuhar Character. 8vo, 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1818. (Luthardt has divided his 
work into two parts : 1. The characterization of John's Gospel. 2. The Exposi- 
tion. Under 1 he discusses the integrity, the language, the narration, the design, 
the arrangement and construction and the authorship of the fourth gospel.) 

Maurice, Frederick Denison. The Gospel of St. John. A Series of Discourses. 
8vo. London, 1867. 

Nast, William. A Commentary on the Gospels of Matthew and Mark; Critical, 
Doctrinal, and Homiletical, etc. 8vo., pp. 760. Cincinnati, 1864. 

Page, Thos. B. The Acts of the Apostles, being the Greek Text as revised by "West- 
cott and Hort, with Explanatory Notes. 12mo, pp. 270. London and New 
York, 1889. (Clear and simple.) 

Robinson, C. S. Studies in Mark's Gospel. 12mo, pp. 299. New York, 1888. 
(Delivered as Sermons.) 

Sears, E.H. TheFourthGospel the Heart of Christ. 3d Edition. 12mo, pp. 551. Bos- 
ton, 1873. (The book is divided into four parts, namely : the historical arguments ; 
the historic materials; the private ministry of Jesus; the Johannean theology.) 

Sloman, W. A. The Gospel according to St. Matthew. Greek Text of Westcott 
and Hort. Introduction and Notes by W. A. Sloman. London, 1890. 

Stier, Rudolph. The Words of the Lord Jesus. Translated from the 2d Re- 
vised and Enlarged German Edition. 9 vols., 8vo, pp. 425, 429, 542, 484, 521, 
522, 513, 460, 505. Edinburgh, 1855-58. 

Tholuck, August. Commentary on the Gospel of John. Translated from the Ger- 
man by Charles P. Krauth. 8vo, pp. viii, 440. Philadelphia, 1859. 

Tholuck, August. Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount. Translated from the 
4th Revised and Enlarged German Edition by R. L. Brown. 8vo, pp. 451. 
Edinburgh, 1869. 

Thomas, David. The Acts of the Apostles. London, 1890. 

Tittman, K. C. Sacred Meditations ; or, an Exegetical, Critical, and Doctrinal Com- 
mentary on the Gospel of St. John. 2 vols., pp. 398, 474. Biblical Cabinet, 
Edinburgh, 1844. 

Trench, Richard Chenevix. The Sermon on the Mount. An Exposition Drawn from 
the Writings of St. Augustine. With an Essay on his Merits as an Interpreter 
of Holy Scripture. 3d ed., enlarged. 8vo. London, 1869. 

Trench, Richard Chenevix. Studies in the Gospels, 8vo, pp. vii, 326. New York, 1872. 

Van Oosterzee, J. J. John's Gospel: Apologetical Lectures. Translated with Ad- 
ditions by J. F. Hurst. 12mo, pp. xiv, 256. Edinburgh, 1869. 

Taughan, Charles J. Lectures on the Acts. 8vo, 3 vols. London, 1864. 

Weidner, Revere F. Commentary on the Gospel of Mark. Embracing the Author- 
ized Yersion of 1611 and the Revised Version of 1881. 12mo, pp. 309. Allen- 
town, Pa., 1881. (Has both the Authorized and the Revised Versions, placed 
on opposite pages, and also a harmony.) 

Whitelaw, T. The Gospel of St. John : an Exposition, Exegetical and Homiletical ; for 
the use of Clergymen, Students, and Teachers. 8vo, pp. Ixi, 464. New York, 
1888. (The treatment is arranged under the following headings: 1. Authen- 
ticity. 2. Authorship. 3. Composition. 4. Purpose. 5. Plan.) 

Williams, J. Studies in the Book of Acts. 8vo, pp. viii, 178. New York, 1888. 

Wright, Arthur. The Composition of the Four Gospels. 12mo, pp. vii, 176. Lon- 
don, 1890. 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 267 

(b) The Epistles and the Apocalypse. 
Abbott, Lyman. Tlie Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans. With Notes and 

Comments. 8vo, pp. 230. Map and Illustrations. New York, 1888. (The 

first fourteen pages summarize Paul's life.) 
Abbot, T. K. Short Studies on St. Paul's Epistles to the Romans, Corinthians, 

Galatians, etc. 12mo. Dublin, 1892. 
Adam, John. An P]xposition of the Epistle of James, with an Appendix of Disser- 
tations 8vo, pp. 448. Edinburgh, 1867, 1871. 
Adams, Thomas. Commentary on tlie Second Epistle of Peter. New ed., revised. 

Imperial. 8vo, London, 1862. (Full of rich matter.) * 
Airay, Henry. Lectures upon the Whole Epistle of St. Paul to the Philippians 

London, 1618; Edinburgh, 1864. 
Alexander, W. The Epistles of St. John. Twenty-one Discourses, with Greek 

Texts, Comparative Versions and Notes, chiefly Exegetical. 12mo, pp. xvi, 309, 

New York, 1889. (Expositor's Bible.) 
Arnold, A. N., and Ford, D. B. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. Svo, 

pp. 328, Philadelphia, 1889. 
Bagge, Henry T. J. St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. The Text Revised and 

Illnstratcd by a Commentary. Intended principally for the Use of Ministers and 

Students of Theology. 8vo, pp. xvii, 234. London, 1856. 
Bassett, F. T. The Catholic Epistle of St. James. With a Revised Text and Trans- 
lation. Svo. London, 1876. 
Bayne, Paul. An Entire Commentary upon the Whole of the Epistle of Paul to 

the Ephesians, Handling the Controversy of Predestination. London, 1618, 

1643; Edinburgh, 1866. 
Beet, Joseph Agar. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. 8vo, 

London, 1877. 5th Edition. London, 1885, also New York. (The author^ a 

Britisli Wesleyan, takes issue with Augustine and Calvin on predestination and 

irresistible grace. The comments are brief, but to the point.) 
Beet, Joseph Agar. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians. Lon- 
don, and New York, 1882. Small Svo, pp. 542. (The Commentary is "judicious, 

clear, devout, candid, and well written.") 
Beet, Joseph Agar. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. London, 

and New York, 1885. 
Benson, R. M. An Expoisition of St. Paul to the Romans. 12mo, pp. 556. London, 

1892. 
Boise, James R. The Epistles of Saint Paul written after he became a prisoner. 

With explanatory notes. 12mo, pp. 189. New York, 1887. 
Boise, James R. Four of the Earlier Epistles of the Apostle Paul, namely, First and 

Second Thessalonians, First and Second Corinthians. 12mo, pp. 197. New York, 

1890. (The notes are brief, and rigidly exegetical.) 
Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul to the Romans. Translated and 

Edited by John Owen. Svo, pp. 592. Edinburgh, 1849. 
Candlish, Robert. The First Epistle of John Expounded. 2vols., 12mo. Edinburgh, 

1870. Also on Ephesians. Ed. 1875. 
Chalmers, Thomas. Lectures on Romans. 4 vols., Svo. 1827. Edinburgh, 4 vols. 

12m(), 1854. 
Delitzsch, Franz. A Commentary on the Ep'stle to the Hebrews. Translated from the 

German by T. L. Kingsbury. 2 vols., Svo, pp. xii, 401, vii, 492. Eduiburgh, 1870. 
Deems, Charles F. The Gospel of Common Sense. Sermons on the Epistle of James. 

Svo. New York. 1889. 



268 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Diu'liara, James. A Commentary upon the Book of the Revelation. Glasgow, 1658. 
New ed., 4to. Glasgow, 1788, 

Diisterdieck, Frederick. Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Revelation of 
John. Translated and Edited bj Henry E. Jacobs. 8vo. New York, 1886. 

Eadie, John. A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to the Ephe- 
sians. 3d ed., pp. Iv, 493. Edinburgh and New York, 1883. (This Commen- 
tary has been followed by others from the same author on Colossians, Philip- 
pians. Galatians, and Thessalonians.) 

Edwards, Thomas Charles. A Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians. 
8vo, pp. xxxix, 491. London, 1885. (An excellent work, especially the linguis- 
tic parts, with, however, a marked tendency to abstract philosophizing.) 

Ellicott, Charles J. Critical and Grammatical Commentaries on St. Paul's Epistles. 
8vo, 5 vols. Galatians, Ephesians, Thessalonians, Philippians, Colossians, Phi- 
lemon, Pastoral Epistles. Andover, 1883. 

Elliot, E. B. Horae Apocalypticae ; or, a Commentary on the Apocalypse, Critical 
and Historical, etc. New ed., 4 vols., 8vo. London, 1869. 

Fairbairn, Patrick. Tlie Pastoral Epistles. Greek Text and Expository Notes. 12mo, 
pp. ix, 451. 1876. 

Farrar, F. W. The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Exposition by the Yeuerable 
Archdeacon Farrar and Homilies by various Authors. London, 1883. 

Forbes, John. Analytical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, tracing the 
train of thought by Parallelism. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1868. 

Gebhardt, Hermann. The Doctrine of the Apocalypse, and its Relation to the Doc- 
trine of the Gospel and Epistles of John. Translated from the German by J. S. 
Banks. 2 vols., 8vo. Edinburgh. • 

Glasgow, James. The Apocalypse Translated and Expounded. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1862. 

Godet, F. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Translated from 
the French by Rev. A. Cusin, M.A., Edinburgh. Yol. I, 8vo, pp. 446; Yol. II, 
pp. 434. Edinburgh; New York, 1880. 

Godet, F. Studies in the Epistles. Translated by Annie Harwood Holmden. New 
York, 1889. (Chronological in order and exegetical in style. Inclines to the 
opinion that Silas wrote Hebrews.) 

Godet, F. A Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. 2 vols., 
8vo. Edinburgh, 1890. 

Gouge, William. Commentary on the "Whole Epistle to the Hebrews. 2 vols, folio. 
London, 1655. 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1867. (A member of the "Westminster 
Assembly of Divines ; the Commentary has been held in high estimation for its 
learning and pious spirit.) 

Gould, E. P. A Commentary on the Epistles to the Corinthians. 8vo, pp. 226. 
Philadelphia, 1888. 

Haldane, Robert. Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans, with Remarks on the 
Commentaries of Macknight, Stuart, and Tholuck. 8vo, pp. 752. New York, 1870. 

Hengstenberg, E. "W. The Revelation of St. John Expounded for those who Search 
the Scriptures. Translated from the Original by Patrick Fairbairn. 2 vols., 
8vo, pp. 487, 508. Edinburgh, 1851-52. 

Hodge, Charles. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. New ed., revised and 
in great measure rewritten. 8vo, pp. 716. Philadelphia, 1856. Also on Ephe- 
sians, First and Second Corinthians. 3 vols., 12mo. 

Hutchison, John. Lectures, chiefly Expository, on St. Paul's First and Second 
Epistles to the Thessalonians. With Notes and Illustrations. 8vo, pp. vii, 369. 
Edinburgh, 1884. 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 269 

Jeukyn, William. An Exposition of the Epistle of Jude. 2 vols., 4to, 1G52; 
Revised and Corrected by James Sherman. 8vo. London, 1839. (One of the 
Puritan divines who suffered for Christian liberty.) 

Kendrick, A. C. A^Conimentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews. Philadelphia, 1890. 

Leighton, Robert, A Practical Commentary on the First Epistle General of Peter; 
with a Brief Memoir of tlie Author. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1864. (One of the 
English Classics.) 

Lightfoot, J. B. St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. A Revised Text, with Intro- 
duction, Notes, and Dissertations. 8vo. London, 1865; 7th ed., 1881. (The 
touch of a master is visible on every page of this Commentary. Besides the 
Exposition there are three Dissertations: I. On the Origin of the Galaiian Peo- 
ple, 2. The Brethren of the Lord, 3. St. Paul and the Three.) Also on Philip- 
pians, Colossians, and Philemon. 2 vols., Svo. London and New Yoik. 

Lillie, John. Lectures on the Epistle of Paul to the Thespalonians. Svo, pp. 585. 
New York, 1860. Also on First and Second Peier. Svo, pp. xi, 536. New 
York, 1869. 

Lincoln, W. Lectures on the Book of Revelation. 12nio. pp. 450. New York, 1889. 

Lowrie, Samuel T. An Explanation of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Svo, pp. 540. 
New York, 1884. 

Liicke, Fried. Commentary on the Epistles of St. John. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1837. 

Liiueniann, Gottlieb. Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Epistles of St. Paul 
to the Thessalonians. Translated from the 3d German Edition by Rev. 
Paton J. Gloag. Svo. Edinburgh, 1880. (In Meyer's Criiical ar d Exegetical 
Commentary on the New Testament.) 

Luther, Martin. Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. Svo, pp. 575. 
New York, 1845. 

Macpherson, J. Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians. Svo, pp. 442, 
Edinburgh, 1892. 

Manton, Thomas. A Practical Exposition on the Epistle of James. London, 1651. 
Revised and Corrected, London, 1842. 

Neander, Augustus. The Epistle of Paul to the Philip^uans. Practically Explained. 
Translated from the German by Mrs. H. C. Conant. 12mo, pp. xvii, 123. New 
York, 1851. Also on James and First John, 2 vols.. 12mo. 

Owen, John. Expos tion of Hebrews. 4 vols., folio. London, 1668. Edited by 
W. A. Goold. 7 vols. Edinburgh, 1850-1855. (One of the greatest of the 
Nonconformists and the friend of Cromwell.) 

Philippi, F. A. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Translated from 
the Third Edition by J, S. Banks. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 421, 429. Edinburgh, 1879. 

Plnmmer, J. F, The Pastoral Epistles. First and Second Timothy, Titus. (The 
Expositor's Bible.) 12mo. New York, 1890. 

Pond, Enoch. The Seals Opened; or, The Apocalypse Explained. 12mo, pp. xi, 211. 
Portland, 1871. 

Pridham, Arthur. Notes and Reflections on the Epistle to the Ephesians. 12mo, 
pp.338, London, 1854. (Expository and devotional.) 

Robertson, Frederick TV. Expository L-^ctures on First and Second Corinthians. 
12mo. London, 1870. Also New York, 1881. 

Sadler, M, F. The Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, Ephesians, and Philippians. 
With Notes, Critical and Practical, Svo. London, 1889. 

Sadler, M. F. The Epistles of St, Paul to the Colossians, Thessalonians, and Timothy, 
with Notes, Svo, London, 1890. (A continuation of his series of Commenta- 
ries on the gospels and other Pauline epistles.) 



270 _ SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

Shedd, William Gr. T. A Critical and Doctrinal Commentary on the Epistle of St 
Paul to tlie Romans. 8vo, pp. 4H9. New York, 1879. 

Smith, Justin A. Commentary on the Revelation. In Consultation with Professor 
J. R. Boise, D.D. Svo. Philadelphia, 1884. 

Stanley, A. P. The Epistles of St. Paul to the Corinthians, with Critical Notes and 
Dissertations. New ed., 2 vols., Svo, pp. 356,434. London, 1862. 4th ed., 1876. 

Steiger, Wilhelm. Exposition of the First Epistle of Peter, Translated by Dr. Fair- 
bairn. 2 vols., 18mo. Edinburgh, 1836. 

Steward, George. The Argument of the Epistle to the Hebrews. A Posthumous 
Work. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1872. 

Stuart, Moses. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. 
3d ed. Edited and Revised by R. D. C. Robbius. 12mo, pp. 544. Andover, 
1851. New ed., 1876. 

Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Apocalypse. 2 vols., Svo, pp. x, 504, iv, 504. 
Andover, 1845. London, 1845. Followed by other editions. 

Summers, T. 0. The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to tlie Romans in the Authorized 
Version. With a New Translation and Commentary. 12rao, pp. 275. Nash- 
ville, Tenn. 1881. (A good Arminian Commentary on Romans.) 

Tholuck, Augustus. Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews. Translated by 
James Hamilton, 2 vols., 8vo. Edinburgh, 1842. New ed., 1869. 

Tholuck, Angus us. Expositions of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans; with Ex- 
tracts from the Exegetical Works of the Fathers and Reformers. Translated 
from the Original German by Robert Menzies. 2 vols., 8vo. Edinburgh, 1848. 

Trench, R. C. Commentary on the Epistles to the Seven Churches in Asia, 12mo, 
pp.312. New York 1867. 

Vaughan, C. J. Lectures on the Revelation of St. John. 4th ed., 2 vols., Svo. 
London, 1875. 

Yaughan, C. J. St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. The Greek Text, with English 
Notes. 3d ed., enlarged. Also on Philippians. 1 vol., 16!no. London, 1880, 

Wardlaw, Ralph. Lectures on Romans. 3 vols., Svo, London, 1861, 

Warren, Israel P. The Book of Revelation, 12mo, New York, 1887. (Finds the 
key to the book in the first verse. " Things which must f^hortly come to pass.") 

Westcott, Brooke Foss. The Epistles of St. John. The Greek Text, with Notes 
and Essays, Svo, pp. Ivi, 360. London, 1883. (Most masterly in the exposi- 
tion of the Greek text.) 

Wesicott, B. F. The Epistle to the Hebrews. The Greek Text with Notes and Essays, 
New York, 1890. 

6. TJce Apocrypha. 

Bissell. Edwin Cone, The Apocrypha of the Old Testament; with Historical Tntro- 
djictions, a Revised Translation and Notes, Critical and Explanatory. Svo, pp. 
680. New York, 1880. 

Churton, W. R. The Uncanonical and Apocryphal Scriptures, Being the Addi- 
tions to the Old Testament Canon which were included in the ancient Greek and 
Latin Versions, The English Text of the Authorized Version, together with the 
additional matter found in the Vulgate and other Versions. Introductions to the 
Several Books and Fragments, Marginal Notes, and References, and "a General 
Introduction to the Apocrypha. Svo. London, 1884. 

Deane, W.J. The Book of Wisdom. The Greek Text, the Latin Vulgate, and the 
Autiiorized English Version, with an Introduction, Critical Apparatus and a 
Commentary, 4to. Oxford, 1881." 

Lawrence, R. The Book of Enoch the Prophet. Svo. Oxford, 1838. 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 271 

Neubauc-r, A. Tlie Book of Tobit. A Chaldee text, from a unique MS. in the Bod- 
leian Library, with other Rabbinical Texts, English Translation and the Itala. 
Cr. 8vo. Oxford, 1878. 

Scliodde, George H. Xhe Book of Enoch : Translated from the Ethiopic, with In- 
troduction and Notes. 12 mo, pp. 278. Andover, 1882. 

7. TJie Talmud. 

Barclay, Joseph. The Talmud. 8vo, pp. 389. London, 1878. (The book contains 
selections from the Mishna, translated with explanations from various sources. 
The topics selected are such as the Sabbath, Passover, Tabernacles, Sanhednn, etc.) 

Hershon, Paul Isaac. Treasures of the Talmud. Being a Series of Classified Sub- 
jects in Alphabetical order from "A" to "L," Compiled from the Babylonian 
Talmud, and Translated by Paul Isaac Hershon. "With Notes and Indexes, and 
Introductory Notice by Canon H. D. M. Spence. 8vo. London. 1881. 

Jastrow, M. A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli, and Yerushalmi and 
the Midrashic Literature in Twelve Parts. 4to. New York, 1888. 

Pick, B. The Talmud : What It Is, and What It Knows About Jesus and His Fol- 
lovvers. 16mo. New York, 1888. 

Schwab, Moses. The Talmud of Jerusalem. Translated for the First Time. Yol. I. 
Berakhoth. 4to. London, 1885. 

8. Tlie Revised Version of the English Bible. 
Bassett, Pr. T. An Examination of Some of the More Important Texts in the New 

Testament that Relate to the Deity of our Lord Jesus Christ. 8vo. London, 

1883. (Passes criticism on tlie revisers for not admitting /novojev^g Qeog into 

the text, John i, 18, charging them with Arianism.) 
Beckett, Edmund. Should the Revised New Testament be Authorized? Pp. 194, 

cr. 8vo. London, 1882. (An adverse criticism.) 
Burgess, H. Revision ofthe Holy Scriptures; an Argument against Objectors. 8vo. 1857. 
Burgon. John William. The Revision Revised. Pp. 549, 8 vo. London, 1883. (Avery 

vigorous attack on the Revised Greek Text as well as the English version of it.) 
Butlz. Henry A. The Revised Version of the New Testament. (An article in the 

Mdhodi?t Quarterly Eevievj, of April, 1881, in which the changes originating in 

the criticism of the Greek Text, those arising out of conformity to the present 

state of grammatical knowledge, and those springing from the growth of the 

English language, are discussed.) 
Cook, F. C. The Revised Version of the First Three Gospels Considered in its 

Bearings upon the Eecord of our Lord's Words and of Incidents in His Life. 

8vo, pp. 250. London, 1 882. (By the editor of the Speaker''s Commentary^) 
EUicott, C. J., and Palmer, Edwin. The Revisers and the Greek Text of the New 

Testament Company. Pp. 79. London, 1882. 
Goodwin, Daniel R. Notes on the Late Revision of the New Testament. Pp. 212. 

8vo. New York, 1883. (Thougli the author objects to many renderings he gen- 
erally approves of the changes in the text itself.) 
Humphry, W. G. A Commentary on the Revised Version of the New Testament. 

8vo, pp. xxi, 474. London, 1882. 
Kennedy, B. H. The Ely Lectures on the Revised Version of the New Testament. 

Pp. xxi, 165, 8vo. London, 1881. New ed. 1888. 
Lee, Alfred. Cooperative Revision of the New Testament. 8vo. New York, 1881, 

(Bishop Lee was a Member of the American Company of Revisers, and gives in 

his work a valuable resume of the changes his fellow-members suggested.) 
Leary, T. H. L. A Critical Examination of Bishop Lightfoot's Defense of the Last 

Petition in the Lord's Prayer. Pp. 23. London, 1882. 



272 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Lightfoot, J. B., Trencli, R. C. Ellicott, C. J. The Revision of tlie Euglisli Version 
of the New Testament. "With an Introduction by Pliihp Schaff. Pp. xlix, xix, 
195, 193, ITS, 12mo. New York, 1878. 

Malan, S. C. Seven Chapters of the Revision of 1881 Revised. London, 1881-82. 

Milligan, "Wilham, and Alexander Roberts. The W«rds of the New Testament as 
aUered by Transmission and Ascertained by Modern Criticism. Pp. 262, 8vo. 
Edinburgh, 1873. 

Moon, George Washington. The Revisers' English, etc.; a series of criticisms show- 
ing the Revisers' Yiolations of the Laws of Language. 12mo, pp. 145. Lon- 
don, 188L 2d ed. 1883. 

Nevvcome, Archbishop Wm. An Attempt Toward Revising our English Translation 
of the Greek Scriptures, or, the New Covenant of Jesus Christ, etc. 2 vols, 
Svo. Dublin, 1809. (Tliis work was first printed in 1796.) 

Newth, Samuel. Lectures on Bible Revision. 8vo. London, 1881; 

Nicolson, "W. M. Classical Revision of the Greek New Testament. Tested and 
Applied on Uniform Principles, etc. Pp. 149, 8vo. London, 1878. 

Nicholson, E, B. Our New Testament. An Explanation of the Need and a Criticism 
of the Fulfillment. Pp. 80, 8vo. London, 1881. (The autJior's criticism is 
generall}'- favorable, but he urges further revision.) 

Osborne, W. A. The Revised Version of the New Testament. A Critical Commen- 
tary with Notes upon the Text. Pp. 200, 8vo. London, 1882. (What the au- 
thor calls *' light inaccuracies or inconsistencies " are objected to; otherwise his 
criticism is generally favorable.) 

Philalethes. The English Bible and our Duty with Regard to it. 8vo. Dublin, 1857. 

Riggs, Elias. Suggested Emendations of the Authorized English Version of the Old 
Testament. 12mo, pp. 130. Andover, 1873. 

Riggs, Elias. Suggested Modifications of the Revised Version of the New Testa- 
ment. 12mo, pp. 94. Andover, 1883. 

Roberts, Alexander. Companion to the Revised Version of the New Testament. 
"With a Supplement by an American Reviser (P. Schaff) on the Anglo-American 
Revision. New York, 1881. Pp.117. 3ded., 12mo. 1885. 

Samson, G. W. The English Revisers' Greek Text shown to be unauthorized, except 
by Egyptian copies discarded by Greeks. Pp. 132, 16rao. Cambridge (Mass.), 1882. 

Short, Charles. The New Revision of the King James Revision of the New Testa- 
ment. Several articles in the American Journal of Philology, 1881-82. (In the 
second paper ihe author makes a careful and minute examination of the revision 
of Matthew's gospel.) 

Smith, G. Vance, Texts and Margins of the Revised New Testament Affecting The- 
ological Doctrine. Pp. 51. London, 188U 

Trench, Ricliard Clienevix. On the Authorized Version of the New Testament, in 
Connection with Some Recent Proposals for its Revision. 12mo. Pp. 188. Lon- 
don and New York, 1858. 

Vaughan, C. J. Authorized or Revised: Sermons on Some of the Texts in which the 
Revised Version Differs from the Authorized. 8vo. London, 1882. (A plea 
for tiie new version.) 

Westcott, Brooke Foss. Some Lessons of the Revised Version of the New Testa- 
ment. Several Articles in The Expositor for 1887. (This is a valuable series of 
papers in defense of the Revised Version written by one of the most learned of 
the English Committee of Revisers.) 

Young, Robert. Contributions to a New Revision, or a Critical Companion to the 
New Testament. Pp. 390, 16mo. Edinburgh, 1881. 



SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 273 



CHAPTER n. 

HISTORICAL THEOLOGY 



J. G. Dowling, Introduction to the Study of Ecclesiastical History, London, 1838 ; H. J. Rov- 
aards, Oratio de theologia historica cum sacri codicis exegesi rite conjuncta, Utrecht, 1837 : A. P. 
Stanley, Lectures on the Study of Ecclesiastical History. London, 1857. 

The scriptural material for history and doctrine, which is brought 
to light and restored to its pure state by exegetical theology, be- 
comes the very foundation of historical theology. The latter in- 
cludes both the biblical elements (Sacred History) and their devel- 
opment in the Church (Church History and History of Doctrines). 
It, accordingly, reaches back into exegetical theology, and forms, 
at the same time, the bridge for passing over into systematic 
theology 

In contrast with modern encylopsedists, we prefer to separate 
exegetical from historical theology. But this is only relative. The 
work of the exegete is historical in the broad sense of searching for 
required sources ; but this is certainly a merely preliminary histor- 
ical task. The exegete may be likened to the miner Relations of 

who descends the shaft in order to brinsc into the lio^ht ^^^^^^oncai and 

o » exegetical the- 

of day the gold of pure scriptural truth, while the his- oiogy. 

torian resembles the artificer who melts the masses down, and gives 

them their form and impression. The process of separating the 

gold from the material in which it is held, e. g., the presentation of 

the body of doctrine apart from the ideas of the age in which it 

originated, is also the work of exegesis, although this constitutes the 

line at which exegetical theology transfers its material to historical. 

This, too, is the point at which the researches coincide which have 

generally been prosecuted in distinct and separate fields of inquiry. 

The exposition of the Gospels, for instance, is an exegetical, not a 

historical, task, while a critical representation of the life of Christ, 

upon the basis of the Gospel records, is a historical work, which 

the exegete will regard as the point at which his labours terminate. 

Here, as everywhere else, the one must aid the other. Historical 

theology extends likewise into the pre-Christian, or Old Testament, 

element. 

18 



274 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Biblical archaeology is an important aid to exegesis, and, at the 
Biblical archse- same time, an historical science. The exegete needs 
oiogy related it in order to understand the Bible, for which reason 
sis and churcti some acquaintance with this branch is to be required 
history. ^^^ presupposed when he enters on his work. But in- 

asmuch as it is the task of history to represent the life and spirit 
of the Israelitish people, historical theology is also entitled to lay 
claim to the service of archaeology as a product of exegesis. Dis- 
putes of this sort about boundaries may, however, be reconciled 
very peaceably, and serve merely to prove the elastic nature of the 
organism of science.^ And while biblical archaeology, separately 
considered, has been treated in a former section as an exegetical 
aid, it will, on the other hand, be proper for us to class the biblical 
history as a whole — which, of course, involves the archaeology as 
well — with the general organism of historical theology. 

SECTION I. 

SACRED HISTOET. , 

Sacred history, like the Bible itself, is divided into Old and New 
The place of Testament, and constitutes the point of transition from 
sacred history, exegetical into historical theology. Hence, what has 
been said with regard to the Bible in general has its particular ap- 
plication to this subject. 

This is the place for historical criticism, involving not merely 
the question whether the book which claims to be a source is de- 
rived from the author in whose name it appears, but also the further 
inquiry whether the author, known or unknown, has aimed to write 
actual history, and in what way he has executed his plan. The 
propriety of historical criticism, when applied to the books of the 
Bible, is, doubtless, open to graver doubts from the standpoint of 
supernaturalism than criticism of the text. But the necessity for 
it will be seen in the fact, that we must guard against its abuse by 
recognizing the spirit and object of the Bible history, its super- 
human and divine plan, and its development under the conditions 
of time. He who derives his standard of measurement directly 
from the history of revelation itself, will naturally decide otherwise 
than will he who applies the foreign standard of ancient or modern 
wisdom. 

* This, too, with reference to the reminders by Pelt (review of the 2d ed.), in 
Bruns and Hafner's Repertorium, xiv, 3, p. 268, 



HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 275 

SECTION II. 

HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATIOT?". 

W. Hoffman, Die gottliche Stuf enordnung im A. Test. Berl., 1854 ; tGfrorer, TJrgescbichte des 
menschl. Geschlechts, Schaffhausen, 1853 ; Pressel In Herzog Encykl., xvii, p. 245, sqq., Art. Volk 
Gottes ; J. H. Kurtz, History of the Old Covenant, 3 vols., Philadelphia, 1859 ; S. Sharpe, History 
of the Hebrew Nation and its Literature, London, 1872 ; A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the History 
of the Jewish Church, 3 vols., New York, 1866-77 ; H. H. Milman, History of the Jews, 3 vols., 
New York, 1882. 

The history of the nation from which the Founder of Christianity- 
came forth to be the Saviour of the world, is of equal value for the 
Christian theologian with the general study of the Old periods of He- 
Testament. The following are the periods of principal brew history, 
religions importance subsequently to the primitive period — from 
Adam to Abraham. 

1. The Patriarchal Age, being the period of the earliest revela- 
tion from God — from Abraham to Moses. 

2. The period of founding the theocracy and subduing the land 
by the theocratic leaders — from Moses to Samuel. 

3. The further development of this theocracy under the law, and 
the theocratical institutions of the priesthood, the sovereignty, and 
the prophetic order, considered both in their positive and their 
negative features — from Samuel to Solomon, and thence to the 
Captivity. 

4. The periods of disintegration under the influence of foreign 
rulers and foreign customs, and of transition to a new period dur- 
ing and after the Captivity. 

The history of Israel, in the strict sense, begins with the head of 
the race, and his emigration to Canaan. But the records of pre- 
Abrahamic times are included, as preliminary history, within the 
circle of Old Testament historical studies. The difficulties touched 
upon in exegetical theology, with reference to the age of the his- 
torical documents that have been preserved to our time, and their 
trustworthiness, are also felt in the historical treatment. The prin- 
cipal difficulties attach to the earliest periods. We have not hesi- 
tated to designate them as the time of the earliest ^.^ ,, 

° . Difficulty con- 

revelations, because we share, with Hauff,^ the con vie- nected with 

tion, that a belief in revelation does not only admit of, ^^^^yp®"^^- 
but absolutely requires, criticism of the historical books of the 
Bible. If the divine and the human, wonderfully interpenetrating 
each other, impress us anywhere, it is when we are meditating 
upon these oldest of all histories, for whose examination we need, 

^ Comp. his work, cited above, and the Introd., by K. A. Menzel, to his Staats u. 
Religionsgesch. der Konigreiche Israel u. Juda, Breslau, 1853, pp. 8f. 



276 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

in harmony with this thought, minds open, to childlike conceptions, 
and religiously and poetically inclined, and a judgment and under- 
standing prepared for an unprejudiced investigation, and sometimes 
accessible, among other things, to historical discussion.^ Where 
either of these exists alone, where we apply only the belief in- 
stilled by the lessons of childhood, and seek to retain this in its 
naive directness at the cost of historic truth, or where, perverted at 

^ the outset by the so-called modern enlightenment, we 

Necessity of •' ... 

freedom from approach the sacred narratives in order to exercise our 
preju ice. pedantic skill upon them, the result will be that our 
judgment will be speedily formed, since we will either literally ac- 
cept every thing without examination, or reject every thing with- 
out understanding it. In no age has there been so much talk of 
myths as in our own. Every people, like every individual, has its 
childhood history, and we can no more expect to find purely histor- 
ical reminiscences without the golden thread of poesy, in the prim- 
itive history of nations in general, than we can suppose that the 
recollections of an individual can reach back with entire accuracy 
into the twilight in which poetry and fact are intermingled with 
each other.^ The important thing in this connection, is, that the 
ideas of legend and myth be clearly fixed. There is no need of be- 
ing frightened at a word. What does fjiv^og signify ? It is applied 
Meaning of ^o narrative and legend as well as to fable and poem. 
mytb. Hut the ancients, already, distinguished between logo- 

graphs and mythographs,^ and modern science has in like manner 
distinguished between historical and philosophical myths (myths 
proper), so as to make the former actually historical legends (Xoyoi), 
even though conceived and developed in a poetic spirit, while the 
latter contain simply doctrines or views clothed in historic garb, or 
presented in the guise of history. It is a well-known fact that a 

^ Comp. Bunsen, Gott in der Gesch. (Part ii, Bibel, Leben, u. Weltgeschichte), p. 
101 : " I assert, that by its internal unity, and the truth of its monotheistic conscious- 
ness, this book (the Bible and its history) has controlled the consciousness of the 
world, including its noblest tribes, during many centuries ; it has realized the noblest 
hopes of mankind and authenticated its holiest anticipations, such as in moments of 
serious consciousness you feel arising in yourself." Also Pressel, supra: "If the 
gods of heathen nations are simply the reflection of the national spirit, Israel, on the 
other hand, is, in its character as the covenant people^ an organ for the erection of the 
kingdom of God, a product of the grace of God." 

^ " Go back," says Herder, " in connexion with historical writings, to the infancy 
of the world, to the poverty and needs of the writers. In this poor hovel God dwells ; 
to this childhood the Father speaks." Theophron, Werke x, p. 317. 

2 See Creuzer, Hist. Kunst d. Griechen, (Lpz., 1803), pp. 40 and IVS, where the 
ancients are quoted. 



HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 277 

controversy exists as te^ whether historic facts or philosophical 
doctrines in natural history underlie heathen mythology itself. But 
the same question has been raised with reference to the Bible, and 
we are not at liberty to set it aside without investigation. The 
distinction between legend and myth is important even for the Old 
Testament history. The former is more nearly related to actual 
history than the latter ; for the legend, even when poetically col- 
ored, contains a historical kernel, while the kernel enclosed within 
the myth is always a dogma instead of history, a religious concep- 
tion in historic garb. The task of the historian will, accordingly, 
differ as he deals with myths or with legends. In the case of the 
myth, it is needful, from the outset, to ignore the historical germ, 
in the usual acceptation of the word, and to seize upon j^jg^gj-gj^gg ^g_ 
the dogmatic germ, which, indeed, presumes a recogni- tween myth 
tion of the historic state of things. In dealing with the ^" ®^^^ ' 
legend, however, the attempt must be made to strip off the cover- 
ing which was gradually formed about the historic germ, and to 
extract that germ, so far as possible, from the enveloping shell. 
Some critics have gone to the length of including all the older his- 
tory of Israel among myths, so as to leave but little of the historical 
element beyond the theocratic idea that the Israelitish Israelites tbe 
nation was the people of God, and was described as P^^opie of God. 
such in a series of symbolical images.* But even this extreme ap- 
plication of the myth idea is decidedly different from the ruthless 
transforming of the sacred histories into nature myths, which over- 
looks every religious feature, and by which we are asked, with 
Xork,'* to find astronomical emblems; or, with Daumer and Ghil- 
lany,^ even the worship of fire and Moloch, in the purely human 
narratives of the Bible. 

Such unnatural mythologizing of history into nature, however, 
rectifies itself. The healthy historic spirit rejects it. But so much 
the more meritorious is the effort, made in the way above indicated, 
to distinguish between myth and legend by means of a thorough 
examination.* If the results of such inquiries are not always at 

^ Thus de Wette, in his Beitrage. 

^ Vergleichende Mythologie, etc., Lpz., 1836, and several other works by this writer. 

^ Comp. Rheinwald, Repertorium, 1 844. Daumer has since done penance, however, 
ani has " returned " into the bosom of the Roman Catholic Church. 

* George, Mjlhus u. Sage ; Vers, einer wiss. Entwicklung dieser Begriffe u, ihres 
Verhaltnisses zum christl. Glauben, Berlin, 183Y. "Legend and myth diverge in 
different directions ; the former gives the appearance, and from this we argue back 
to the idea; in the latter, on the contrary, the idea is given, and the appearance is 
deduced therefrom." P. 11. On the distinction in certain cases, which is fione the 
les.s relative only, and on the difficulty of always determining the character of a nar- 



278 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

once apparent, they yet lead into the ri^ht way, and toward the 
ultimate goal. It is not necessary that we should at once think of 
fraud and deceit when poetry, especially of a religious 
cessariiy fraud sort, is mentioned. This is possible only to a worldly- 
an ecei . ^ige, petrified understanding, which is incapable of 
suspecting the existence of any higher form of truth in poetry, 
while it is the special work of the latter to represent, if not bare 
and tangible realities, yet the highest form of truth. ^ However, the 
greatest prudence is necessary, on the other hand, and it is a question 
whether the word " myth," which always has a reference to the point 
of view occupied by heathenism, ought to have been transferred at 
all to the territory of the Bible.'^ The theological standpoint is that 
which regards the Bible narratives as sacred history, as compared 
with profane. Every thing contained therein, whether it be poetry, 
tradition, or actual history, relates to a single grand idea, which 
creatively controls the whole, but which does not remain merely an 
Nature of bib- abstract theory, but moves through this history and he- 
lical narrative, comes concrete in it, celebrating its consummation at 
the end in the Revelations of the New Covenant. The student who 
overlooks this feature misconceives the fundamental character of 
the history, whose peculiarity lies in the fact that this is not his- 
tory, whose limitations are fixed by its own nature, but, as one writer 
beautifully observes,^ it is " the history of God from a human point 

rative, comp, ihid.^ pp. 13, 14. With reference to the New Test., see 0. Bagge, Prin- 
cip. des Mythus im Dienst d. christl. Position, Lpz., 1865 ; comp. also Immer, m/ra, 
p. 24 : " Myth and legend, often passing over into each other, have this in common, 
that both have sprung from the unintentionally poetizing spirit of the people, and 
contain, in confused mixture, both idea and history. If the two are to be distin- 
guished from each other, the myth will designate an idea that has become embodied 
history in the mouth of the people, and legend a history which has become involved 
with ideal elements in the fancy and traditions of the people." 

* " The idea of the unconscious (naive) must necessarily be retained, unless it is de- 
sired to wholly abandon the ground of myths and legends." It is by this feature that 
that field is distinguished from that of " intentional deception and fiction." George, 
supra^ P- 15; comp. also Hauflf in the work referred to aibove, passim. It is, how- 
ever, apparent that the highest, i. e., the essentially religious, ideas, are represented 
precisely by myths (in case the designation be adopted), while the purely historical 
can claim to be religiously significant only in a secondary way. Comp. Genesis with 
the Books of Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Which is the more distinct- 
ively religious ? 

^ Comp. Schenkel, Dogm., i, p. 307, -s^-. (referring to Ewald). A similar idea holds 
true of the word oracle as applied to the prophets. The phrase " scriptural myth " 
has also been suggested, in order to avoid the analogy of the heathen myth. 

^ J. G. Mueller, Theophil, p. 246, Augusti, too, was accustomed to describe Israel- 
itish history as an uKaS "keyoiievov in the history of the world. Hegel entertained dif- 
ferent views of Jewish history at different times, as may be seen in Rosenkranz, 



HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 279 

of view, and the history of man from the divine point of view." It 
accords, upon the whole, with the laws of human development, that 
the earlier history of a people should bear a partly legendary and 
partly mythical, or epical, character, to a greater extent than the 
later, which falls within the province of historical wi'itings proper. 

The old economical and pedagogical idea, according to which God 
condescended to the level of human ideas, and entered Growth in sa- 
into the childish apprehensions of men, in order to at- c^^ed wstory. 
tract them to himself, needs only to be rendered scientifically intelli- 
gible, from a genuinely theistic point of view, in order to approve 
itself as the only tenable one in the practical field. This by no 
means excludes a true pragmatism, Avhich takes the human element 
into account, and treats it with due historical recognition of its im- 
portance, but simply provides for it a proper basis and the neces- 
sary higher aims. 

LITERATURE. 

I. EARLIER HISTORIES. 

The sources for Israelitish history are the historical books of the 
Bible, including the historical Aj)Ocrypha. For the post-exilian 
period the First Book of Maccabees is especially important. In 
addition, we have Josephus (comp. Archaeolog}^), who is a valuable 
authority for the period extending from the close of that covered by 
biblical sources down to his own time. Philo's Life of Moses has 
little historical value, because of its allegorical tendency. Among 
non-Jewish writers, the Grecian authors Herodotus, Strabo, and 
Diodorus Siculus, and the Roman Justin and Tacitus,* deserve 
mention ; also the Egyptian Manetho (B. C. 280?), whom Josephus 
cites and controverts, and upon whose existence and trustworthiness 
opinions are still divided. Eusebius, among the Christian fathers, 
treated Israelitish history, in the first books of his Ecclesiastical 
History and the Prsep. Evangelica, and others followed in his foot- 
steps. A critical treatment was inconceivable in connection with 
the theory of an exact and minute verbal inspiration, and was first 
introduced by Spinoza (Tractatus theologico-politicus), Richard 
Simon, Clericus, and others. There are other works, more or less 
critical and pragmatical, by Buddceus (1726), Humphrey Prideaux 
(1715, 1718), Shuckford (1728-38), Ilolberg (1747), and Lange 
(1775), supplemented in our times by more critical works. 

Leben Kegels, p. 49, where it will also appear how " it violentlj repelled him, and 
again, engrossed him, and gave him life-long trouble as a dark riddle " (!). 

* Comp. J. G. Mueller in Stud, u. Krit., 1843, and F. C. Meier, Judaica sen veterum 
scriptorum profanoum de rebus judaicis fragmenta, Jena, 1832. 
19 



280 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
I. HISTORY OF ISRAEL. 

Atwater, Edward E. History and Significance of the Sacred Tabernacle of the He- 
brews. lUustrated. 12mo. New York, 18T5. 

Budge, Earnest A. The History of Esarhaddon, Translated from the Cuneiform In- 
scriptions upon Cylinders and Tablets in the British Museum. 8vo. London 
and Boston, 1881. 

Delitzsch, Franz. Messianic Prophecies. Lectures. Translated from the Manu- 
script by Samuel Ives Curtiss, Professor in Chicago Theological Seminary. 8vo, 
pp. 124. Edinburgh and New York, 1880. 

Edersheim, A. History of the Jewish Nation after the Destruction of Jerusalem by 
Titus. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1856. 

Edersheim, A. The Temple, its Ministry and Services as they were in the Time of 
Christ. 12mo. London, 18*14. 

Ewald, Heinrich. The History of Israel. From the German. 8vo, 5 vols, pp. xxvii, 
423; viii, 450; ix, 332; viii, 324; viii, 520. London, 1861-18U. (Ewald's 
original is in seven volumes. Learned and laborious, independent and -even 
dogmatic in judgment, Ewald has produced a work which will long be a stand- 
ard.) 

Geiger, Abraham. Judaism and its History. Translated from the German by Mau- 
rice Mayer; with an Appendix, " Renan and Strauss." 12mo, pp. viii, 343. 
London, 1865. 

Hengstenberg, E. "W. History of the Kingdom of God Under the Old Testament. 
Translated from the German. 8vo, 2 vols, pp. xi, 469; xlvii, 407. Edinburgh, 
18T3. 

Huidekoper, Frederic. Judaism at Rome. B. C. 1Q to A. D. 140. 8vo, pp. xiv, 
588. New York, 18^6. 

Humphrey, E, P. Sacred History from the Creation to the Giving'of the Law. 8vo, 
pp. xiii, 540. New York, 1888. 

Hunter, P. H. After the Exile. A Hundred Years of Jewish History and Litera- 
ture. Part I. The Close of the Exile to the Coming of Ezra. 8vo. Edinburgli 
and London, 1890. 

Knappert, J. The Religion of Israel. A Manual. Translated by Richard A. Arm- 
strong. 12mo, pp. 283. Boston, 1878. 

Kuenen, A. The Religion of Israel. Translated from the Dutch by A. H. May. 
8vo, 3 vols. London, 1875. New edition, 1882. 

Kuenen, A. The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. Translated from the Dutcli by 
A. Milroy, with an Introduction by J, Muir. 8vo. London, 1877. (Kuenen 
belongs to the advanced school of liberals in Old Testament criticism.) 

Kurtz, John Henry. Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament. 8vo. Edinburgh, 
1863. 

Kurtz, John Henry. Manual of Sacred History. A Guide to the Understanding of 
the Divine Plan of Salvation, According to its Historical Development. Trans- 
lated from the sixtli German edition, b}'- Charles F. SchaefTer. Third edition. 
12mo, pp. XX, 436. Philadelphia, 1857. 

Lenormant, Franyois, The Beginnings of History, According to the Bible and the 
Traditions of Oriental Peoples, from the Creation of Man to tho Deluge. Trans- 
lated from the second French edition, with an Introduction by Francis Brown 
8vo, pp. XXX, 588. New York, 1883. 



HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 281 

Maurice, Frederick Denison. Patriarchs and Lawgivers of the Old Testament. 
Nineteen Sermons on the First Lessons, etc. Second edition. 8vo, pp. xiv, 466. 
London, 1855. 

Maurice, Frederick Denison. Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament. Twenty- 
seven Sermons. Svo. London, 1855; also New York. Second edition. 12mo, 
pp. xi, xxxii, 347. London, 1867. 

M'Oaul, Alexander. The Old Paths: a Comparison of the Principles and Doctrines 
of Modern Judaism with the Rehgion of Moses and the Prophets. Svo. Lon- 
don, 1837. 

Michaelis, J. D. Commentaries on the Law of Moses. Svo, 4 vols. London, 
1814. 

Mills, Abraham. The Ancient Hebrews ; with an Introductory Essay concerning 
the World Before the Flood. 12mo, pp. vii, 443. New York, 1856. 

Milman, H. H. The History of the Jews, from the Earliest Period down to 
Modern Times. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. viii, 509; vii, 497; vii, 479. New York, 
1864. (This is a revised edition, and forms one of the most convenient 
manuals.) 

Montefiore, C. G. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Eeligion as illustrated by 
the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. The Hibbert Lectures for 1892. Svo, 
pp. xxiv, 576. London and Edinburgh, 1892. 

Nutt, J. W. A Sketch of Samaritan History, Dogma, and Literature. Svo. Lon- 
don, 18Y4. (Tliis book forms the introduction to the Fragments of a Samaritan 
Targura.) 

Nutt, J. W. Records of the Past, being English Translations of the As? 
Syrian and Egyptian Monuments, Published under the Sanction of the So- 
ciety of Biblical Archaeology. 12 vols. London, 1878. Also a second series 
in 6 vols. 

Raphall, Morris J. Post-Biblical History of the Jews, from the Close of the Old 
Testament till the Bestruction of the Second Tem[le. 12mo, 2 vols. pp. 405, 
486. New York, 1866. 

Rawlinson, George. The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern "World. Svo, 
4 vols. London, 1867. Second edition. Svo, 3 vols., pp. xxi, 590 ; vii, 580; viii, 
567. New York, 1873. (This work comprises the history, geography, and an- 
tiquities of Chaldea, Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and Persia. It is the standard 
in this department of study.) 

Rawlinson, George. History of Ancient Egypt. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1881. 

Riehm, Ed. Messianic Prophecy. Translated from the German by J. Jefferson. 
Svo. Edinburgh, 1875. 

Schrader, Eberhatd. The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament. 
Translated from the second enlarged German edition, with additions by 
Owen C. Whitehouse. With a map. Svo, 2 vols. London and Edinburgh, 
1885. 

Slinw, Duncan. The History and Philosophy of Judaism ; or, A Critical and Philo- 
sophical Analysis of the Jewish Religion. Svo. Edinburgh, 1787. (A reply 
to Hume.) 

Sime, James. The Kingdom of All-Israel : Its History, Literature, and Worship. 
Svo, pp. 621. London, 1883. (A defense of t^^e genuineness and antiquity of 
the Pentateuch.) 

Smith, George. The Hebrew People; or. The History and Religion of the Israelites? 
from the Origin of the Nation to the Time of Christ. Svo, 2 vols. London, 
1850. 



282 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Smith, George. The Chaldean Account of Genesis. Containing the Description of 
the Creation, the Fall of Man, the Deluge, etc., from the Cuneiform Inscriptions. 
New edition, 8vo. London, 1880; New York, 1876. 

Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries : An Account of Explorations and Discoveries 
on the Site of Nineveh, during 1873 and 1874, with Illustrations. New edition. 
Edited by A. H. Sayce. 8vo, pp. 461. London, 1880. New York, 1875. (Mr. 
Smith's story is well told, and the additions contributed by him to our knowl- 
edge are important.) 

Smith, George. The Assyrian Eponym Canon, from the Death of Solomon to Nebu- 
chadnezzar, containing Translations of the Documents, and an Account of the 
Evidence on the Comparative Chronology of the Assyrian and Jewish King, 
doms, from the Death of Solomon to Nebuchadnezzar. 8vo. London, 1875. (Mr, 
A. H. Sayce says that this book is indispensable for tlie student of the Bible.) 

Smith, Thornley. History of Moses, viewed in Connection with Egyptian Antiqui 
ties and the Customs of the Times in which he Lived. 12mo, pp. 300. Edin 
burgh, 1860. 

Smith, Thornley. Zaphnath-Paaneah ; or. The History of Joseph, viewed in Connec 
tion with Egyptian Antiquities and the Customs of the Times in which he Lived 
12mo, pp. viii, 267. London, 1856. 

Smith. William. The Old Testament Historj--, from the Creation to the Return of the 
Jews from Captivity. 8vo. London, 1865. 12mo. New York, 1869, 1871. 

Smith, W. Robertson. The Prophets of Israel and tlieir Place in History, to the Close 
of the Eighth Century B. C Eiglit Lectures. 8vo, pp. 444. P]dinburgh, 1882 ; 
also New York. (Sequel to the Old Testament in the Jewish Church. Treats 
the topics with great freedom. His position is that of the most advanced critics.) 

Stanle}^, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. 3 parts. 8vo, pp. xl, 
572. Seventh edition. New York, 1877. (Very readable, even if not very 
critical.) ^ 

Strauss, Frederick. The Pilgrimage to Jerusalem : a Picture of Judaism in the Cen- 
tury which Preceded the Advent of our Saviour. 2 vols. Boston, 1825. 

Whitelaw, Thomas. Patriarchal Times. 8vo, pp. 309. London, 1887. 

Wilkins, A. Phoenicia and Israel. A Historical Essay. 8vo. London, 1871. 

Wines, E. C. Commentaries on the Laws of the Ancient Hebrews, with an Introduc- 
tory Essay on Civil Society and Government. 8vo. New York, 1853. New 
edition, 1869. (A work which has been highly commended.) 

II. BIBLICAL CHARACTERS. 

(Anon.) The Greatest of the Prophets (Moses), by the author of "Essays on the 
Church." 12mo, pp. 340. London, 1875. 

Allen. R. Abraham : His Life, Times, and Travels. 8vo. London, 1875. 

Beecher, Henry Ward. Bible Studies. Covering the Earh^ Books of the Old Testa- 
ment from Genesis to Ruth. 8vo, pp. 438. New York, 1893. 

Blackie, William G. David, King of Israel: the Divine Plan and Lessons of his 
Life. London, 1860. 

Blunt, Henry. Lectures on the History of Elisha. Fourth edition., 12mo, pp. xi, 
285. London, 1842. 

Blunt, Henry. Eight Lectures upon the History of Jacob. Delivered during Lent, 
1828, at the Church of St. Luke, Chelsea. Eleventh edition. 12mo, pp. 204. 
London. 1835. 

Burn, Samuel Clift. The Prophet Jonah. 8vo, pp. x, 302. London, 1880. 

Candlish, Robert S. Scripture Characters. 8vo, pp. viii, 367. London, 1857. 



HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 283 

Chandler, S. A Critical History of the Life of David. 8vo, pp. xiv, 588. Oxford, 

1853. 
Cheyne, 'L\ K. Jeremiali : His Life and Times. 12mo, pp. 205. New York, 1888. 

(Men of the Bible Series.) 
Deane, W. J. Abraliam : His Life and Times. 12mo, pp. 179. New York, 1888. 

(Men of the Bible Series.) 
Deune, W. J. Samuel and Saul : Their Lives and Times. 12mo, pp. 213. New York, 

1888. Also volumes on Daniel, David, and Joshua. (Men of the Bible Series.) 
Driver, S. R. Isaiah ; His Life and Times. 12mo, pp. 214. New York, 1888. 

(Men of the Bible Series.) 
Duncan, William 0. The Life, Character, and Acts of John the Baptist ; and the Ke- 

lation of his Ministry to the Christian Dispensation. Based upon the " Johannes 

der Taufer" of L. von Rohdeu. 12mo, pp. viii, 261. New York, 1853. 
Dykes, J. 0. Abraham, the Friend of God : a Study of Old Testament History. 

8vo. London, 1877. 
Farrar, F. W. Solomon: His Life and Times. 12mo, pp. 217. New York, 1888. 

(Men of the Bible Series.) 
Floy, James. Old Testament Cliaracters Delineated and Illustrated. 12mo, pp. 355. 

New York, 1866. 
Gilflllan, George. The Bards of the Bible. 12mo, pp. xxi, 378. New York, 1851. 
Gould, S. B. Legends of the Patriarchs and Prophets and Other Old Testament 

Characters. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1872. 
Gregory, Alexander. The Patriarch Jacob, and Some of the Lessons of his Life. 

12mo, pp. viii, 356. London, 1878. 
Hastings, Frederic. Obscure Characters and Minor Lights of Scripture. 12mo, pp. 

284. New York, 1885. (Mostly on persons of the Old Testament.) 
Hills, 0. A. Companion Characters. A Series of Studies in Bible Biography. 8vo, 

pp. 308. New York, 1883 
Hood, The Vicountess. Sketches of Female Scripture Characters. 16mo, pp. 210. 

London, 1854. (Discusses Eve, Rebecca, Miriam, Ruth, the Shunammite woman, 

Esther, the sisters of Bethany, the Virgin Mary, Judith.) 
Houghton, Ross C. John the Baptist, the Forerunner of our Lord : His Life and 

. Work. 12mo, pp. v, 372. New York, 1889. 
Hunter, Henry. Sacred Biography; or, The History of the Patriarchs. 8vo. New 

York, 1844. 
Hunter, P. H. The Story of Daniel : His Life and Times. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1884. 
Kellogg, A. H. Abraham, Joseph, and Moses in Egypt. 8vo, pp. 160. New York, 

1887. 
Kempe, John Edward. Job : a Course of Lectures preached in the Parish Church of 

St. James, Westminster, on the Fridays in Lent, A. D. 1855. 18mo, pp. v, 182. 

London, 1855. 
Kempe, John Edward. Elijah : a Course of Lectures preached in the Parish Church 

of St. James, Westminster, on the Fridays in Lent, A. D. 1862. 18mo, pp. viii, 

162. London, 1862. 
King, B. E. Ezra and Nehemiah. Examples for Priests and Laymen. 32mo. Lon- 
don, 1878. 
Krummacher, F. W. Elijah the Tishbite. Pp.310. London and New York, 1852. 
Krummacher, F. W. David, King of Israel. Translated by Marston. Pp. 540. Lon- 
don, 1867. 
Long, John Marshall. Gideon and the Judges. 12mo, pp. xii, 201. New York, 

1888. (Men of the Bible Series.) 



284 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Macduff, J. R. The Prophet of Fire ; or, The Life and Times of Ehjah, with their 

Lessons. 8vo, pp. ix, 351. London, 1864. 
Macduff, J. R. The Healing Waters ; or, The Story of Naaman. An Old Testament 

Chapter on Providence and Grace. 12mo. London, 1873. 
Martin, H. The Prophet Jonah: His Character and Mission to Nineveh. 8vo 

Edinburgh, 1817. 
McCausland, D. The Builders of Babel. 8vo. London, 1871 and 1874. 
McCuUagh, Archibald. The Peerless Prophet ; or, The Life and Times of John the 

Baptist. 16mo, pp. 146. New York, 1888. 
Meyer, F. B. Abraham; or, The Obedience of Faith. 12mo, pp. vi, 205. New York 

and Chicago. 1893. (Also volumes on Joseph, Moses, and Elijah.) 
Meyer, F. B. Israel : A Prince with God. The Story of Jacob Retold. 12mo, pp. 

180. New York. (Concise and suggestive.) 
Milligan, W. Elijali : His Life and Times. I2mo, pp. viii, 205. New York, 1888. 

(Men of the Bible Series.) 
Morris, J. W. Sacred Biography, Chronologically Arranged ; or. Lives of All tlie 

Principal Persons Mentioned in Scripture : forming a Connected History of the 

Old and New Testament. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 544, 645. London, no date. 
Oxenden, A. Portraits from the Bible. Vol. I, Old Testament Series ; Vol. II, 

New Testament Series. 12mo. London, 1871. 
Pearse, Mark Guy. Elijah, the Man of God. 12mo, pp. 120. New York, 1892. 
Raleigh, A. The Story of Jonah. 8vo. London, 1866. 
Rawlinson, George. Moses : His Life and Times. 12mo, pp. 206. New York, 

1888. (Men of the Bible Series.) 
Rawlinson, George. The Kings of Israel and Judah. 12mo, pp. 238. New York, 

1888. (Men of the Bible Series.) 
Rawlinson, George. Ezra and Neheraiah : Their Lives and Times. 12mo, pp. 182. 

New York. (Men of the Bible Series.) 
Reade, Charles. Bible Characters. 12mo, pp. ii, 106. New York, 1889. (Reahstic 

studies of Nehemiah, Jonah, David, and St. Paul.) 
Scott, W. A. The Giant Judge ; or. The Story of Samson, the Hebrew Hercules. 

12mo, pp. xviii, 324. San Francisco, 1859. 
Smith, Thornley. The History of Joshua, viewed in Connection with the Topography 

of Canaan and the Customs of the Times in which he Lived. Fifth edition. 

12mo, pp. xiv, 285. Edinburgh, 1881. 
Smith, Thornley. The Prophet of Sorrow ; or. The Life and Times of Nehemiah. 

12mo, pp. XX, 298. London, 1875. 
Steel, Robert. Samuel the Prophet and the Lessons of His Life and Times. 12mo, 

pp. 452. London, 1860. (Gives a hst of works referred to.) 
Stowell, Hugh. Lectures on the Character of Neheraiah. Second edition. 8vo, pp. 

xi, 326. London, 1855. 
Symington, A. M. The Story of Esther the Queen. 8vo. London, 1878. 
Taylor, "William M. David, King of Israel: His Life and its Lessons. 8vo, pp. 443. 

New York, 1875. (Also volumes on Moses, Elijah, Daniel, and Ruth.) 
Tomkins, H. G. Studies on the Times of Abraham. 4to. London, 1878. 
Tuck, Robert. Revelation by Character. Illustrated from Old Testament Lives. 

12mo. New York, 1893. 
Tuck, Robert. The Age of the Great Patriarchs from Adam to Jacob. 8vo, 2 vols. 

London, 1880-1. 
Vandyke, Joseph S. Through the Prison to the Throne. Illustrations of Life from 

the Biography of Joseph. Second edition. 12mo, pp. 245. New York, 1884. 



THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 28: 

Vaadyke, Joseph S. From Gloom tx> G-ladness : lUustratious of Life from the Biog- 
raphy of Esther, 12rao, pp. xii, 269. New York, 1883. 

Wharton, M. B. Famous Women of the Old Testament: a Series of Popular Lec- 
tures delivered in the First Baptist Cliurch, Montgomery, Ala. (Eve, Sarali, 
Rebekah, Rachel, Miriam, Ruth, Deborah, Jephtlia's Daugliter, Delilah, the Witch 
of Endor, Hannah, Abigail, tlie Queen of Sheba, Jezebel, the Woman of Shunem, 
and Esther.) i2mo, pp. viii, 318. Xew York, 1889. 

Willett, William M. The Life and Times of Herod the Great, as Connected Histor- 
ically and Prophetically with the Coming of Christ, 12mo, pp. x, 384. Pliila- 
delphia, 1860. 

Wiseman, Luke H. Men of Faith; or, Sketches from the Book of Judges. 8vo. 
London, 1870. 



SECTION in.' 

THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 

J. Ch. Doederlem, De hist. J. tenendae tradenseque necessitate ac mode, Progrr. 1-iv, Jena, 
1783-86 (also in the Opusc. theol., Jena, 1789). On the different tendencies In harmony with 
which, and for which, the hiographer of Jesus may labor, comp. Bertholdt's Krit. Journal, 
vol. v (1816), No. 4, pp. 225-345. Comp. infra, the American Literature on the Life of Jesus. 

The life of Christ, as the Sou of God, is to be regarded as the 
central glory of Scripture history, in which all the rays Christ's life the 
of former historical manifestations of God are concen- centre of his- 
trated, and from which they again radiate, to extend ^^^' 
over, the whole history of the Church. 

Should the life of Christ be regarded as a special branch in the 
course of theological science? Should it not, rather, shine forth 
from all the other branches ? It results from the exegesis of the 
Gospels, stands at the head of Church History, and is the very soul 
of apologetics, dogmatics, ethics, and practical theology.^ But for 
this very reason, it is essential that we gain as satisfactory a view 
of this life as possible. This involves grave difficulties, of course; 
for the Gospels do not furnish, as is conceded by the most evangel- 

^ "The life of Jesus is the central point of a newly rising light for the history of 
Christianity." Ammon, Fortbildung d. Christenthnras zur Weltrehgion, I, p. 133. "The 
life of Jesus reconciles all the. interests of ppeculaiion, the religious feeling and his- 
tory. It presents to our notice a personality, for the possession of which heaven and 
earth are in dispute, isut which may not be exclusively assigned to either; whicli con- 
sists of fragments and elements whicli are transmitted to us by tradition and docu- 
mentary records, and which, nevertheless, cannot be made to fit into our moulds; 
which is conceived as the type of every human being, and yet appears under circum- 
stances and in situations such as ours are not now and never can be." Ibid., iv, 
p. 277, sq. " The life of Jesus is a biography which flows out, as does no other, into 
a large and extended history of nations and even of the world. It describes an indi- 
vidual life, but the life of a character who is, antecedently, in the exaltation of liis self- 
consciousness and in his spiritual might, a sympto n of the world's history, and truly a 
new stage in the development of the human spirit, and who, in the next place, be- 



280 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

ical scholars/ a minute and complete biography, but only meinor' 
abilia {dTToiivrjfjLovevuara)^ which, moreover, while partially coinci- 
dent, yet diverge from each other in their relations and points of 
view. John, the most confidential friend of Jesus, said at last : 
"There are also many other things which Jesus did, the which, if 
they should be written every one, I suppose that even the world it- 
fself could not contain the books that should be written." Hence it 
becomes necessary to subject the Gospel narratives to criticism, as a 
preliminary measure. Here, again, exegetical and philological crit- 
icism turns over its work to the investigations of historical criticism. 
The former deals only with the authenticity of the Gospel records, 
as belonging to the canon, and with their relation to each other, 
while the latter inquires into the credibility of the sacred writers 

„ ^. .^. themselves. There is no srround for alarm at such 
Negative cnti- .... 

cism no ground criticism, since, by the judgment of strictly orthodox 
theologians, both these writings and their contents fall 
within the range of the same historical criticism to which all his- 
torical monuments are subject.^ It may even be admitted that dis- 
crepancies occur in the Gospels, but that does not necessitate the 
conclusion that the Gospel, as a whole, contradicts itself. It would 
therefore be, not piety, but frivolous opposition to God's order, to 

came, by the labors of a brief career, the creator of a new and higher cosmos, whose 
world days are to be reckoned by thousands of years, and are to be measured by the 
circumference of the earth." Keim, Gesch. Jesu v. Nazara, I, p. 1, and the passage 
from Origen, De princ, 4, 5, quoted there. 

1 By Hess, for instance, in the Leben Jesu. 

2 Ebrard, Kritik d. evang. Geschichte, i, p. 2 : " It follows, from the nature of the 
case, that a photographic picture of the Saviour could not be given at all ; for a per- 
fect representation of the Saviour in a single picture was impossible, in viev/ of his 
universal character and the unavoidable narrowness with which he would be appre- 
hended by the consciousness of a single observer, and, consequently, in the representa- 
tion of a single writer. The entire Christ could only be presented to view by a number 
of descriptive pictures, the whole combined so as to oblige the observer to view them 
as a unit. God would not deprive us of this combined view. That is to say, he would 
not take from us the personal, scientific reconstruction of his image, upon the basis 
of a historical investigation of the several representations of Christ which are con- 
tained in the New Testament. The application of historical criticism to the Bible is 
certainly an infinitely complicated and wearisome task, and one that can ever be only 
approximately completed. But much has been gained when the task has been defi- 
nitely devolved upon, and honestly recognized by, theology, in the spirit of renouncing 
all unbelieving fear." Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, p. 308 sq. Comp. also Immer, Die Ge- 
schichts-quellen des Lebens Jesu (Lecture at Berne) in the Prot, Vortrage, V, '7, Ber- 
lin, 1873, p. 28 : "All research into the sources of the life of Christ can have no other 
end than to free the pure and concrete image of Jesus from the scattered traits in 
which it is enveloped, without which work the influence emanating from him, and the 
results originating with him, are inconceivable." 



THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 237 

refuse to see this fact, and to seek to avoid such critical labor under 
the questionable plea that damage to the Christian faith criticism nec- 
must result from such an undertaking. The only essen- Jg^'JJand^ "he 
tial consideration at this point is, that criticism should Gospels. 
occupy the proper point of view. In recent times it has been urged 
that an entire absence of predisposition is necessary. This is im- 
possible in any absolute sense, for even they who make this de- 
mand have prepossessions ; for example, as to the possibility or im- 
possibility of miracles. But a developed doctrine of Christ (Chris- 
tology) is not to furnish the rule of procedure, any more than dog- 
matics may be allowed to govern exegesis. 

The life of Jesus is matter for history only in so far as it is defi- 
nitely human. The unprejudiced study of that life must, and will 
of itself, lead to the recognition of its divine element, but it must 
not be postulated d priori in dogmatic formulae, or imposed upon 
the history.^ The student who makes the life of Jesus an object of 
scientific investigation will, nevertheless, enter upon it with a cer- 
tain amount of preconceptions. He knows what life it is which is to 
be studied. But the sacred awe ^ with which he enters on his task 
can in no way harm historical impartiality; on the contrary, a 
spiritual and vivid treatment of any life, as well as that of the 
Saviour, is impossible without it.^ It is as impossible to comprehend 

* Comp. Hase, Leben Jesu, § 14. 

"^ Comp. the confessions of Lavater and Anna Maria v, Schurmann, in the preface 
to Neander's Life of Jesus. " The life of the Christian," remarks the latter, " is 
the best biography of Jesus." 

2 " The enumeration of outward fortunes in a career is unintelligible and dead with- 
out an apprehension or idea of the individual life itself, from which, as the innermost 
point in the life, all externalities may be explained." Hase, Life of Jesus (Bost. ed.), 
p. 21. " The self consciousness of Jesus of Nazareth must be clearly before the eyes 
of the Christian, as an actual historical fact which is to explain a true philosophy." 
Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, p. xliii. " The personality of Jesus stands before us as the con- 
necting link between two worlds. It stands between the two developments of the old 
and the new worlds, not as an effect of the old world, but as its consummation ; not as 
a mere harbinger of the new, but as its enduring type, and as a fountain of life to 
mankind through the Spirit." Ihid., Gott in der Gesch., p. 60 ; comp. p. 100. " He 
was man. He was neither Jew nor Greek, prince nor priest, rich nor mighty, but, 
in contrast with them all, a man. He lived and died for mankind. But for this very 
reason he is called, and is the image of, the Son of God, as none other before or 
after him. His mortal, finite being had truly become a likeness of God, a divine nature." 
" The real centre in the life of Jesus lies in his consciousness. It is, however, by no 
means merely the idea of the unity of the divine and human natures that constitutes the 
peculiarity of his consciousness, for such an idea was present in a hazy form in both 
Plato and Aristotle. It is rather the consciousness of a real union of the Divine and 
human natures in his person in absolute energy, so that in this consciousness are united 
not only the fulness of the Deity with the fulness of his own inner life, but also the 



288 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

the life of the Saviour by refusing to measure it by its own rule, and 
to trace each one of its expressions back to our own need of salva- 
tion, as it is to understand the life of a mother who sacrifices herself 
for her children, where the only conception of greatness is that be- 
longing to conquerors or artists. Something that is immeasurable 
will still remain in this unique personality. Besides, while the dis- 
tinction between a historical and a real Christ is wholly inadmissible 
on the plan of absolutely separating between them, and connecting 
them only in outward form, as though by accident, it is yet certain 
that when we resolve the life of Jesus into its separate elements, 
and follow it step by step, or trace it feature by feature, we often 
find ourselves required to supplement, from the idea, matters for" 
which no definite historical data can be found. However, this 
must not be an arbitrary idea, constructed and introduced into 
the subject by ourselves, but it is rather one to be gained as 
the sum of historical inquiry. As Scripture explains Scripture, 

^^ ,., , ^ so does the life of Jesus as a whole explain the 
The life of Je- , , . 

susitsownex- separate features in that life. The life of Jesus con- 
p ana ion. tains its own measure — the absolute measure of the 
Deity glorifying itself in human nature. The attributes which 
constitute the peculiar character of Christ are not, therefore, to be 
at once excluded from the range of historical inquiry as transcend- 
ing the bounds of human conditions, and impossible, but must be 
taken into account in the development of his humanity. Unless 
this be done, the picture will crumble in our hands, and we shall 
obtain only an inadequate and Ebionitic fragment, instead of a 
thoroughly human and really historical portrait. We cannot, and 
should not, remove the picture of Christ from the golden canvas 
upon which it has been painted, not by the fancy of men, but by 
the finger of God, even though we attempt to follow the lines of 
the drawing by historical methods, and seek to arrange them, so 
Spiritual sym- far as may be possible, by the application of critical 

pathy necessa- pj-Qcesses. In this work the critical effort to combine 
ry for correct -i 

criticism. must be aided by the insight which belongs to the con- 

genial spirit of a religious disposition. 

entire dealing of God with the entire history of his being, yea, the Deity with human- 
ity." J. P. Lange, Gesch. d. Kirehe, i, p. 349. Comp. Kliefoth, Einl. .in d. Dogmen- 
gesch., p. 39. Karl Ritter has also expressed himself well in opposition to an un- 
spiritual and atomistic treatment of the life of Jesus : " His entire life lies open and 
clear before us like a charming landscape, with no cloud to interrupt the rays of light, 
which, without the tedious explanations of an uninvited guide, we comprehend with 
sacred joy at every step, upon which we stroll in pleasure, and the heart bounds with 
exalted premonitions. This place soon becomes our home, and upon it we could desire 
to live in joy and sadness until we die." Lebensbild von Kramer, vol. i, p. 232 sq. 



THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 289 

The portrait of Christ as outlined in the New Testament writings 
was compared, even before a mythical interpretation was thought 
of, to a torso, upon which the imagination of successive centuries 
has wrought its improvements.^ The comparison is unjust, inas- 
much as the torso lacJis the essential feature, the countenance ; and 
it is precisely the countenance that shines forth in the Gospels, 
with genuinely human lineaments, from the surrounding glory of 
the Deity, while the complete outlining of the members of the 
body, as with paintings of the old German school, is either want- 
ing, or at least leaves much to be desired in the drawing. But the 
case is here as it is with every other human and historical counte- 
nance, which differs greatly in accordance with the different points 
of view from which we regard it, or with the light in which differ- 
ent painters apprehend it. Christ seemed different to ciffereutviews 
the world of the Middle Ages from what he does to the of Christ. 
world of our time. Zinzendorf, Herder, Schleiermacher, and others, 
each, in his own way, arrived at a different conception of him. 
This, however, need by no means frighten us from attempting to 
solve the problem, nor force us to accept the alternative of " either 
investing the Jewish Messiah with all the attributes which the the- 
ology of the Jews ascribes to him, or of furnishing a natural history 
of the Prophet of Nazareth, such as Venturini wrote." ^ For both 
are caricatures, the original for which is yet, even approximately, 
to be discovered. Still less are we authorized to dispense with any 
historical Christ, and to search for the Redeemer of the ,^ ^., 

' _ Absurdity of 

world solely in the region of myths, on the ground that the mythical 
some things cannot be explained and fitted with cer- ^^^^* 
tainty into the framework of history. This would be to render 
the inexplicable yet more inexplicable, since Christianity without a 
historical Christ would remain an incomprehensible riddle, and the 
Church of Christ a historical monstrosity. The proper course is, 
while making use of historical criticism, with other agencies, "to 
have confidence in God and in the truth, which is much nearer to 
us than we think, and cheerfully expect that assured and certain 
results will, in the end, be realized through such investigations."^ 

^ Kahler, Supranaturalismus und Rationalismus, p. 117. 

2 See Rohr's Krit. Predigerbibl., vol. 18, No. 1, p. 13. Comp. Briefe iiber den Ra- 
tionalismus, p. 26 sqq. 

3 Ammon, supra, i, p. 135. 



2G0 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION IV. 

HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 

Biographical effort began in the early centuries with an external 
collocation of sources, ' and this method continued to be employed 
down to Bengel. The productions of the Middle Ages were "with 
out criticism, fantastic, and legendary, and consisted chiefly in works 
for entertainment and devotion." "^ The old Saxon harmony of the 
Gospels, entitled "Heliand," is, however, of great importance for 
the history of civilization and literature,^ and with this should be 
compared that of the Weissenburg monk, Otfried, of the ninth 
century.* In other regards, " the life of Christ was represented in 
the 'passion-plays' in the most literal sense, through the aid of 
sculpture, painting, and the dramatic art."^ The dogmatic ele- 
ment still predominated after the Reformation. It was not until 
after the Thirty Years' War that " the manifestation of Christ was 
intensely studied for its own sake." The theology of Herrnhut 
forms the leading agency in this " worship of Jesus," which now 
began to be manifested in hymns and prayers. People became ac- 
customed to regard Jesus as the concrete God, sometimes irrespect- 
ively of his relation to the Trinity, and his history was a history 
of God, in which character it yielded Klopstock the material for 
epical treatment. Rational reflection, which felt itself called to 
consider the human element in a human point of view, asserted its 
claim in opposition to this undeniably monophysite tendency. 

The attack by the Wolfenbiittel Fragmentist, in 1777 and the fol- 
lowing years, forced apologetics into this human method of appre- 
hending the psychology of Jesus and of estimating the moral bear- 
ings of his plan. The critical and pragmatical treatment of the 
life of Christ dates, accordingly, from this time ; that is, from the 
time modern ideas became established. This method has resulted 
^.^ ' ^ in making of the life of Jesus a subordinate branch of 

Life of Jesus a o 

separate his- theological study, SO that what is now understood by 
toricai study. ^^^^ phrase is certainly a " modern idea." ' Foremost in 
this period were the apologetic and somewhat rational representa- 

' Monotessaron, Harmonia, Synopsis. Comp, Hase, Life of Jesus, p. 20. '^ Ibid. 

3 Editions of Hayne (2d ed.), Paderborn, 1873, and Sievers, Halle, 1878. Trans- 
lated by Simrock, 2d ed., Elberfeld, 1866; and by Grein, Cassel, 1869. 

* The "Christ," edited by Kelle, Ratisbon, 1856-59, 2 vols. Translated by the 
same, Prague, 1870. 

^ Rosenkranz, Leben Hegels, p. 50. 

* Strauss, Leben Jesu fiirs Volk, 1864, p. 1. 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 2C1 

tions of Reinhard and Hess.^ The divine was separated from the 
human, so far as was possible, and attention was called to the dif- 
ference between the Johannean view and that of the synoptics. 
Herder, for instance, viewed the life of the " Son of God " and of 
the "Son of Man" in accordance with these two distinct points of 
view. There was no lack of coarse reactions, however, in connexion 
with the humanizing process, and rude hands tore away the tender 
screen which had preserved the picture of the Lord from being 
profaned. "Natural histories of the Prophet of Nazareth" were 
published by Bahrdt, Venturini, and, later, by Langs- p ,, , 
dorf, and it became a favorite employment to draw tween Chnst 
parallels between Socrates and Christ, often to the dis- 
advantage of the latter. This, certainly, grew out of an utter mis- 
understanding of the personality of either. Others, like Paulus 
and Greiling, acting from good intentions, sought to eliminate the 
miraculous from the life of Jesus, in order to recommend him as a 
wise and humane teacher to a conceited agre that was inclined to 
make a mock of him. The later theology, beginning with Schleier- 
macher, again took up the ideal element in Christ, and sought to 
prove it in his historical manifestation. Schleiermacher himself, in 
this spirit, but with independent criticism, in 1819, and again in 
1832, delivered lectures on the life of Christ. These lectures were 
not published until their author had been dead thirty years, but 
they were nevertheless timely, though no longer adequate to com- 
plete the argument in all its details. Hase proceeded in a method 
similar to that of Schleiermacher, in prosecuting the task of show- 
ing " how by divine appointment, through the free act of his spirit 
and the interference of his age, Jesus of Nazareth became the 
Redeemer of the world." 

These various attempts were at once neutralized by Strauss, who 
cut the knot with the sword, not, indeed, by denying strauss' Lif e of 
that a Jesus had lived, but by reducing his historicnl Jesus. 
existence almost to a historical nullity, since he recognized in the 
Gospel records only a mythical expression of ideas, unconsciously 
and innocently invented by the infant community of Christians, as 
influenced by the extajit prophecies of the Old Covenant. This 
work was designed to preserve the poetically speculative truth of 
the ideal Christ, but its tendency was to dissolve him into air, like 
an unsubstantial image in the clouds. The hypothesis of Strauss 

' See the titles of the works below, and comp. Hase, supra, and Ammon, Fortbild- 
ung d. Christenthums zur Weltreliinon, vol. iv, p. 166 sqg. It is remarkable that 
Hess received the impulse to treat the life of Jesus from Middleton's Biography of 
Cicero. 



^9S HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

was modified by Weisse, *who sought to discover the mystery of 
the life of Jesus, in part, by introducing the higher biology of mag- 
netism, and other factors, but rejected, on the mythical hypoth- 
esis, what could not be forced into this magic circle. Bruno Bauer, 
finally, passed beyond Strauss, claiming to find not harmless poetry, 
but designed inventions, in the descriptions of the evangelists. 
The Jew, Salvador, regarded the life of Jesus from the standpoint 
of modern Jewish enlightenment, but retained the historical per- 
sonality of Jesus, reducing it, of course, to that of a simple Jewish 
reformer and demagogue. 

All of these negative efforts resulted simply in a more thorough 
investigation of the subject under discussion. Not only were num- 
berless works issued in reply to Strauss, but the life of Jesus itself 
was studied with a universal breadth of inquiry that could only be 
productive of gain to science, even though inquirers occupied very 
diverse points of view, and were influenced by very various pre- 
possessions.^ We refer also to the Dutch works of Meijboom, Van 
Oosterzee, and others. Bunsen announced, prospectively, a new 
" Life of Jesus," but it never appeared.'' Ewald's History of Israel, 
on the other hand, entered on the life of Jesus with the fifth volume, 
the author expressly designating it the " Life of Christ,'''^ and treat- 
ing it as such, making use of independent criticism upon details, 
but preserving the sacred contents as a whole. This has influenced 
the character of his representations also, in which Strauss was un- 
able to find more than a " deafening volume of words and phrases." 
Riggenbach's lectures present the portrait of the " Lord Jesus " in 
a simple manner, their tendency being apologetic and harmonizing, 
combined, however, with the steady aim to do justice to the ques- 
tions raised by science by a thorough examination of details. 
A period of cessation and quietude now seemed to open, which 
Renan. was suddenly disturbed by the publication of the Life 
of Jesus by Renan, in France, through which an agitation was pro- 
duced that equaled the one caused by Strauss thirty years before. 
Numerous editions and translations have placed it upon the same 
level with the most recent productions of the lighter literature of 
France for the great world of readers, which it is designed to 
reach. The science of Germany could not rest satisfied with the 

' " The numerous lives of Jesus of the better class represent a new dedication of the 
theological temple, which, it is to be hoped, will not speedily be brought to a close. . . . 
But it will be necessary to remain patient if the variegated merchandise of ordered 
or fabricated works connects itself with the dedication." J. P. Lange, Pref. to Leben 
Jesu, pp. iii, iv. 

* Preface to Hippolytus, p. xlix. 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 293 

work, thougli in it the learning of tlie Orientalist vied with the cap- 
tivating rhetoric of the fine writer to warp the judgment of senti- 
mental amateurs. Schenkel, who had expressed the opinion that 
the great theme could only be adequately treated upon German soil, 
now came to the front with his Character of Jesus Portrayed, 
which had been in preparation during an extended period. Simul- 
taneously with this work Strauss published, not a new edition of 
his former work, but a new revision, adapted for the people. In 
this, as in the other work, the criticism of sources comes into play, 
combined with the appropriation of the negative results obtained 
by other laborers in this field. An enormous number of replies 
and treatises in opposition to the works of Strauss, Schenkel, and 
Kenan were written by scholars in both the Roman Catholic and 
Protestant communions; so that we again stand in the midst of a 
crisis, which was introduced by those works. How far we are from 
having reached the end may be seen from the fact that the opin- 
ions of the latest writers are entirely diverse upon the question of 
the early character of sources (the original Matthew and Mark) ; 
but it may be said, in the meantime, " In magnis voluisse sat est." 
Time must show to what extent the work by Keim, which is now 
concluded, will have contributed to the advancement of the inquiry. 
It has, at any rate, taken an important step toward the goal for 
which the efforts of science were directed from the vantage ground 
secured by its former progress. But when shall the time come 
that the Church, no longer being in conflict with the results ob- 
tained by science, but rather delivered from prejudice thereby, 
shall see the face of the Lord in its purity and its greatness, in the 
combined historical dignity and divine glory, which are not be- 
stowed on him by us, but which are his from the beginning and are 
secured to him for all eternity ? 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

I. LIFE OF CHRIST. 

1. General. 

Abbott, Lyman. A Life of Christ Founded on the Four Gospels and Illustrated by 
Reference to the Manners, Customs, Religious Beliefs, and Political Institutions 
of His Times. 12mo, pp. 354. New York, 1882. 

Anderson, John. The Life of Christ From the Cradle to the Cross, in which the 
Words and Works of Our Lord are Considered in Connection with Time and 
Place. 8vo. London, 1874. 

Andrews, Samuel J. The Life of Our Lord Upon the Earth ; Considered in its His- 
torical, Chronolog-ical, and Geographical Relations. 8vo, pp. 624. New York, 
1862. (A list of the works cited is given. A new and wholly revised edition 
appeared in 1891.) 8vo, pp. xxvii, 651. 

Beecher, Henry Ward. The Life of Jesus Christ. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 510, . New 



294 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

York, 1871, 1890. (Yol. 11 appeared after Mr. Bceclier's death. Only eight chap- 
ters were completed. The Life is finished by a selection from the sermons of 
the author.) 

Blunt, Henry. Lectures Upon the History of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. 
3 vols., 12mo, pp. 293, 307, 249. London, 1835. Same, 1 vol., 12mo, pp. 360. 
Philadelphia, 1857. 

Bonaventure, St. The Life of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. With the Life 
of the Author, taken from the Rev. Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints. 12mo, 
pp. 312. Dublin, 1840. (A Roman Catholic Life.) 

Clark, M. B. Sterling. The Scripture History of Our Blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus 
Christ. Arranged to Illustrate His Divinity, Doctrine, and Mission. lOmo, pp. 
135. New York, 1860. 

Clarke, James Freeman. Life and Times of Jesus as Related by Thomas Didymus. 
New edition. 12mo, pp. 13, 448. Boston, 1887. (The first edition appeared 
in 1881.) 

Clodd, Edward. Jesus of Nazareth : Embracing a Sketcli of Jewish History to the 
Time of His Birth. 12rao, pp. 386. London, 1880. 

Conder, E. R. Outlines of the Life of Christ: A Guide to the Study of the Chronol- 
ogy, Harmony, and Purpose of the Gospels. 12mo. London, 1881. 

Crosby, Howard. Jesus: His Life and Work as Narrated by the Four Evangelists. 
8vo, pp. 551. New York, 1871. 

Deerns, C. F. Jesus. 8 vo, pp. 756. New York, 1868. (Popular.) 

Delapryme, Charles. The Life of Christ. An Eclectic Gospel from the OM and New 
Testaments, Arranged on a New Principle with Analytical Tables. Second 
edition. 8vo, pp. 215. London, 1865. 

De Pressense, E. Jesus Christ : His Times, Life, and Work. 8vo, pp. 560. Lon- 
don, 1866. (Indirectly a reply to Renan.) 

De Pressense, E. The Redeemer: A Sketch of the History of Redemption. Trans- 
lated from the second edition by Rev. J. H. Meyers. 12mo, pp. 412. New 
York, 1867. 

Drew, G. S. The Son of Man : His Life and Ministry. 8vo. London, 1875. 

Eddy, Zachary. Tmmanuel ; or, The Life of Jesus Christ Our Lord from His Incar- 
nation to His Ascension. Introduction by R. S. Storrs, Jr. 8vo, pp. 756. 
Springfield, 1871. (Popular.) 

Edersheim, Alfred. Jesus the Messiah. An Abridged Edition of " The Life and 
Times of Jesus the Messiali." 8vo, pp. 645. New York, 1890. 

Edersheim, Alfred. The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2 vols,, 8vo, pp, 
xxxi, 695, 822. London and New York, 1884. (Rich in its illustrations from 
the author's stores of rabbinical learning.) 

Ellicott, C. J. Historical Lectures on the Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ; being the 
Hulsean Lectures for the Year 1859, with Notes Critical, Historical, and Explan- 
atory. 8vo, pp. 382. Boston, 1862. 

Ewald, H. The Life of Christ. Edited by Octavius Glover. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1873. 
(This is the fifth volume of the History of the People of Israel.) 

Fairbairn, A. M. Studies in the Life of Christ. 12rao, pp. 359. New York, 1882. 
(The author calls them in the preface " attempts at orientation.") 

Farrar, F. W. The Life of Christ. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 480, 516. New York, 1874. 
(Many subsequent editions have appeared, both in this form and in one volume. 
Popular in its style.) 

Fleetwood, John. The Life of Our Blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, and the 
Lives and Suflferings of his Holy Evangelists and Apostles. With an Introduc- 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 295 

tion to the American Edition. 8vo, pp. 541. Philadelphia, 1863. (This is a 

condensed edition.) 
Furness, W. H. Jesus, 12mo, pp. 223. Philadelpliia, 1871. (Designed for popular 

use.) 
G^ikie, Cunningham. The Life and Words of Christ. 2 v^. m-efte-. SjfOj-^p. QlOfi 

New York, 1891. ^ 
Greg, Samuel. Scenes From the Life of Jesus. -Seeond^ edition. -Sro". Londoij, 

1869. ^; 
Gurney, Augustus. The Home Life of Jesus of Nazareth. 12mo, pp. 200. London, 

1871. 
Hamilton, James. Lessons from the Great Biography. 12mo, pp. 319. New York, 

1857. (Begins with the preexistence of Christ.) 
Hanna, William. Our Lord's Life on Earth. 6 vols., 12mo. New York, 1870. 

(Popular.) 
Hase, Carl. Life of Jesus. A Manual for Academic Study. Translated from the 

German of the Third and Fourth Improved Editions by James Freeman Clarke. 

12mo, pp. 267. Boston, 1860. (Quite a bibliography of German and English 

works appears at the end of the book.) 
Haweis, H. R. The Picture of Jesus the Master. 12mo, pp. 271. New York, 

1886. 
Haygood, A. G. The Man of GaHlee. 12mo, pp. 156. New York, 1890. (Dis- 
cusses and answers the mj^thical theory in a popular way.) 
Johnstone, J. Boston. The Life of Jesus Christ. Arranged from the Four Gospels 

into One Connected Narrative, with Chronological and Biographical Notes. 8vo. 

Loudon, 1875. 
Jones, Joel. Jesus and the Coming Glory. 8vo, pp. 584. Philadelphia, 1865. 
Keim, Theodore. The History of Jesus of Nazani, Considered in its Connection 

with the National Life of Israel, and Related in Detail. Translated. Yol. I. 

Svo, pp. 386. London, 1873. 
Kirke, Edmund. The Life of .Jesus According to His Original Biographers. With 

Notes. Second edition, revised. 12mo, pp. 297. Boston, 1871. 
Krebs, J. M. The Private, Domestic, and Social Life of Christ. 32mo. Philadelphia, 

1849. 
Lange, J. P. The Life of the Lord Jesus Christ. A Complete Critical Examination 

of the Origin, Contents, and Connection of the Gospels. Edited with Additional 

Notes by the Rev. Marcus Dods. 6 vols., Svo, pp. 437, 449, 490, 434, 432, 487. 

Edinburgh, 1864. A new edition. 4 vols., 8vo. Philadelphia, 1864. 
Malleson, F. A, Jesus Christ: His Life and Work. 12mo, pp. xii, 375. London, 

1880. 
Mercier, L. Outlines of the Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 

1875. 
Naviile, Ernest. The Christ. Seven Lectures. Translated by T. J. Despres. 12mo, 

pp. 247. Edinburgh, 1880. 
Neander, Augustus. Tlie Life of Jesus Christ in its Historical Connection and His 

torical Development. Translated from the Fourth German Edition by John 

McClintock and Charles E. Blumenthal. Third edition. 8vo, pp.450. New 

York, 1851. (Designed as an answer to the mythical view of Strauss.) 
Nicoll, W. R. The Incarnate Saviour: A Life of Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. S88. 

Edinburgh, 1881. 
Patton, W. Jesus of Nazareth: Who Was He, and What Is He Now? 12mo, pp. 

320. New York, 1879. 
20 



296 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Plumptre, E. H. Christ and Clinstendoii. The Boj^le Lectures for 1866. 8vo, pp. 

378. London, 1867. 
Reid, John. Christ and His Rehgion. 12mo, pp. 381. New York, 1892, 
Renan, Ernest. Life of Jesus. Translated by E. Wilbour. 12mo, pp. 376. New 

York, 1870. (An arbitrary reconstruction of the historical ma'erml.) 
Row, C. A. The Jesus of the Evangelists : His Historical Character Vindicated. 

London, 1868 ; also New York. 
Salmoud, G. Life of Christ. 16mo, pp. 107. New York, 1888. 
Sanderson, Joseph. Jesus on the Holy Mount. 12mo, pp. 278. New York, 1869- 

(The Transfiguration and its lessons.) 
>chaff, Dr. P., and M. Napoleon Roussel. The Romance of M. Renan and the Christ 

of the Gospels. Three Essays. 12mo, pp. 239. New York, 1868. (Designed 

as replies to Renan.) 
Soutligate, Henry. Christus Redemptor ; being the Life, Character, and Teachings 

of Our Lord. Illustrated in Many Passages from the Writings of Ancient and 

Modern Authors. 4to. London, 1875. 
Stalker, James. Tlie Life of Jesus Christ. New and revised edition. 12mo, pp. 

166. New York, 1891, (Brief, analytical, and helpful.) 
Strauss, D, F, Tlie Life of Jesus for the People, Authorized Translation. Second 

edition. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. xxii, 440, iv, 439. London, 1879. 
Strauss, David Friedrich. A New Life of Jesus. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 440, 439. Lon- 
don, 1865. 
Taylor, Jeremy. Life of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. A Revised Edition, 

with Notes by the Rev. Robert t'hilip; also the Lives, Acts, and Martyrdoms 

of the Holy Apostles of Our Saviour, to which are added Lives of the Two 

Evangehsts St. Mark and St, Luke by William Cave. 4to, pp. 705. London, 1840. 
Yallings, J, F. Jesus Christ the Divine Man: His Life and Times, 12mo, pp. 226. 

New York, 1891. (Men of the Bil)le Series.) 
"Ware, Henry, Jun. The Life of the Saviour. Tenth edition. 16mo, pp. 272 

Boston, 1850. 
Weiss, Bernhard. The Life of Christ. Translated by M, G. Hope. 3 vols., 8vo, pp, 

393,403,428. Edinburgh, 1884. 
Wickes, Thomas. The Son of Man. 12mo, pp. 382. New York, 1808. (A brief, 

simple narrative.) 
Wright, Paul, The New and Complete Life of Our Blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus 

Christ, that Great Example as well as Saviour of Mankind. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 

480, 498. Trenton, 1810. The same, 1 vol., 4to, pp. 385, Schenectady, 1814, 

and other editions. (The work of an English Churchman.) 
Wyld, G. Life, Teaching, and Works of the Lord Jesus Christ. Second edition. 

8vo. London, 1888. 
Wynne, F, R. Fragmentary Records of Jesus of Nazareth. 12mo, pp. 142. Lon- 
don, 1888. (An examination of the New Testament records.) 

2. Devotional. 
Balfern, W. P. Glimpses of Jesus; or, Christ Exalted in the Affections of His 

People. From the Second London Edition. 12mo, pp. 259, New York, 1861; 

also Lessons from Jesus. 12mo. London, 1872. 
Battersby, Charies. The Gift of the Father; or. Thoughts for tlie Weary. 18mo, 

pp. 122. New York, 1867. 
Bonar, A. A. The Gospel Pointing to the Person of Christ. 16mo, pp. 155. New 

York, 18T8. 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 297 

Cave, Harriet. Stories of Christ the Lord, with Illustrations. 12mo, pp. 114. New 

York. (Designed for the young.) 
Cutts, E. L. A Devotional Life of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. 

7, 563. New York, 1882. (A series of studies.) 
Griswold, Rufus W., editor. The Life of the Saviour, by the Poets and Painters. 

12mo, pp. 240. Philadelphia, 1845. 
Hall, Joseph. Contemplations upon the Remarkable Passages in the Life of the 

Holy Jesus. 4to. London, 1680. 
Lowrie, J. M. A Week with Jesus ; or, Lessons Learned in His Company. 12mo, 

pp. 360. Philadelphia, 1866. 
Owen, John. Person and Glory of Christ, with the Author's Life, by A. Thompson. 

8vo, pp. 494. New York, 1852. 
Welles, Albert. The Life of Jesus the Messiah. A Sacred Poem. Illustrated. 4to, 

pp. 88. New York, 1874. Anotlier in 4to. New York, 1875. Not paged. 
Wesley, Samuel. The Life of Our Blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. An 

Heroic Poem. In ten books, tvith sixty copper plates. 4to, pp. 349. London, 

1693. 
Winslow, Octavius. Emmanuel ; or, The Titles of Christ, Their Teaching and Con- 
solation. 18mo. Philadelphia, 1869, 

II. THE PEESOlsr OF CHRIST. 
1. General. 

Bruce, Alexander B. The Humiliation of Christ in its Physical, Ethical, and Oincial 

Aspects. . The Sixth Series of the Cunningham Lectures. Second edition. 8vo, 

pp. 457. New York, 1892. (Has an especially fine treatment of the Kenosis.).- 
Dorner, James. History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ,. 

Translated by W, L. Alexander, with Notes by D. W. Simon. 5 vols., 8vo, pp. 

467, 544, 456, 462, 502. Edinburgh, 1863. (The standard work on the subject.) 
Glover, 0. Doctrine of the Person of Christ : an Historical Sketch. 8vo. London, 

1875. 
Goodwin, H. M. Christ and Humanity, with a Review, Historical and Critical, of the 

Doctrine of Christ's Person. 8vo. London, 1875. 
Plumer, W. S. The Rock of Our Salvation : a Treatise Respecting the Nature, Person, 

Office, Work, Sufferings, and Glory of Jesus Clirist, 12mo, pp, 519. New York, 

1867. 
Pope, W. B. The Person of Christ. The Fernley Lecture for 1871. 8 vo, pp. 168. 

London, 1871. 
Schaff, Philip. The Person of Christ the Miracle of History, with a Reply to Strauss 

and Renan, and a Collection of Testimonies of Unbelievers. 12mo, pp. 375, 

New York, 1866, 
Scott, W. A, The Christ of the Apostles' Creed ; the Voice of the Church Against 

Arianism, Strauss, and Renan, with an Appendix, 8vo, pp. 432. New York, 

1867. 
Smith, John Pye. The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah. An Inquiry, with a view 

to the Satisfactory Determination of the Doctrine Taught in the Holy Scriptures 

Concerning the Person of Christ, etc. 2 vols, in three. 8vo, pp. 472, 810. 

London, 1818. 
Yan Oosterzee, J. J. The Image of Christ as Presented in the Scripture. An In- 
quiry Concerning tlie Person and Work of the Redeemer. Translated by Rev. 

M. J. Evans. 8vo. London, 1875. 



298 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

2. Tlie Humanity of Christ 

Chadwick, John White. The Man Jesus. A Course of Lectures. 12mo, pp. 258. 

Boston, 1881. (Unitarian.) 
Crooker, Jos. H. Jesus Brought Biick : Meditations on the Problem of Problems. 

16mo, pp. 3, 214. Chicago, 1888. (Unitarian.) 
Ecce Homo : A Survey of the Life and Work of Jesus Clirist. 12nio, pp. xiv, 355. 

Boston, 1870, (Said to be written by Professor J. R. Seeley.) 
Gladstone, W. E, Ecce Homo. 12mo, pp. 201. London, 1868. (A review and 

criticism.) 
Logan, A. S. Jesus in Moiern Life. 12mo, pp. 299. Philadelphia, 1888. (From 

the standpoint of Kenan and Strauss.) 

3. The Divinity of Christ 

Abaddie, Jas. The Deity of Jesus Christ Essential to the Christian Religion. A 
Treatise on the Divinity of Our Lord Jesus Christ. Revised by Abraham Booth. 
16mo, pp. 336. London. 

Burton, Edward. Testimonies of tlie Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Divinity of Christ. 
Second edition, with Considerable Additions. Svo, pp. 489. Oxford, 1829. (The 
work of a great scholar.) 

Bushnell, Horace. God in Christ. Three Discourses Delivered at New Haven, 
Cambridge, and Andover, with a Preliminary Dissertation on Language. 12mo, 
pp. 356. Hartford. 1849. (The Second Discourse is upon the divinity of Clirist, 
and is an attempt to reconcile Unitarianism and orthodoxy. This book was 
much discussed upon its first appearance.) 

Cowell, Benjamin. The Deity of Christ Proved by Several Hundred Texts of Holy 
Scripture: Collected, Compared, and Arranged in a Familiar Manner, by a Pres- 
byter of tlie Church of England. First American from the Second London 
Edition. With a Preface, Notes, and Appendix. 16mo, pp. 159. Providence, 
1833. (The first edition appeared in 1712, the second in 1729.) 

Ecce Deus. Essays on the Life and Doctrine of Jesus Christ; with Controversial 
Notes on "Ecce Homo." 12mo, pp. 363. Boston, 1867. (Written by Joseph 
Parker, of London.) 

Fletcher, J. A Rational Vindication of the Catholic Faith ; being the First Part of 
a Vindication of Christ's Divinity. Inscribed to the Rev. Dr. Priestley. Left 
Imperfect by the Author, and now Revised and Finislied at Mrs. Fletcher's Re- 
quest, by Joseph Benson. 12mo, pp. 222. Hull, 1788. 

Hindmarsh, Robert. A Seal Upon the Lips of Unitarians, Trinitarians, and All 
Others who Refuse to Acknowledge the Sole, Supreme, and Exclusive Divinity 
of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. Containing Illustrations of One Hun- 
dred and Forty-four Passages in the Four Evangelists and the Apocalypse, in 
Proof that Jesus Christ is the Supreme and Only God of Heaven and Earth. 
12mo, pp. 335, Boston, 1859. 

Holden, George. The Scripture Testimonies to the Divinity of Our Lord Jesus 
Christ Collected and Illustrated. 8vo, pp. 460, London, 1820. 

Liddon, Henry P. The Divinity of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. 8vo. pp. 
776. London, 1867, Bampton Lectures for 1866. (A standard work on the 
subject.) 

Parsons, Theophilus. Deus Homo, God-man. Fourth edition. 12mo, pp. 455. 
Philadelphia, 1870. 

Simpson, Davis, A Plea for the Deity of Jesus and the Doctrhie of the Divinity; 
being a Chronological View of What is Related Concerning .the. Person of Clirist, 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 299 

etc. With a Memoir of the Author and the Spirit of Modern Socinianism Exem- 
plified, by Edward Parsons. 8vo, pp. 612. London, 1812. 

TurnbuU, Robert. Theophany ; or, The Manifestation of God in the Life, Character, 
and Mission of Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. 239. Hartford, 1849. (Part II, Cliapter 
ii, discusses the divinity of Christ). 

Waterland, Daniel. A Vindicatiou of Christ's Divinity ; being a Defense of Some 
Queries Relating to Dr. Clarke's Scheme of the Holy Trinity in Answer to a 
Clergyman in the Country. 3d ed. 12mo, pp. 494. London, 1720. (Waterland 
leads the great host of English defenders of Christ's divinity.) 

Weeks, Robert D. Jehovah- Jesus : The Oneness of God; the True Trinity. 12mo, 
pp. 140. New York, 1876. (Argues that the Son is identical with the Father 
and the Holy Ghost.) 

4. Personal Appearance of Christ. 

Heaphy, T. The Likeness of Christ; being an Inquiry into the Verisimilitude of the 
Received Likeness of Our Blessed Lord. Edited by Wylie Bayliss. 4to. 
New York, 1886. 

Iir. CHRIST AS EVIDENCE OF THE TRUTH OF HIS RELIGION". 

Alexander, W. L. Christ and Christianity : a Vindication of the Divine Authority 
of the Christian Religion Grounded on the Historical Verity of the Life of 
Christ. 12mo, pp. 314. New York, 1854. (Part II, chapter i, is an argument 
from the personal character of Christ as presented by the evangelists.) 

Bayne, Peter. The Testimony of Christ to Christianity. 12mo, pp. 200. Boston, 
1862. 

Cairns. John. Christ the Central Evidence of Christianity. New York, 1883. 

Sadler, M. F. Emmanuel ; or, The Incarnation of the Son of God the Foundation of 
Immutable Truth. 8vo, pp. 434. London, 1867. 

Saint-Martin, Menard. A Defense of Jesus Christ. Translated by Paul Cobden. 
12mo, pp. 182. Cincinnati, 1868. 

UUmann, C. The Sinlessness of Jesus an Evidence for Christianity. Translated 
from the Sixth German Edition. 12mo, pp. 323. Edinburgh, 1858. (The best 
work on the subject.) 

IV. THE CHARACTER OF CHRIST. 

Bernard, H. N. The Mental Characteristics of the Lord Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. x, 

314. New York, 1888. 
Broadus, John A. Jesus of Nazareth. Three Lectures Before the Young Men's 

Christian Association of Johns Hopkins University in Levering Hall. 3d ed. 

12mo, pp. 105. New York, 1890. (Chapter i is on " His Personal Character.") 
Bushnell, Horace. The Character of Jesus. 12mo. New York, 1888. (From 

" Nature and the Supernatural.") 
Guizot, M. Meditations on the Essence of Christianity. Translated from the 

French. 12roo, pp. 356. New York, 1865. (The title of Meditation viii is 

" Jesus Christ According to the Gospel.'') 
Hughes, Thomas. The Manliness of Christ. 12mo. London, 1879; Boston, 1880. 

(A suggestive essay.) 
Jesus, His Opinions and Character. The New Testament Studies of a Layman. 

12mo, pp. v)ii, 471. Boston. 1883. 
Lefroy, William. Pleadings for Christ; being Sermons, Doctrinal and Practical. 



aOO HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

12mo, pp. 386. Loudon, ISYS. (Sermon xxii is on " The Divine Manliness of 
Jesus.") 

Macduff, J. R. The Mind and Words of Jesus. 16mo, pp. 126. New York, 18T6. 

Mereditii, E. P. The Prophet of Nazareth; or, A Critical Inquiry into the Pro- 
phetic, Intellectual, and Moral Character of Jesus Clirist, e c. London, 1864, 

Plumer, W. S. The Person and Sinless Character of Our Lord Jesus Christ. 12rao, 
pp. 127. New York, 1676. 

Schenkel, Daniel. The Character of Jesus Portrayed. A Biblical Essay. With an 
Appendix. Translated from the Tliird German Edition, with Introduction and 
Notes, by W. H. Furness. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 279, 359. Boston, 1866. 

Swinney, J. Oswald, The Second Adam ; or, God's Ideal of Man, Manifested in the 
Being, Character, Life, and Death of the Son of Mary, Who is Made Potent in 
God's Hand for the Recovery of the Race. 16mo, pp, 151, St. Louis, 1879. 
(Chapter vi treats of the character of Christ.) 

Winslow, Octavius. The Sympathy of Christ with Man: Its Teaching and Its Con- 
solation. 12mo, pp. 426, New York, 1870, 

Young, John. The Christ of History : an Argument Grounded in the Facts of His 
Life on Earth. 12mo, pp. 260. New York, 1855. (Book Third treats of " The 
Spiritual Individuality of Christ,") 

Y. CHRIST AS TEMPTED. 

Barrett, George S, The Temptation of Christ. 12mo, pp. 243. London, 1884. 
(Treats of the possibility, necessity, reality of the temptations, and then of the 
temptations themselves.) 

Carter, T. T. The Passion and Temptation of our Lord, A Course of Lectures, 
8vo, pp. 132, London, 1863. 

Farmer, H, An Inquiry into the Nature and Design of Christ's Temptation in the 
Wilderness. 8vo, London, 1761, 

Fish, H. C, and Poor, D, W,, editors. Select Discourses by Adolphe Monod, Krum- 
macher, Tholuck, and Julius Miiller. Translated from the French and German 
with Biographical Notices, and Dr. Monod's Celebrated Lecture on the Delivery 
of Sermons. 12mo, pp. 408. New York, 1858. (Monod and Krummacher dis- 
cuss the temptation of Christ.) 

Goodwin, H. Christ in the Wilderness. Four Sermons Preached before the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge in the Month of February, 1855. 12mo, London, 1856, 

Macleod, N. The Temptation of Our Lord, 16mo. London, 1873. 

Mill, W, H, Five Sermons on the Temptation of Christ Our Lord in the Wilderness. 
12mo. London, 1875. 

Monod, Adolphe. Jesus Tempted in the Wilderness. Three Discourses. 16mo, pp, 
117, London, 1854, 

Wiseman, Luke H, Christ in the Wilderness ; or. Practical Views of Our Lord's 
Temptation, 12mo, pp. 326, London, 1857, 

VI. THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF CHRIST. 

1, General. 

Bell, W. An Inquiry into the Divine Missions of John the Baptist and Jesus Christ. 

8vo. London, 1761; 2d ed., 8vo, London, 1795. 
Blaikie, Wihiam G, The Public Ministry and Pastoral Method of Our Lord. 8vo, 

pp, V, 347. New York, 1883. 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 301 

Fox, "W. J. Christ and Clirisiiauity. Suniiou oa the Mission, Claaracter, and Doc- 
trine of Jesus of Nazareth. 12mo, pp. 263. Boston, 1833. 

Randolph, T. A View of Our Blessed Saviour's Ministry and the Proofs of His 
Divine Mission. 2 vols., 8vo. Oxford, 1874. 

Steane, Edward. The Doctrine of Christ Developed by the Apostles. A Treatise 
on the Offices of the Redeemer and the Doxology of the Redeemed. 8vo, pp. 
461. Edinburgh, 1872. 

Stevenson, George. A Treatise on the Offices of Christ. 12mo, pp. 316. New York, 
1838. 

Young, Jolin. The Christ of History. See iv. (Book Second, The "Work of Christ 
Among Men.) 

2. Christ as an Example. 

A Kempis, Thomas. Imitation of Christ, From the Latin by Payne. With an In- 
troductory Essay by Thomas Chalmers. Edited by Howard Malcolm. A New 
Edition, with the Life of tlie Author by C. TJllmanu, D.D. 12mo, pp. 283. 
Boston, 1873. (Over two hundred editions of this work have appeared in tlie 
Englisli tongue.) 

Brooks, Arthur, The Life of Christ in the "World. Sermons. 12mo, pp. 360. New 
York, 1887. 

Brooks, Phillips. The Influence of Jesus. The Bohlen Lectures. 1879. 12 mo, pp. 
274. New York, 1880. 

Jones, Harry, The Perfect Man ; or, Jesus an Example of God!y Life. 12mo, pp. 
161. Boston, 1869. 

Mempriss, Robert. Christ an Example for the Young, as Exhibited in the Gospel 
Narrative of the Four Evangelists. 8vo. London, 1874. 

Stalker, James. Imago Christi : The Example of Jesus Christ. With an Intro- 
duction by William M. Taylor. 12mo, pp. 332. New York, 1889. 

Turnbull, Robert, Christ in History; or, The Central Power Among Men. 12mo, 
pp. 540. Boston, 1854. 

Williams (Bishop), John. The World's Witness to Jesus Christ. The Power of 
Christianity in Developing Modern Civilization. Bedell Lecture, 1881. 12mo, 
pp. '79. New York, 1882. 

Yll. C HEIST AS TEACHER. 

Bascom, John. The Words of Christ as Principles of Personal and Social Growth. 

12mo, pp. 220. New York, 1884. 
Euruess, W. H. The Yeil Partly Lifted and Jesus Becoming Visible. ]2mo, pp. 

301. Boston, 1864. (The last chapter treats of the genesis of the Gospels and 

their credibility.) 
Harris, John. The Great Teacher; Characteristics of Our Lord's Ministry. With an 

Introductory Essay, by H. Humphrey. 12mo, pp. 420. Boston, 1843. 
King, Wra. ^ Thoughts and Suggestions on the Teaching of Christ. 8vo. London, 

1875, 
^Mackintosh, Robert. Clirist and the Jewish Law. 12mo, pp. 302. London, 1886. 
Mercer, A. G, Christ and His Teachings. Sermon. Svo, pp. iii, 326. New York, 

1889. 
Newcomb, Wm. Observations on Our Lord's Conduct as a Divine Instructor, and 

on the Excellence of His Mental Character. 8vo, pp. 425. London, 1782. 

Charleston, 1810. Oxford, 1853. 
Pitzer, A. W. Christ the Teacher of Men. 12mo, pp. 219. Philadelphia, 1877. 



302 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Power, Philip B. The "I Wills of Chrst;" Being Thoughts Upon Some of the 
Passages in which the Words " I Will " are Used by the Lord Jesus Christ. 
12rao, pp. 395. New York, 1 863. ; 

Viiughan, Charles J. Characteristics of Christ's Teaching. 8vo. London, 1875. 

Walker, A. H. Clirist's Christianity; being the Precepts and Doctrines Recorded 
in Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, as Taught by Jesus Christ. Analyzed and 
Arranged According to Subjects. 12mo, pp. 178. New York. 1882. 

VIII. CHEIST AS THE SUBJECT OF PROPHECY. 

Alexander, William. The Witness of the Psalms to Christ and Christianity. The 
Bampton Lectures for 1876. 8vo, pp. 312. London, 1877. 

Baron, David. Rays of Messiah's Glory; or, Christ in the Old Testament. 12mo, 
pp. 274. London, 1886. 

Briggs, Charles A. Messianic Prophecy, the Prediction of the Fulfillment of Re- 
demption Through the Messiah. A Critical Study of the Messianic Passages of 
the Old Testament in the Order of their Development. 8vo, pp. 519. New 
York, 1886. 

Brown, E. Harold. The Fulfillment of the Old Testament Prophecies Relating to 
the Messiah in the Person, Character, and Actions of Jesus of Nazareth. 8vo, 
pp. 113. Cambridge, ]836. 

Frey, J. S. C. A Course of Lectures on the Messiahship of Christ. 12mo, pp. 300. 
' - New York, 1844. 

Gordon, Robert. Christ as Made Known to the Ancient Church ; An Exposition of 
the Revelation of Divine Grace as Unfolded in the Old Testament Scriptures. 
4 vols., pp. 519, 539, 504, 528. Edinburgh, 1854. 

Hengstenberg. Christology of the Old Testament and a Commentary on the 
Messianic Prediction. Translated from the German by Rev. Theodore Meyer, 
Second edition. 4 vols., 8vo, pp. 523, 474, 450, 460. Edinburgh, 1863. 

Howarth, Henry. Jesus of Nazareth, the Christ of God. Hulsean Lectures, 1837. 
12mo, pp. 205. Cambridge, 1837. (Aims to show that Jesus was the Messiah 
prophesied of in the Old Testament.) 

Kidd, G. B. Christophany. The Doctrine of the Manifestations of the Son of God 
Under the Economy of tlie Old Testament. Edited by Orlando T. Dobbin. 
Svo, pp. 833. London, 1852. 

Leathes, Stanley. The Religion of the Christ. Its Historic and Literary Develop- 
ment Considered as an Evidence of iU Origin. The Bampton Lectures for 1874. 
Svo, pp. 352. London, 1874. 

Linton, H. P. Christ in the Old Testament ; or, The Footsteps of the Redeemer as 
Revealed in Types, in Prophecy, in Sacrifice, and in Personal Manifestation, 
from the Creation to His Birth. Svo. London, 1875. 

MacWhorter, Alexander. Yaveh Christ ; or. The Memorial Name ; with an Introduc- 
tory Letter by N. W. Taylor. 16mo, pp. 179. Boston, 1857. (An attempt to prove 
that the name Yaveh has reference to Christ everywh'^re in the Old Testament.) 

Schindler, Solomon. Messianic Expectations and Modern Judaism. Introduction 
by M. J. Savage. 12mo, pp. 290. Boston, 1886. (Jewish.) 

Smitli, R, Payne. Prophecy a Preparation for Christ. Bampton Lectures for 1869. 
12mo, pp. 397. Boston, 1870. 8vo, pp. 415. London, 1869. 

Stanton, Y. H. The Jewish and the Christian Messiah. A Study in the Earliest 
History of Christianity. 8vo, pp. 399. Edinburgli, 1886. (Gives a brief list of 
books on the subject, principally German.) 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 303 

Thompson, W. H. Christ in the Old Testament. 8vo, pp. 477. New York, 1888. 
Trench, R. C. Christ the Desire of All Nations ; or. The Unconscious Prophecies 

of Heathendom. Svo, pp. 123. London, 1846. (Hiilsean Lectures for 1846.) 
Willett, W. M. Messiah. 8vo, pp. 442. Boston, 1874. 

IX. CHRIST AS KING. 

Maurice, Frederick D. The Kingdom of Christ. London. 3 vols., Svo, 1838; and 
2 vols., Svo, 1842; also 1 vol., Svo. New York, 1843. 

Pin nock, W. H. Christ Our King; His Life and Ministry the Foundation of His 
Kingdom and the Ordinances of His Church. Svo, pp. 454. London, 1876. 

Ramsay, Wm. Messiah's Reign ; or. The Future Blessedness of the Church and the 
World. 12mo, pp. 247. Philadelphia 1857. 

Sabin, John E. The Kingship of Jesus. 12mo, pp. 354. London, 1832. 

Taylor, D. T. The Voice of the Church on the Coming and Kingdom of the 
Redeemer; or, A History of the Doctrine of the Reign of Clirist on Earth. 
Second edition. 12mo, pp. 4C'6. Peacedale, R. I., 1855. 

Whately, Richard. The Kingdom of Christ Delineated in Two Essays on Our Lord's 
Own Account of His Person and the Nature of His Kingdom, and on the Con- 
stitution, Powers, and Ministry of a Christian Church as Appointed by Himself. 
From the second London edition, with Additions. 12mo, pp. 298. New York, 
1843. 

Williams, Solomon. Christ the King and Witness of Truth, and the Nature, Excel- 
lency, and Extent of His Kingdom as Founded in Truth, and Only Promoted by 
It. In Several Discourses. 12mo, pp. 151. Boston, 1744. 

X. Christ's passion and last days. 
1. Glirisfs Passion. 
Baird, W. Tie Passion of Jesus ; A Series of Sermons. Svo. London, 1863. 
Buddicom, d.. P. Emmanuel on the Cross and in Gethsemane. 12mo, pp. 224. 

New York, 1 844. 
Charnock, S. Christ Crucified. ISmo. London, 1837. 
Cooper, C. D. The Last Days of Our Saviour. The Life of Our Lord from the 

Supper in Bethany to His Ascension into Heaven in Chronological Order and in 

the Words of the Evangehsts. 16mo, pp. 105. Philadelphia, 1867. 
Dlirer, Albert. The Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ Portrayed. Edited by Henry 

Cole. 4to. London, 1870. 
G-ould, S. Baring. The Passion of Jesus. First Series. Seven Discourses for Lent. 

12mo, pp. 99. New York, 1885. 
Hanna, Wm. The Last Day of Our Lord's Passion. 12mo, pp. 379. New York, 

1863. 
Hartley, Sherman. Lessons at the Cross; or, Spiritual Truths Familiarly Exhibited 

in their Relations to Christ. With an Introduction by G. W, Blagden. 12mo, 

pp. 274. Boston, 1852. 
Krummacher, F. W. The Suffering Saviour ; or. Meditations on the Last Days of 

Christ. 12 mo, pp. 474. Boston, 1857. 
Little, W. J. Knox. The Witness of the Passion of Our Most Holy Redeemer. 12mo, 

pp. 173. New York, 1884. 
Molyneaux, Capel. Gethsemane. Lectures Delivered in Lock Cliapel in Lent, 1864. 

12mo, pp. 210. London, 1854. 
Nebelin, Charlotte Elizabeth. Gethsemane ; or, Meditations and Prayers on the Last 



g04 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Hours of the Sufferings and Death of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. 
Translated from the German. Edited by Mrs. Colin Mackenzie. ]2mo, pp. 200. 
Boston, 1870. 

Schauffler, W. G-. Meditations on the Last Days of Christ ; together with Eight Medi- 
tations on the Seventeenth Chapter of St. John. 12rao, pp. 439. Boston, 1853. 

Steinraeyer, F. L. The History of the Passion and Resurrection of Our Lord. Con- 
sidered in the Light of Modern Criticism. Translated by T. Crerar and Alex- 
ander Cusin. New edition. 8vo, pp. 398. Edinburgh, 1879. 

Stevenson, John. Christ on the Cross. An Exposition of* the Twenty-second 
Psalm. 12mo, pp. 345. New York, 1846. 

Stout, A. P. The Trials and Crucifixion of Christ, 12mo, pp. 158. Cincinnati, 1886. 

Stroud, Wm. (M.D.). A Treatise on the Ph sical Cause of the Death of Christ and 
its Relation to the Principles and Practice of Christianity. 12mo, pp. 508. 
London, 1846. (Argues that Christ died literally of a broken heart.) 

The Sufferings of Christ. By a Layman. 12mo, pp. 328. New York, 1845. 

Tholuck, A. Light from the Cross ; Sermons on the Passion of Our Lord. Trans- 
lated from the German by R. C. Lund in Brown. Second edition. 12mo, pp. 
304. Edinburgh, 1859. 

Tyler, Bennett. The Sufferings of Christ Confined to His Human Nature. A Reply- 
to a Book, Entitled the Sufferings of Christ, by a Layman. 12mo, pp. 233. Hart- 
ford, 1847. 

Veith, J. E. Words of Enemies of Christ During His Sacred Passion. Translated 
from the German by Rev. E. Cox, D.D. 16mo. London, 1855. 

Watson, Alexander. The Seven Sayings on the Cross ; or, The Dying Christ Our 
Prophet, Priest, and King. Sermons. 8vo, pp. 147. London, 1848. 

Williams, Isaac. The Gospel Narrative of Our Lord's Passion, Harmonized with 
Reflections. From the third London edition. 8vo, pp. 181. New York, 1846. 

2. Christ's Resurrection. 

Krummacher, F. W. The Risen Redeemer : The Gospel History from the Resur- 
rection to the Day of Pentecost. Translated from the German by John T. 
Belts. 12mo, pp. 298. New York, 1863. 

Landels, Wm. The Sepulcher in the Garden ; or, the Buried and Risen Saviour. 
]2mo. pp. 355. London, 1866. 

Milligan, William. The Resurrection of Our Lord. Second Edition. 8vo. London, 
1884. First edition. 8vo, pp. xiii, 304. London, 1880. 

Morrison, Charles R. The Proofs of Clirist's Resurrection : from a Lawyer's Stand- 
point. 8vo, pp. 155. Andover, 1882. 

West, Gilbert. Observations on the History and Evidence of the Resurrection of 
Jesus Christ. 8vo, pp. 445. London, 1747. 

Westcott, Brooks Foss. The Revelation of the Risen Lord. 12mo, pp. 199. Lon- 
don, 1881. (A supplement to the author's Gospel of the Resurrection.) 

3. T/ie Forty Days. 

Braidman, G. D. Epiphanies of the Risen Lord. 12mo, pp.289. New York, 1879. 

Hanna, Wm. The Forty Days After Our Lord's Resurrection. 12mo, pp. 316. 
New York, 1860. 

M-berly, George. The Sayings of the Great Forty Days Between the Resurrection 
and Ascension, Regarded as the Outline of the Kingdom of God, in Five Dis- 
courses, with an Examination of Mr. Newman's Theory of Development. From 
the second Loudon edition. 12mo, pp. 273. Philadelphia, 1850. 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. ' 305 

XI. CHRIST'S SECOND ADVENT. 

Benson, J. Four Sermons on the Second Coming of Clirist and the Future Misery 
of the Wicked. 18mo, pp. 119. New York, 1799. 

Bonar, Horaiius. The Coming and Kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ; being an 
Examination of tlie Wprk of the Eev. D. Brown on the Secoud Coming of the 
Lord. 12mo, pp. 462. Kelso, 1849. 

Brown, David. Christ's Second Coming; Will it be Pre-Miheuial? Second edi- 
tion. 12mo, pp. 499. P^dinburgh, 1849. 

Cn)sb)', Alplieus. The Second Advent ; or, What do the Scriptures Teach Respect- 
ing the Second Coming of Christ, etc. ]2rao, pp. 173. Boston, 1850. 

Lord, D. N. The Coming and Reign of Christ. 12mo, pp. 430. Xew York, 1860. 

Rankin, John C. The Coming of the Lord. ]2mo, pp. 83. New York, 1885. 

Warren. Israel P. The Parousia ; a Critical Study of the Scripture Doctrines of 
Christ's Second Coming ; His Reign as King ; the Resurrection of the Dead ; 
and the General Judgment. 12mo, pp. 394. Portland, Me., 1884. 

XII. CHRIST AS MEDIATOR. 

Goodwin, Thomas. Christ the Mediator, Set Forth and Illustrated According to 
Holy Scripture. In Six Books. Revised and reconsidered by Robert Hawker. 
8vo, pp. 627. Plymoutli, 1819. 

Gray, James. The Mediatorial Reign of the Son of God ; or. The Absolute Ability and 
Willingness of Jesus Christ to Save All Mankind, Demonstrated from the Scrip- 
tures, in which an Attempt had been Made to Rescue ihe Gospel Call from False 
Philosophy. 8vo, pp. 448. Baltimore, 1821. 

Symington, W. Messiah, the Prince ; or, the Mediatorial Dominion of Jesus Christ. 
12mo, pp. cviii, 354. New York, 1881. 

XIII. CHRONOLOGY AND GENEALOGY OF CHRIST. 

Benson, C. The Chronology of Our Saviour's Life ; or, an Inquiry Into the True 
Time of the Birth, Baptism, and Crucifixion of Jesus Christ. 8vo, pp. 343. 
Cambridge, 1819. 

Caspari, C. E. A Chronological and Geographical Introduction to the Life of Christ. 
Translated by M. J. Evans. Edinburgh, 1876. 

Hervey, Arthur. Genealogies of our Saviour from Matthew and Luke. Svo. Lon- 
don, 1853. 

Jarvis, S. F. A New Inquiry Into the True Dates of the Birth and Death of Jesus 
Christ. Svo. London, 1844. 

Selden, J. Theanthropos ; or, God Made Man. A Tract Proving the Nativity to be 
on the 25th of December. 16mo. London, 1661. 

See also Strong's New Harmony and Exposition of the Gospels (Xew York, 1852) 
Appendix I, pp. 7-24; and Lewin's Fasti Sacri (London, 1865) Chap. II, 
p. xxiii, and p. 115. 

XIV. JUDAISM IN THE TIME OF CHRIST. 

Hausrath, A. The Times of Jesus. Translated by C. T. Poynting. Svo. London, 1878. 
Merrill, Selah. Galilee in the Time of Christ. With an Introduction by Rev. A. P. 

Peabody. 12mo, pp. 159. Boston, 1881. 
Sciihrer, Emil. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. 

Translated by Sophia Taylor and Rev. Peter Christie. 3 vols,, Svo, pp. 379, 

327, 386. Edinburgh, 1S85. 



806 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTIOX Y. 

THE APOSTLES. 

Life of the Apostles and the Founding of the Church, Article " Apostolisches Zeitalter," In 
Pelt, Herzog's Encyclopaedie, vol. i. 

The life of the persons by whom the doctrine of the kingdom of 
God in the world was introduced is connected with the life of 
Jesus. Here, there is less interest in the Twelve, several of whom 
are known to us only by name, than in the men and their coadjutors 
who were most successful in this work of founding the Christian 
community. Among these Paul is preeminent by reason of his 
character, teaching, and deeds. 

Concerning the wider and more limited meanings of the word 
d7T6(7ro?iog, see the New Testament. A comparison of the history 
of the apostles by Luke with the list of the apostles in the Gospels 
(Matt. X, 1-4) will reveal to most inquirers the fact, that the sacred 
narrative leaves us in the dark with regard to the history of a 
majority of the Twelve. Of these, Peter, James, and John are 
prominent, even in the Gospel records, and we have relatively more 
information respecting them than others, although the last days 
of both Peter and John lie beyond the limits of the canon, and fall 
within the realm of tradition. This applies still more fully to the 
work of other apostles. A new period of development evidently 
begins with Paul, the ai)ostle to the Gentiles, who, sup- 
ported by Timotliy, Sylvanus, and Titus, not only ex- 
tended Christianity to the furthest outward limits, but, together with 
John, also developed its profound internal character, and furnished 
the greatest and most important contribution toward the doctrinal 
canon of the New Testament. He became the founder of a body of 
doctrine, not theoretically, but out of his inmost experience, and 
through the revelation which, according to his own testimony, was 
imparted to him.^ He was the firstfruits of those in whom the 
grace of God in Christ was glorified, and in whom the Gospel was 
demonstrated to be the power of God. The exposition of the book 
of Acts and the Pauline epistles is, of course, the work of exegetical 
theology. But this is merely a work preliminary to the history, 
while, to combine the work of the apostles into a single picture, be- 
longs strictly to the department of historical science. At this point 
we stand on the boundary line between sacred and Church history. 
Though the latter cannot exclude the history of the apostolic age, 

^ Comp. *H. Paret, Paulus ii. Jesus, Observations on the Relation of Paul and his 
Teaching to the Person, the Life, and the Teaching of the Christ of History, in 
Jahrb. fiir Deutsche Theoloffie. 



THE APOSTLES. 307 

yet it needs a broader foundation than it there finds. For this 
reason the apostolic age, like the life of Jesus, has re- The apostolic 
ceived a separate treatment in theological literature. ^parlte^treaS 
Peculiar difficulties attach to this treatment, however, meat. 
because recent criticism has endeavored to shake many jjoints in 
the primitive history of Christianity, as found in the apostolic his- 
tory by Luke, and in the apostolic epistles, and has sought to ex- 
plain, by later events, the history of the older heresies, and what 
has been regarded as belonging to primitive times. Much tliat the 
Church regarded as belonging to the " apostolic age " was in this 
way classed under the "post- apostolic." The destructive works 
upon the apostolic history emanating from the Tubingen school, like 
the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, have called forth confutations which 
have fully established the historical validity of the original documents 
of Christianity. Fresh discoveries of works, long supposed to be lost, 
have also proved the substantial accuracy of the dates assigned by 
the Church to the books contained in the New Testament canon. 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
1 . General Apostolic History. 

Baumgarten, M. The Acts of the Apostles; or, The History of the Church in the 
Apostolic Age. Translated from the German by A. J. W. Morrison. 8vo, 3 
vols, pp. iv', 457, 459, 383. Edinburgli, 1854. (A work of rare excellence; 
the apostolic history is treated with fullness of learning and in a reverent 
spirit.) 

Bruce, A. B. The Training of the Twelve; or, Exposition of Passages in the Gos- 
pels Exhibiting the Twelve Disciples of Jesus under Discipline for the Apostle- 
ship, 8vo, pp. 539. Edinburgh, 18tl. (A fourth edition has been issued.) 

Cave, William. Antiquitates Apostolicae; or. The History of Christ and the Apos- 
tles. To which are added Lives of the two Evangelists, St. Mark and St. Luka 
With an Introductory Essay by Henry Stebbing. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1836. 

De Pressense, Edmond. The Early Years of Christianity. The Apostolic Era. 
From the French, by Annie Harwood. I2mo, pp. 536. New York and Cincin- 
nati, 1879. 

Farrar, F. W. The Early Days of Christianity. 8vo, pp. xvii, 664. London and 
New York, 1882. (The author describes the purpose of this work to be "to set 
forth, in their distinctive characteristics, the work and tl:e writings of St. 
Peter, St. James, St. Jude, St, John, and the Author of the Epistle to the He- 
brews.") 

Maurice, Frederick Denison. Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First and 
Second Centuries. Svo, pp. xii, 401, Cambridge, 1854. (The first half of the 
book is devoted to apostolic history. Some of the topics of lectures are: The 
New Society in Jerusalem, Samaria, and Syria; The Churches in Gentile 
Cities, etc.) 

Neander, Augustus. History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church 
by the Apostles. Translated by J. E. Ryland. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. xxxi, 408; 



308 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

XX, 381. Edinburgh, 1842. Also in Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library. (One of 
Neander'.s choicest works.) 
Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Yol. I. Apostolic Christianity, 
A. D. 1-100. 8vo, pp. xiii. 871. New York, 1886. (This is a revision and 
enlargement of tlie author's Apostolic Church History, first pubhshed in English 
in 1853. In the fullness of its trentnient ( f its topics it leaves little to be desired.) 

2. Paul and John. 

Baur, Fred. Chr. Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ. Translated by Allan Menzies. 

8vo, 2 vols. London, 1873-75. 
Blunt, Henry. Lectures upon the History of St. Paul, delivered during Lent, at the 

Church of the Holy Trinity, Upper Chelsea. Philadelphia, 1839. 
Butler, C. M. St. Paul in Rome. Lectures delivered in the Legation of the United 

States of America, in Rome. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1865. 
Conybeare, W. J., and Howsou, J. S. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 8vo, 2 vols., 

pp. 459, 556. New York, 1863, and often. (After more than forty years since 

its first publication, this is still one of the best works on St. Paul.) 
Davies, G. S. St. Paul in Greece. (In the " Heathen World and St. Paul " Series.) 

16mo. London, no date. 
Dickson, W. P. St. Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit. The Baird Lectures 

for 1883. Glasgow, 1883. (The Appendix of more than one hundred pages 

contains quotations from important writers on the subject.) 
Dodd, Philip Stanhope. A Yiew of the Evidence Afforded by the Life and Ministry 

of St. Peter to tlie Truth of the Christian Revelation. London, 1837. 
Farrar, F. W. The Life and Work of St. Paul. 8vo, pp. 781. New York, 1880. 
Freemantle, W. R. From Athens to Rome. Six Lectures on St. Paul's Yisit to the 

Chief Cities of the Roman Empire. 12mo. London, 1869. 
Howson, John S. The Character of St. Paul. (Hulsean Lectures.) 8vo. London, 

1864 ; New York, 1873. 
Howson, John S. Scenes from the Life of St. Paul, and their Religious Lessons. 

8vo. London, 1866. 
Howson, John S. The Metaphors of St. Paul and Companions of St. Paul. 16mo, 

pp. 91, 211. New York, 1872. (Two little books in one, and full of good 

matter.) 
Irons, J. W. Christianity as Taught by St. Paul. To which is Added an Appendix 

of the Continuous Sense of St. Paul's Epistles, with Notes and Metalegomena. 

8vo, pp. 543. Oxford, 1870. (Bampton Lectures for 1870.) 
Lee, Alfred. The Life of the Apostle John, in a Series of Practical Discourses. 

New York, 1852. 
Lewin, Thomas. The Life and Erastles of St. Paul. 4to, 2 vols., pp. 414, 487. Fourth 

edition. London, 1878. (The author describes this and his "Fasti Sacri" as 

twin works. Both are of much value to the student of early Christianity. 

Illustrations have been carefully gathered from the best sources, and study 

has been supplemented by visits to the spots which were the scenes of the 

great apostle's ministry.) 
Macdonald, James M. The Life and Writings of St. John. Edited, with an Intro- 

ductlon, by J. S. Howson. 8vo. London and New York, 1877. Second edition, 

1880. 
Macduff, J. R. St. Paul at Rome ; or, The Teaching, Fellowship, and Dying Testi- 
mony of the Great Apostle in the City of the Csesars. 12mo. London, 1871, 

1876. 



THE APOSTLES. 309 

Macduff, J. R. The Footsteps of St. Paul. 8vo, pp. ix, 416. Edinburgh, 
1855. 

Macduff, J. R. Footsteps of St. Peter. 12mo. 1876. 

Malleson, F. A. Tlie Acts and Epistles of St. Paul. Svo. London, 1881. 

Merivale, Charles. St. Paul at Home. (In the " Hentlieu World and St. Paul " Series.) 
16mo. London, no date. 

Paley, WilHam. Hor?e Paulirue; or, The Truth of the Scripture History of St. Paul 
Evinced. New York, 1851, et pannim. 

Pask, B. P. The Apostle of the Gentiles. A Handbook of the Life of St. Paul. 
Special Notes on Ephesus, by T. J. Wood. 12mo, pp. 381. With M;ips. Lon- 
don, no date. 

Paul of Tarsus. An Inquiry into the Times and the Gospel of the Apostle of tlie 
Gentiles. By a Graduate. Svo, pp. 378. London, 1872. ("The writings of St. 
Paul are treated as human compositions only.") 

Pearson, Bifehop John. Annales Paulini. Works. Also translated and published 
by J. M. Williams. 12mo. Cambridge, 1825, '26, '28. (A book greatly 
esteemed by English theologians.) 

Pfleiderer, Otto. The Influence of the Apostle Paul on the Development of Chris- 
tianity. Translated by J. Frederic Smith. Hibbert Lectures, 1885. 8vo, pp. 
238. New York, 1885. (The divisions are: L Tlie First Church and Conver- 
sion of St. Paul. IL The Doctrinal Teaching of St. Paul. III. The Conflict of 
the Apostle to the Gentiles with Jewisli Christians. IV. The Reconciliation of 
Paulinism and Jewish Christianity. V. Paulinism and Gnosticism. YI. Paul- 
inism and the Church.) ^ 

Pfleiderer, 0. Paulinism : a Contribution to the History of Primary Christian The- 
ology. Translated. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1877. 

Plumptre, E. H. St. Paul in Asia Minor and at the Syrian Antioch. (In the 
" Heatlien World and St. Paul" Series.) 16mo, pp. 191 London, no date. 
Map. 

Renan, Ernest. St. Paul. Translated from the French by Ernest Lockwood. 12mo, 
pp. 422. New York, 1869. (This book has all the charm of Renan's style. 
but its treatment of the sources is arbitrary, and its conclusions are worthless. 
"According to my opinion," says the author, "Paul should even occupy a posi- 
tion beneath Frances d'Assisi, and the author of the Imitation.") 

Robinson, George. St. Paul in Damascus, and Arabia. (In the "Heathen World 
and St. Paul" Series.) ]6mo, pp. 180. London, no date. Map. 

Shakespeare, Charles. St. Paul at Athens; Spiritual Christianity in Relation to Some 
Aspects of Modern Thought. Svo. With a Pre'ace by Canon Farrar. New 
York, 1879. 

Smith, James. The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, with Dissertations on the 
Life and Writings of St. Luke, and the Ships and Navigation of the Ancients. 
Fourth edition. Revised and Corrected by Walter E. Smith, with a Preface 
by the Bishop of Carhsle, and Memoir. 12mo. London, 1880. 

Stalker, James. The Life of St. Paul. 12mo, pp. 183. New York, 1888. (Concise 
and clear. The Hints at the end of the book are valuable and suggestive.) 

Tate, James. The Horae Panlinae of William Paley, Carried out and Illustrated in 
a Continuous History of the Apostolic Labors and Writings of St. Paul, on the 
Basis of the Acts. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 202, 219. London, 1840. 

Tholuck, Aug. The Life, Character, and Style of the Apostle Paul. In Selections 
from German Literature (pp. 1-72). Translated by B. B. Edwards and E. A. 
Park. Svo, pp. iv. 472. Andover, 1839. 



310 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 



SECTIOJT YI. 

THE HISTORICAL FORM AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE 

BIBLE. 

BIBLICAL DOGMATICS AND THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. 

T. D. Bernard, The Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament (Bampton Lect. for 1864), 
Lond., 1864 ; James Donaldson, A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine, from the 
Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council, 3 vols., Lond., 1864-66 ; Robert Rainy, Delivery 
and Development of Christian Doctrine (Cunningham Lectures), Edinb., 1874. 

Bible doctrine, like sacred history, results from exegesis, and, 
like sacred history, furnishes the means for its further historical de- 
velopment. Inasmuch, however, as the contents of this study are 
systematic and didactic in their nature, it is found that the bound- 
aries of exegetical, historical, and systematic theology here cross 
each other, hut in such a way as to make the historical element the 
most important.^ 

Biblical dogmatics'^ is the intellectual bond which unites exeget- 
ical, historical, and dogmatical studies, the focus where the various 
rays are collected. On this account it forms, in many respects, a 
luminous point in theological study. The position from which it is 

T.U,- , ^ resrarded is of importance. If, without reference to 
Biblical dog- ^ . . . 

matics a theo- systematic development, it be considered simply as a 
logical centre, collocation of proof texts in behalf of dogmatics, it be- 
comes the immediate fruit of exegesis; and, in point of fact, only 
an accomplished exegete is fitted to work in the field of biblical 
dogmatics. But if it be regarded as combined into a system, as 
governed by any leading idea, it will approach the ^^ositive science 
of dogmatics itself. Between these two operations, however, is a 
third, namely, the task of comprehending the revelation of the 
Bible itself as a historical fact in connexion with the spiritual de- 
velopment of mankind in other directions. In this way we come 

^ Schleiermacher, Danz, and Rosenkranz regard it as a historicul science. Comp. 
Gabler, p. 183 sqq. 

^The name "Biblical Theology," which is preferred by some (Baumgarten-Crusius, 
Havernick, and, more recently, H. Schultz), is evidently either too broad, if the term 
theology be taken in the modern sense of a collection of the theological sciences, or 
too narrow, if it be taken to mean merely the doctrine concerning G-od. Comp. de 
Wette, Bibl. Dogm., and Danz, p. 301, note 1. The term Dogmatics may also be 
found to be too limited in its meaning; as Havernick says, "The fundamental ideas 
of ethics must also be included," Beck's expression, "The biblical science of doc- 
trine," would, accordingly, be the most appropriate. But so long as the ethical ideas 
alone are involved, and are not developed into a system of biblical ethics, the phrase 
Biblical Dogmatics may appropriately be retained. On the inadequacy of the terra 
dogmatics in general, see later, on Systematic Theology. 



HISTORICAL FORM OF THE BIBLE. 311 

to occupy the ground of history. Biblical dogmatics is thus simply 
the internal side of sacred history. The representation of tlie life 
of Jesus requires a representation of his doctrine, or, better, of 
his divine and human consciousness, and his relation to the world 
and the history of mankind as conditioned by that consciousness, 
just as a proper conception of the idea that moved and deter- 
mined his entire life is the ngtjrov klvovv of Christian dogmatics in 
general.^ 

Life and doctrine dissolve into each other with Jesus as with none 
of our mortal race. The life of an apostle, too, cannot Relation of life 
be given in any other way than by placing before our and doctrine, 
eyes his inner life, as it was determined by intercourse with Jesus 
or by iamiliarity with his teaching.^ The history of doctrines 
issues from Church History, and becomes a separate branch of it. 
In the same way the material for the history of doctrines which is 
contained in the Bible can be utilized for the ]3urposes of historical 
examination. Thus we acquire a juxtaposition of biblical doctrine 
as a point of departure for the history of Christian doctrines; with 
the difference, however, that it is not yet wrought out in scientific 
form, and is not a complete body of dogmatic ideas. These doc- 
trines are rather pliable stibstances, possessing the capacity for life, 
and include the germs of ethical as well as of dogmatical develop- 
ment, in accordance with which the systems of iaith and morality 
in the Bible are chiefly given in combination. 

A largely systematizing treatment, or a purely historical and 
genetic procedure, may prevail in this regard, however, according 
as the contents of biblical doctrine are appreliended as a whole, 
thus constituting the doctrine of the Old and New Testaments; or 
are divided, to correspond with different times and persons, thus 
forming the doctrine of Hebraism, of the later Judaism, of Jesus 
and the apostles; or, w^ith a still closer reference to persons, form- 
ing the teaching of Paul, of John, and others. Each of these is 
given, so far as possible, in its genetic development, wliich holds 
good especially of the Pauline system of doctrines.^ The more 
flexible the treatment of biblical dogmatics becomes in this regard, 

' On tlie peculiar difficulties of tliis task, see Scliirmer, pp. 51-55. Should the firt-t 
Gospels, or St. John, furnish the tj-pe? 

-How St. Paul attained to his theolop'y, and what is the relation of his teaching 
and that of the other apostles to the teaching of Jesus, are important inquiries in this 
connexion. See the treatise by Paret, referred to above. 

^An analogous arrangement is possible in connexion with the Old Testament also, 
e. g., the religion of Abraham, Mosaism, the religion of David, Solomon, Isaiah, etc. 
The individual element is less prominent in the Old Testament, however, being lost in 
the theocratic. Comp. Schirmer, p. 50. 
21 



312 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

and the' more the material which has crystallized into ideas is 

_ .^, , , brou2:ht into its orisrinal flowinw condition, the more 

Flexible treat- * . . ^ ^ ' 

ment of bibii- closely will it approximate the history of doctrines, and 
cai dogmatics, ^j^^ j^^^.^, decidedly will it fall within the historical field. 
But if the leading object be to represent, in its internal connexion, 
and as the foundation of ecclesiastical doctrine, the substance of 
Bible teaching as developed through exegetical ^ and historical in- 
quiry, biblical dogmatics will partake more largely of the nature 
of systematic theology. It will be distinguished from dogmatics 
proper, however, by confining itself entirely to the beginning, ^. e., 
to the primitive Bible times, without in any way intruding upon 
ecclesiastical development. 

A certain view exists which designedly ignores such develop- 
ment, so that the history of doctrines becomes an article of luxury, 
and chooses to know no other than biblical dogmatics. This opinion 
will be examined hereafter, in connection with the history of doc- 
trines. We may observe here, however, that in assigning this posi- 
tion to biblical dogmatics the aim is not to degrade it to a mere 
historical science, which could only be said with propriety if history 
were understood to designate what is antiquated. It is, on the 
other hand, our intention to lift it out from the rigid trammels of 
the letter into the living organism which forms the subject of his- 
torical inquiry. We do not, however, accept the view which holds 
that what was original is inferior and imperfect, and needs to be 
purified and elevated into the character of a higher wisdom.'^ The 
biblical doctrine, on the contrary, although by no means finished 
and complete in itself, and certainly needing to be explained in har- 
mony w^th its historical development, continues to retain its normal 
dignity. The task of biblical dogmatics will be to so present this 
doctrine in its original vitality and its universal bearings upon the 
well-being of mankind, that the eternal and ever applicable idea of 
the God-given truth shall clearly and powerfully shine through the 
temporal veil of conceptions.* 

^ In exegesis the leading object is to recognize llie tendency of tlie subjectivity 
and individuality in tlie original form ; in dogmatics we seek to discover the identity 
and truth of the matter. Tlie unity of both tendencies, accompanied with a steady 
conscionsness of tlieir diversity, must there^'ore be the governing idea in biblical dog- 
matics. Usteri, Entwickl. d. Paulin. Lehrbegr., 4th ed., Pref., p. vii. 

2 Comp. Strauss, Glaubenslehre, i, p. ]77, and Schelling, Meihode des akad. Studi- 
ums, p. 19*7 sqq. 

^ Very much that is valuable on the idea and method of this science may be found 
in Havernick, Bibl. Dogmatik, p. 1 sqq. 



HISTORY OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. 313 



SECTION YII. 
HISTORY OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. 

This science really began with the Reformation/ for it was the 
Reformation that delivered the whole of the science of dogmatics 
from its scholastic fetters, and established it on the Bible. But 
biblical dogmatics was yet united with ecclesiastical by the Re- 
formers Melanchthon and Calvin ; and when, in the seventeenth 
century, scholasticism again intruded itself into dogmatics, it was 
found necessary to rem.ain contented with mere observations, as in 
Vitringa, or, so far as biblical dogmatics as distinguished from 
ecclesiastical was concerned, with expositions of Scripture texts, as 
in Seb. Schmidius, Collegium Biblicum, Argent., 1671-76; Hulse- 
mann, Vindiciae S. S. per loca classica systematis theol., Lips., 1679; 
Majus, Theologia prophetica, Francof., 1710; and Baier, Analysis et 
Vindicatio illustrium S. S. dictorum, Altorf, 1719. Spe- 
ner's pietism, at the close of the seventeenth and the 
beginning of the eighteenth centuries, again aroused a feeling for the 
restoration of the simple teaching of the Scriptures, but particularly 
with reference to its practical rather than its scientific aspects. 

Theologia Biblica was understood to signify a popular pre- 
sentation of the system of belief. It is remarkable that rationalism 
became the agency for turnmg back the current into the proper 
channel, its tendency in opposition to ecclesiastical orthodoxy caus- 
ing it to labor for the separation of the Bible doctrine from that of 
the Church, and to endeavor to present it in its purity. In this 
effort it took away, however, the brightest of the peculiar orna- 
ments of doctrine, so that the thinning out process of rationalizing 
abstraction left only the caput mortuum of a supposed rational doc- 
trine. J. G. Semler published his historical and critical collections 
on the "so-called proof passages of dogmatics" (Halle, 1764-68) 
in this spirit, and Gabler wrote the work mentioned above with a 
like aim. The suj^ernaturalists of that century saw themselves 
compelled, in the interests of a positive belief in the Bible teaching, 
to i"ecognize the distinction between biblical and ecclesiastical doc- 
trine. The elder Tubingen school (Storr, Flatt, Bengel, Eider Tubin- 
Steudel) took the lead in this direction. The Biblical gen school. 
Theology of G. T. Zachariae (five parts, the last by Yollborth, Gott., 

^ This does not deny that biblical theology, in the wide sense, has its origin in 
common with that of theology in general ; for the " fathers of Alexandrian Christianity 
were essentially biblical theologians; " comp. Nitzsch, p. 220, where attention is also 
called to the services of Erasmus, in whose works "the most valuable outlines of a 
Theoloscia Biblica are contained." 



314 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

1771-86), for instance, was written from the orthodox point of 
view; while Hufnagel's work (Erl., 1785-89) was composed in the 
interest of rationalism. Ammon, L. Bauer, and Bretschneider were 
likewise more or less in sympathy with the latter tendency. Con- 
cerning Kaiser, de Wette, Baumgarten-Crusius, von Colin, Vatke, 
and Bruno Bauer, and also with regard to the more recent develop- 
ment of this science in general, comp. Havernick, Bibl. Dogm., 2d 
ed., p. 8, sqq.^ and Nitzsch, supra. ' 



AMERICAN AND ENGLISH LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. 

Alexander, W. Lindsay. A System of Biblical Theology. 8vo, 2 vols.' Edinburgh, 
1888. (A work which has taken a higli rank.) 

Beck, J. T. Outhnes of Bibhcal Psychology. Translated from the Third German 
Edition, 1871. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1877. 

Bernard, T. D. The Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament. 8vo, pp. xx, 266. 
London, 1864. (The Bampton Lecturps fur tliat year.) 

Bruce, A. B. The Kingdom of God ; or, Clirist's Teacliing According to tlie Synop- 
tical Gospels. Fourth edition. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1890. 

Candlish, James 8. The Kingdom of God, Biblically and Historically Considered, 
8vo, pp. 423. Edinburgh, 1884. 

Cave, Alfred. The Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atonement. 8vo. Edinbui'gh, 
1877 ; also Revised Edition. 

Delitzsch, Franz. System of Biblical Psychology. Translated by R. E. "\7allis. 
Second edition. 8vo, pp. xvi, 585. Edinburgh, 1867. 

Ewald, Heinrich. Old and New Testament Theologj'-. Translated from the German 
by Thomas Goadby. 8vo, pp. viii, 458. Edinburgh, 1888., (Selected out of 
the author's Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott.) 

Ewald, Heinrich. Revelation, its Nature and Record. Translated by Thomas 
Goadby. Svo. Edinburgh, 1884. (This is the first volume of Ewald's great 
work, Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott.) 

Fairbairn, Patrick. The Revelation of Law in Scripture. Considered with respect 
both to its own nature and to its relative place in successive dispensations. 
Svo, pp. 484. Edinburgh, 1868. 

Gebhardt, Hermann. The Doctrine of the Apocalypse, and its Relation to the Doc- 
trine of the Gospel and Epistles of John. Translated from the German by 
J, Jefferson. 8vo, pp. xvi, 424. IMinburgh, 1878. 

Haupt, Erich. The First Epistle of John. A Contribution to Biblical Theology. 
Translated, with an Introduction, by W. B. Pope. Svo, pp. 385. Edinburgh, 
1879. 

Ladd, Professor G. T. The Doctrine of Sacred Scripture, Old and New Testament. 
Svo, 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1882. (A critical, historical, and dogmatic inquiry 
into the origin and nature of the Old and New Testaments.) 

Laidlaw, John. The Bible Doctrine of Man. Edinburgh, 1877. 

Oeliler, Gustav Frederick. Theology of the Old Testament. A Revision of the 
Translation in Clark's Foreign Library, with the Additionig of the Second Ger- 
man Edition ; an Introduction and Notes by George E. Day. Svo. New York, 
1883. 



HISTORY OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. 315 

Schraid, G-. F. Biblical Theology of the Xew Testament. Translated from the 
Fourth German Edition, by G-. H. Yenables. Third edition, 8vo, pp. 552. 
Edinburgh, 1882. 

Schraucker, S. S. An Elementary Course of Biblical Theology. Translated from 
the Work of Professors Storr and Flatt 8vo, pp. xvi, 605. Andover and Xew 
York. Second edition. 1836. (This translation by Professor Schmucker was tlie 
pioneer in the United States of all works in this department of Theology.) 

Tan Oosterzee, J. J. The Theology of the Xew Testament. Translated from the 
Dutch by M. J. Evans. 8vo. London, 1874-86; also Xew York. 

Weidner, R. F. Bibhcal Theology of the Old Testament. 12mo. Philadelphia, 
]886. (This is vol. ii of the author's Theological Encyclopaedia.) 

"Weiss, Bernhard. BibUcal Theology of the New Testament. Translated from the 
Third Revised Edition by Rev. David Eaton, M. A. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1 882-83. 
Vol. i, pp. 489; vol. ii, pp. 450. (Thorough, critical, evangehcal.) 



316 HISrOlUCAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION YIII. 

CHURCH HISTORY. 

J. Jortln, The Use and Importance of Ecclesiastical History. Pp. 405-454 of vol. vii of Works, 
Lond., 1772 ; Herder's Adrastea, Werke zur Philosophie u. Gesch., x, p. 17G ; J. G. Mueller, Ideen 
lib. Stud. d. Kirchengescbichte, in his Reliquen alter Zeiten (Lpz., 1803-6, 4 vols.) ii, p. 1 sqq. ; 
A. H. Nieraeyer, Die hohe Wichtigheit u. d. zweckmassigste Methode eines fortgesetzten Studi- 
ums der Religions- und Kirchengeschichte fiir praktische Religionslehrer, in the preface to 
Fuhrman's Handworterbuch der Kirchengeschichte, Halle, 1826; F. F. Rosegarten, Stadium 
Plan u. Darstellung der Kirchengeschichte, Reval, 1824 ; K, Ullmann, Stellung des Kirchenhis- 
torikers in uns. Zeit, in Stud. u. Krit., 1829, No. 3, p. 667 ; J. A. H. Tittmann, Behandlung d. 
Kirchengeschichte, etc., in Illgen's Zeitschr. f . hist. Theologie, i, 2, (per contra Gieseler in Stud. 
u. Krit., 1833, No. 4, p. 1139) ; Schleiermacher, § 149-194 ; Daub, Zeitschr. f. spec. Theologie, 1836, 
vol. i. No. 1 ; C. W. Niedner, Zeichnung des Umfangs f . d. nothwendlgen Inhalt allgem. Gesch. 
d. Christl. Religion, in Stud. u. Krit., 1853, No. 4, pp. 787-905 ; Hagenbach in Herzog's Encykl. 
s. V. Kirchengeschichte, vol. vii, p. 622 sqq. 

Philip Schaff, What is Church History? A Vindication of the Idea of Historical Development, 
Phila., 1846; W. G. T. Shedd, Lectures upon the Philosophy of History, Andover, 1856; Na- 
ture and Influence of the Historic Spirit in Theology, Essays, pp. 53--120, N. Y., 1877; E. C. 
Smyth, Value of the Study of Church History in Ministerial Education, Andover, 1874; A. P. 
Stanley (Dean), Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Ecclesiastical History, Oxf., 1857. 

The central point of historical theology is Church History. It is 
the history of the outwardly visible community within whose limits 
the kingdom of God, which Christ founded, is manifested^ and at- 
tains to its ultimate development. 

Church history is certainly dependent upon our conception of the 
real nature of the Church.^ But a completed doctrine of the Church 

^ On the meaning of eKKT^rjala (pjlp mV) comp. Gieseler, Ch. Hist., § 1 ; Bret- 
schneider, Systemat. Entwicklung aller in d. Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe (4th 
ed., 1841), p. '749; Jacobson, IndividuaUtat des Wortes u. Begriffes Kirche (in ibid., 
Kirchenrechtl. Yersuchen, I, 58-125). The word "church" (Germ, kirche) has been 
derived from to KvpiaKov ij kvplqktj, curia, from the Celtic cyrch or cylch (central-point, 
place of assembly), and from the Teutonic kieren, koren, or kiesen (to choose), sup- 
posed to have been connected with the Latin circus or with keliku (a tower), etc. 
Comp. Wackernagel, Alt d. Worterbuch, and Gravell, Die Kirche : Ursprung u. Be- 
deutung des deutschen Wortes (Gorlitz, 1856) ; for the derivation of KvpLog comp. 
Grimm, deutsches W. D., v, p. 790 fP. 

" There can," says Trench, " be no reasonable doubt that ' church ' is originally from 
the Greek, and signifies ' that which pertains to the Lord,' or ' the house which is the 
Lord's.' But here a difficulty meets us. How explain the presence of a Greek word 
in the vocabulary of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers ? for that we derive the word medi- 
ately from them, and intermediately from the Greek, is certain. What contact, direct 
or indirect, was there between the languages to account for this ? The explanation is 
curious. While the Anglo-Saxons and other tribes of the Teutonic stock were almost 
universally converted by their contact with the Latin Church in the western provinces 
of the Roman Empire, or by its missionaries, yet it came to pass that before this 
some of the Goths on the lower Danube had been brought to the knowledge of Christ 
by Greek missionaries from Constantinople ; and this word KvpiaK?]^ or church, did, 
with certain others, pass over from the Greek to the Gothic tongue ; and these Goths, 
the first converted to the Christian faith, the first, therefore, that had a Christian 
vocabulai-y, lent the word in their turn to the other German tribes, among others to 



CHURCH HISTORY. 317 

is no more to precede Church history than a doctrine of the person 
of Christ should form the introduction to a life of Je- History to pre- 
sus. It is, indeed, impossible to ascertain the nature of cede doctrine. 
the Church in any other way than through its history. No great 
progress can be made by the adoption of the abstract notion of a 
religious association, whose origin is, perhaps, conceived after the 
analogy of Rousseau's Social Contract/ It will, accordingly, be nec- 
essary to start out, with Gieseler, with the statement that " the 
Church is a particular and historically given conception," whicli 
must not be generalized into that of a religious society. To speak 
of the Church relations of the Jews, Mohammedans, and Hindus is 
inexact, and the expression, "the Christian Church," ^^^ church 
is, properly taken, a tautology, or derives its signifi- not merely a 
cation from the contrast to the more specific concep- ^^^^ ^' 
tions of Catholic and Protestant, or of Romish, Spanish, and Ger- 
man Churches. 

Some writers, such as Stolberg, have extended the idea backward 
into the Old Testament, But it would be equally proper to include 
Old Testament Christology in the life of Jesus. Nor does the life 
of Jesus belong within the range of Church history, which has its 
beginnings at the point where the circle of the earliest disciples 
begins to extend beyond the limits of a private association, and 
where a congregational organization is introduced. Hence Church 
history commences, strictly, as early as the apostolic period, but 
not until after the departure of Jesus from the earth. For this 
reason a majority of scholars regard the day of Pente- 
cost following ascension as the birthday of the Christian beginning of 
Church. The apostolic period, at the same time, can * ® ^^^ ' 
only be considered the substructure upon which the edifice of the 
visible Church is reared, or the root from which the mighty tree 

our Anglo-Saxon forefathers ; thus it has come round by the Goths from Constanti- 
nople to us. The passage most illustrative of the parentage of the word is from 
Walaf rid Strabo (about 840), who writes thus : ' Ab ipsis autem Graecis Kyrch a Ky- 
rios — et alia multa accepimus. Sicut domus Dei Basilica, i. e. Regia a Rege, sic etiam 
Kyrica, i. e. Dominica a Domino nuncupatur. Si autem quaesitur, qua occasione ad 
nos vestigiatise : graecitatis advenerint, dicendum praecipue a Gothis, qui et Getae, cum 
extempore, quo ad fidem Christi perducti sunt, in Graecorum provinciis commorante, 
nostrum, i. e. theotiscum sermonem Labuerint.' " Study of Words, pp. '79-81, N. Y., 
1854. 

*Comp. Locke: "A church I take to be a voluntary society of men, joining them- 
selves together of their own accord, in order to the public worshipping of God, in such 
a manner as they judge acceptable to him and effectual to the saving of their souls." 
Works, vol. ii, p. 145, Lond., 1751. For the insufficient and unhistorical nature of 
this view, corap. C. H. Weisse, Reden iiber die Zukuuft der evaugelischen Kirche, 
Lpz., 1849, p. 29 sqq. 



318 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

grows, with branches interlacing like an involved network. If 
the Church be regarded as a complex organization of communities, 
and if for that very reason it be again distinguished from those 
communities, it will be apparent that Church history, in the strict 
sense, begins where the external union of such communities has 
already been consolidated.* But the idea of the Church must be 
defined with respect to its nature, as well as its range through 
time and space, and, at this point, care is needed to guard against 
both a false idealism and a superficial empiricism. The correct 
view, by which the external and internal, visible and invisible, are 
apprehended in their proper connexion and correlation, but are 
likewise distinguished from each other, and according to which 
Church history has to do with the actualization of the kingdom of 
God in time and under determinate relations of time and place, 
stands midway between the purely social and abstract 
notaione social notion and the strictly theocratic view. For, according 
or eocratic. ^^ ^j^^ social view, the Church is merely an association 
of accidental origin, analogous to an insurance company, while the 
theocratic conception represents the Church as absolutely Divine 
even in its outward manifestation. The social form, which takes 
its shape under the influence of apparently accidental occurrences, 
constitutes the body of the Church, while the idea which is devel- 
oped in harmony with the laws of spiritual freedom, and there- 
fore by an inward necessity, is its soul.'* Church history is re 
quired to estimate both according to their true value, because 
they would otherwise represent a life that is neither a corpse nor a 
ghost. ^ 

SECTION IX. 

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHFECH. 

The Church, like every other phenomenon endowed with life, has 
an external or bodily, and an internal or spiritual, side to its nature, 
mv, />v, r. These cannot be sundered from each other, though they 

The Church ^ ' a j 

both exteraai may be separated to a certain extent, and severally 
an internal. ^i.ga|^g(j with particular attention. In this way the dif- 
ferent, but constantly interacting, departments of church life come 
into being, which determine the arrangement of the material of 
Church history, both ^ith regard to the logical rubrics under 

^ Rothe fixes the beginning of Church history as late as the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem ; see his Anfange der christl. Kirche. 

' Schleiermacher, § 51. 

'Concerning the relation of the ideal to the historical Church, see Schweizer, 
Glaubenslehre, p. 183 sg. 



HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 319 

which it is to be placed and the more independent artistic com- 
bination and connexion of the matter itself. 

Christianity entered the world, and was compelled to assume re- 
lations toward it. So, too, was the world required to enter into 
relations with Christianity. Christ himself had compared the king- 
dom of God to leaven which leavens the whole lump, and to a 
mustard seed w^hich should develop into a w4de-spreading tree. 
The expansive element is contained in the nature and the destina- 
tion of Christianity — the Church must grow. In the first stages of 
the life of an individual the outward growth is more noticeable, 
and calculated to excite remark ; and Church history has, similarly 
and most naturally, to deal, in its earliest periods, with the exten- 
sion of Christianity. By the side of the expansion. Expansion and 
however, we must trace the history of the limitation of Limitation. 
Christianity — the persecutions — even as the shadow moves along 
with the person. For our Lord had even foretold that his Church 
would be obliged to suffer persecution. 

The two elements cannot be torn asunder, since the extension of 
the Church often gave rise to persecution, while the latter, being 
overruled by God, aided in the extension. The blood of the martyrs 
was the seed of the Church. Christianity struck its roots into the 
world, however, in proportion as its outward extent increased, and 
its growth involved, as well, the strengthening of the body of the 
Church. This must be regarded as the necessary condition of the 
life of the Church, although it seems to be connected with the dan- 
ger of unduly emphasizing the body, and reducing the Church to 
the level of the world. To trace this incorporating process, and with 
it the course of partial secularization which it involves, is the task 
of the history of the constitution of the Church. But, constitution of 
in connexion with this, we must give attention to the the Church, 
relations of the Church to the State, especially when, under Con- 
stantine, the latter became Christian ; and to the internal social 
conditions of the Church itself, such as the separation of the clergy 
from the laity, gradations of rank among the clergy, the develop- 
ment of the hierarchy, morbid excrescences, divisions or schisms in 
the Church, and such special phenomena in connexion with its life 
as monasticism, the vita canonica. But within this body, composed 
as it is of numerous members, for whose study an acute eye is cer- 
tainly necessary, the soul of the life of Christianity unfolded itself, 
being partly carried forward and partly hindered by the Thesoui-iifeof 
body. So, Church History, as a branch of theological ti^e Church, 
study, IS first of a-ll to fix its attention upon the soul. The soul-life 
of the Church, moreover, as manifested in worship, doctrine, and 



320 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

customs, is not only bound organically to the bodily element by 
numerous ties — for the history of the constitution of the Church 
holds an unmistakable relation of interaction to the history of wor- 
ship and of doctrine — but it surrounds itself with a separate body. 
Worship seeks expression in various forms of art, and doctrine 
assumes the form of dogma, more or less fully developed, while 
both are determined by the spirit of special times and peoples, and 
by the degree uf culture which has been attained by any particular 
age. It is, of course, true that Christian teachings and customs 

have superseded the old and replaced it by the new ; 

The old con- '^ / . . 

ditions super- but they have also been determined and moditied from 
seded. ^|^^^ very direction. The history of worship, doctrine, 

and customs, is, therefore, connected with the general history of 
civilization, in like manner as the history of the constitution stands 
related to ordinary political history. 

No one side of the life of the Church can be thoroughly compre- 
hended apart from the other. It would, therefore, be improper to 
treat Church history in the form of rubrics constructed on a merely 
external and logical plan, like the drawers in a sideboard. On the 
contrary, the richer the manifestation of that life is at certain points 
where it pulsates, the more impossible is it to enforce such a divis- 
ion. This is illustrated by the Reformation, which forces its way" 
through all such limitations, with their superscriptions, by includ- 
ing in its scope at once the constitution, worship, doctrine, and life. 
Advantage of ^^^ arrangement of the material in the form of extended 
groupings. groupings, by which means, at times, one feature of the 
life of the Church may be brought into prominence, and at other 
times another, admits of great diversity in the shadings of the rep- 
resentation, and is, for this reason, certainly preferable, in an artistic 
point of view, to the abstract mode of treatment by topics.^ 

It should not be forgotten, however, in the interests of metho- 
dology, that the storing away of the material in the memory is 
facilitated by the arrangement in tabular rubrics, and that the 
artistic treatment can be profitably employed only where a knowl- 
edge of the facts of history already exists.^ It will be sufficient if, 
in connexion with the rubrical arrangement, we continually observe 

the dependence of the several departments upon each 
A necessary . . ^ . 

change of ru- Other, and direct attention to the links of the organic 
bncs. chain. The rubrics, moreover, will be required to 

change their titles and relation to each other with the change of 

^ Comp. the works of Henke, Spittler, Hase, Schleiermacher, etc. 
^ Warnings have, with propriety, been raised against too much cutting up of the 
material ; comp, Fricke, Lehrb. der Kirchengesch., Part I, Pref., p. ix, and § 9. 



DIVISION INTO PERIODS. 321 

times. It would, for example, be highly improper to assign the lead- 
ing place in connexion with later times to the extension of Christian- 
ity, whose place has, in the course of progress, been removed from 
the centre to the circumference, while the foreground is occupied by 
the Church itself, whose outward form was, in the Middle Ages, 
conditioned by tlie papacy with its hierarchy. At the titne of the 
Reformation, teaching, or dogma, again comes into the foreground. 
Such changes of scenery are positively necessary in order to avoid 
that fatal monotony of style which prevents the presentation from 
producing the proper impression. However, material cannot be ar- 
ranged under such categories alone. Sometimes individual churches, 
in which the Christian spirit has taken on a peculiar stamp, such as 
the Church of Africa, Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, Germany, or 
Slavonia, demand a separate treatment. Sometimes great and ex- 
citing events, that shake the entire Church, and the world itself, 
break through the framework of established rubrics, and claim a 
special treatment. This applies, for example, to the history of the 
Crusades and the Reformation. A mode of arrangement that 
regulates itself according to the nature of the material will, conse- 
quently, become necessary, and in such plan the division with re- 
gard to time, or into periods, demands special attention. 

SECTION X. 
DIVISION INTO PERIODS. 

The categories according to which the rich material of Church 
history is distributed, whatever may be their character, will be 
crossed by the lines of chronological division. The measure of 
these lines is found in those epochal events which have an import- 
ant bearing upon the whole of the history, but not in the external 
symmetry of plan, or in occurrences of subordinate importance for 
the Church. 

The division by centuries has, since Mosheim, been almost uni- 
versally given up. The principle of outward symme- The centuriai 
try, which certainly cannot be justified on scientific division wrong. 
grounds, lay at its basis. But it cannot be denied, on the other 
hand, that the beginning of a new century, for example, the eigh- 
teenth, occasionally introduces an epoch.^ The special point at 

' To divide a historical representation by centuries is connected with inconvenient 
consequences. Events are not brought sharply to a close with any of them ; the life 
and actions of mankind reach over from one to another. But all the reasons which 
govern any method of arrangement are based simply on some preponderating feature. 
Certain influences appear prominently in a certain century, without suggesting a de- 
sire to mistake the preparation for them, or to deny the future consequences they 
may have produced. — Goethe, Farbenl, ii, p. 169. 



332 HISTORICAL THEOLOaY. 

which the epoch that introduces a new period is to be assumed can 
hardly be definitely fixed, an approximation being the most that 
can ordinarily be secured. While Schleiermacher remarks that " the 
epochal points of chief importance are always such as not only pos- 
sess equal value for the functions of Christianity, but are also im- 
portant to historical development outside the Church,"* and tlie 
principle is correct in the main, attention may yet be called to the 
idea that distinct stages of development may be apparent in one 
field sooner than in the other, and that, therefore, the epochs of 
Church history can scarcely be identical with those of the history 
of the world. 

The dependence upon theology, to which the latter was subjected 
in former days, may account for the custom of regarding certain 
great phenomena in the religious sphere, particularly the introduc- 
tion of Christianity and the Reformation, in the light of epochs in 
the history of the world as well. Indeed, they certainly are such 
to the profounder researches of history mto the past, though not to 
the immediate historical perception.^ The influence of Christianity 

, upon the history of the world did not become apparent 
Influences of ^ -^ . ^ ^ 

Christianity not until much later, at the time of the overthrow of the 
immediate. Roman Empire in the West. This event, therefore, is 
better suited to be made an epoch in secular history than the 
immediate appearance of Christianity in the world, although the 
latter constitutes the most natural beginning of Church history. 

A similar idea will apply to the Reformation. The political 
transformation of Europe, which was doubtless directly promoted 
by the religious revolution, delayed its appearance in the world of 
phenomena until the Peace of Westphalia. The latter, accordingly, 
possesses greater significance for political history than does the 
Reformation, while, in importance to Church history, it is inferior 
to the Reformation. In like manner, other and even religious 
events, for example, the appearance of Mohammed, occur, and form 
epochs in the sphere of secular history, which yet have but a sub- 
ordinate importance for Church history as such, however grave may 
have been the consequences that reacted upon the fortunes of the 
Church. An agreement of opinions will always be most readily 
secured with reference to epochs in connexion with which the fac- 
tor that moulds a period ^ is most prominently displayed. These, 
therefore, are epochs in the full breadth of the word. 

1 § 165. 

^ Christianity is, no doubt, the hinge between the Old and the New "World, but the 
hinge itself has a breadth — of centuries ! 

^ The distinction between epoch and period is assumed to be from secular history. 



DIVISION INTO PERIODS. 323 

In this sense the adoption of Christianity by Constantine, and the 
connected introduction of that faith to be the state relig- what consti- 
ion, unquestionably constitutes an epoch, although it may ^^^^ ^^ ^p^^- 
be difficult to decide what year should begin the new period — A. D. 
306, 312, or 325. With equal certainty Gregory VII. forms a strik- 
ingly noticeable feature in the history of the development of the 
papacy, and hence of the institution with which the character of the 
Church of the Middle Ages is involved. Nor will it escape the eye 
of the observer that the period from Gregory VII. to the Reforma- 
tion embraces three stages— the progress of the papacy to the time 
of Innocent III. ; its hold upon the elevation attained, to Boniface 
VIII.; and its subsequent decline, which may also be dated from 
the removal of the papal chair to Avignon at a somewhat later day, 
down to the period of the Reformation." 

Finally, none will deny that the division of the Church in the 
sixteenth century forms an epoch in the treatment of ^^^ Reforma- 
Church history from both a Roman Catholic and a Prot- tion a univer- 
estant point of view, although the Council of Trent, 
rather than the Reformation, will be the turning point in the for- 
mer case.* It will prove more difficult to find, on the other hand, 
one or more resting places — excepting Gregory the Great and Char- 
lemagne, who are commonly assumed — between Constantine and 
Gregory VII. that would be equally acceptable to all persons. It 
is likewise difficult to fix an epoch between the Reformation and 
our own time, though all are compelled to acknowledge that a crisis 
intervened after the Thirty Years' War, and again during the first 
decades of the eighteenth century. It is difficult, however, to con- 
nect these with some single event of marked prominence, in- 
asmuch as a multitude of factors co-operated to bring about 
the revolution in the character of that time. It follows that the 
settling of definite epochs will remain subject to a certain amount 
of fluctuations, which, however, involves no loss to science when 
the points upon which the whole must turn are clearly appre- 
hended. 

^ To overlook the wholly diverse nature of these two courses of development, and 
the epochal effect of the removal of the chair to Avignon, is to misunderstand the 
principal features in which the life of the Church pulsates. — Rettberg, Pref. to vol. 
vii. of Schmid's Kirchengesch, p. vii. It is not easy to say why Gregory YII, should 
not himself present a suitable beginning for a new period. — Fricke, i., p. 12. 

^ It is apparent how very different the periodizing of the history of the Reforma- 
tion must be when regard is had to the Reformation in Germany alone from what it 
would become when that of other lands is also treated. It is usual to conclude the 
history of the Reformation with the religious Peace of Augsburg (1555), but this 
forms a real conclusion only for the German branch of ecclesiastical history. 



324 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTIOX XI. 

PEOPER TEEATMENT OF CHUECH HISTOEY. 

The requirements for a thorough and profitable treatment of 
Church history, are: 

1. An impartial recognition of the facts secured by the inves- 
tigation of extant sources and documents. This is historical crit- 
icism. 

2. Unbiassed estimation of the historical material in harmony 
with the law of the lower and higher causality. This we may call 
historical pragmatism. 

3. A living interest in Christianity, and a disposition to value its 
manifestations according to the Christian standard. This is relig- 
ious fervour or enthusiasm. 

1. It is evident that what has been indicated above can be re- 
quired only of this study in its finished state. This holds good es- 
pecially of the study of sources,^ which can be required of the 
beginner only in limited measure, and in connexion with which the 
labours of others must in any case prepare his way. Every theo- 
logian should, nevertheless, engage in the study of sources in some 
directions, even though not intending to make a specialty of Church 
history, with a view to quicken the historical faculty, and become 
able to estimate the labours of others in this field. 

The criticism to be employed on sources is twofold. In one re- 
Twofoid criti- spect it coincides in function with exegetical criticism, 
cism of sources, g^g [^ deals with the authenticity and integrity of the 
historical monuments which it designs to use. It is governed by 
the same laws. To this philological criticism, however, is added 
that of real history. The question arises, whether the authority to 
whom we appeal could, in view of all his personal traits, his char- 
acter, culture, and outward circumstances, have stated the truth, 
and whether he intended to state it ? The examination must be 
impartially conducted, and the worth or worthlessness of the 
source as a whole, together with the truthworthiness of each state- 
ment in particular, be determined accordingly. Care must be 
taken, however, not to make the goal in this inquiry absolute truth^ 
but relative, and not to apply the measure of our requirements to 
the earlier ages. A report based on the clear statements of a 
Difference in trustworthy witness is termed reliable, while one that 
reports. lacks such complete confirmation is doubtful, unsup- 

ported, and possibly even suspicious. A correct historical judg- 
ment will guard against both a hypercritical or skeptical tendency, 
» Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 156, 157, 184, 190. 



TREATMENT OF CHURCH HISTORY. 325 

and such an uncritical direction as amounts to a blind belief in 
authorities and legends. 

2. By the side of criticism stands pragmatism. To simply fur- 
nish approved narratives of facts, without any elaboration or add- 
in o- of personal opinions, is the work of merely a good chronicler.* 
The mission of the historian is of a higher character, for history is 
a living, connected whole. The past is mirrored in the present, 
and contains within itself the germs of the most distant future. 
Every particular thing is the product of its age, which is itself 
determined by the co-operation of many individual elements. Nor 
can it be denied that national characteristics and constitutions, cli- 
mate, and various other things, exert an influence over the subjec- 
tive life, and that these, in turn, have a reflex influence upon the 
objective life. 

It follows that an endless chain of causes and effects runs 
through the whole of history, that is, through the de- Reciprocal in- 
velopment of the moral world in time as through that Auences. 
of the physical world in space. To follow this chain, to ascertain 
and comprehend both the forces of attraction and of repulsion, ac- 
cording to the laws of social polarity, is the task of historical philos- 
ophy, or historical pragmatism. We postulate a twofold Twofold law of 
law of causality, however, a lower and a higher, a mediate causality, 
and an immediate. Every concrete fact appears to us, in part, as the 
product of outwardly traceable, mechanical causes. But it must be 
remembered that the causal element is itself the effect of other causes, 
and that the new product contains within itself that causative power 
which will produce still further effects. But underneath all the vari- 
ous causes, mutually sustaining and supporting as they are, must lie 
a primal force, in which they find their absolute and positively ulti- 
mate base. In a true study of history each of these features will 
receive due recognition. The tendency to an atomistic mode of 
treatment must be limited and complemented by the dynamic, in 
order that no feature be in any way exaggerated. To lead back 
every thing to known, accepted, and historical causes, and deduce 
the most exalted matters from inferior antecedents, or explain the 
original by what has been made or has come into being, w^hat is 
spiritually necessary and free by what is accidental and arbitrary — 
in one word, to explain life by death, is belittling, and devoid at 
once of taste and spirit. 

This would become apparent if the attempt were made to explain 

'On the distinction between chronicle and history, see Schleiermacher, §§ 152, 
154. Upon the whole subject, compare Gervinus, Grundziige der Historik, Leip., 
1837. 



320 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

the spread of Christianity in the first three centuries simply on the 
ground of the political and financial condition of the Roman State, 
the pecuniary difiiculties of certain emperors, the excellent charac- 
ter of the Roman roads throughout the realm, and other lesser 
factors, or the Reformation as resulting merely from an insig- 
nificant quarrel between Augustinian and Dominican monks, or 
Congregationalism from a personal grievance of Brown, or Meth- 
odism from John Wesley's individual disapprobation of Oxford 
formality. For it is true, in appearance only, that what is greatest 
not rarely springs from what is least, since what is mathematically 
small is yet dynamically great. The oak comes only from the 
True value of acorn. External and apparently accidental causes 
obscure causes. g]iould not be overlooked and neglected, however, any 
more than they should be overrated. To endeavour to trace 
back every thing to a single, mysterious, primal cause, to the disre- 
gard of intermediate links, is to transform history into an exhausted 
garden, a magic lantern^ out of which only disconnected, puzzling 
shapes arise, just to vanish again by a mere turn of the hand. " A 
shallow mind," says Herder, " finds and connects nothing in history 
but facts; a perverted mind seeks for miracles in it." The truth 
lies here, also, in the golden middle.^ 

The moral estimate to be formed of persons and their actions, is 
likewise dependent on a correct pragmatism in the mode of treat- 
ment. Here, again, two extremes must be avoided. An atomistic 
Extremes to be pragmatism is usually ready to apply the measure of 
avoided. moral perception belonging to its own time to every his- 

torical phenomenon, and in this way to be dictatorial over history. 
It scents fraud and base and dishonourable intentions everywhere, or 
it rejects, as being silly and fanatical, everything that does not corre- 
spond with its ideal of good reason. On this method the mediaeval 
manifestations of the papacy and monasticism, especially, receive 
rough treatment, and doctrinal controversies assume the character 
of simply hateful quarrels. This method has no apprehension of 
the existence of the profounder impulses of the human spirit which 
are displayed under these fanciful forms. It lacks the elevation of 
soul that is needed to lift it out of its personal prejudices, and to 

' There was a time — it can scarcely be termed fully past — when people found pleas- 
ure in explaining history, even in its most important points of change, out of mere 
blind, accidental occurrences. This was termed the philosophical method. In our 
days many have fallen upon a directly contrary method ; and this, too, is denominated 
the philosophical method. — Reuchlin, Geschichte von Port Royal, p. 54. Comp, Ger- 
vinus, supra, p. 69 sq. In more recent times Gfrorer has come to occupy this ground 
in part. 



TREA.TMENT OF CHURCH HISTORY. 327 

enlarge the individual consciousness until it becomes commensurate 
with that of the human species/ 

The contrast to this narrow habit of observation is formed by 
that sublime objectivity which, in entire abnegation of self, abstains 
from expressing any moral judgment, and looks down from its 
speculative watch-tower upon the evolutions of the world-spirit as 
upon a divine drama. History thus becomes a merely natural 
process, without the superadding of any moral element. Between 
these two extremes, the one of which is involved in the nature of 
deism and the other in that of pantheism, is the ground upon which 
proceeds the truly theistic method of historical research, rj^e tbeistic 
whose principle is that history moves in the sphere of method, 
freedom, though guided by a Providence which binds and controls 
all the threads of progress. This real history, therefore, also lies 
in the sphere of a higher necessity — a necessity which cannot, of 
course, be established by us on a priori principles, but may yet be 
apprehended by that keen sensibility which improves under the 
process of quiet observation. 

It is said that "history is the tribunal of the world." But w^e 
should probably find that the necessary documents for any real 
and practical application of the idea are wanting to us. God has 
reserved the judgment for himself; and for this reason our judgment 
should be exercised sparingly. The rule by which, in Church his- 
tory, we are to estimate the different phenomena connected with 

the Church, can only be the word of God. This is the ^ ^, ^ ,^ 

' , *' _ God s word the 

canon by which we are to judge of every further stage standard of 
of development in the Christian life. In connexion -"^ gnae^t. 
with every new appearance we are to inquire, " How is it related 
to the idea of Christianity, as laid down in the New Testament?" 

This should not be construed to mean, however, that every spe- 
cial form of the Christian life which does not thoroughly resemble 
that of the apostolic Church is to be rejected. Such a view would 

^ Hence, Meander, speaking with reference to the Crusades, says: " The lowest place 
is occupied by cold reason, which, more than other Judges, denies the native nobility 
of human nature, and looks with aristocratic pity upon such times ; not because it is 
governed by enthusiasm for the truly real, but because only that seems real to its judg- 
ment which is the lowest of all that appears, and because precisely what is most beau- 
tiful in this connexion is regarded by it as only fancy — namely, labour and daring 
expended for things whose only value lies in the bosom of mankind." — Der heil. Bern- 
hard (1st ed.), p. 210. "It is usual to say," observes a Roman Catholic writer, "that 
the chest makes the orator. It may be said, in a higher sense, that the heart makes 
the historian ; truth does not rest on criticism alone, but much more on the determina- 
tion to love it, even Avheu its language is not pleasant." — Hist. pol. Blatter fiir das 
kathol. Deutschland, 1854, No. 8, p. 654. 
23 



328 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

be the death of all history, whose very nature requires develop- 
ment. The developed life is related to the original like the plant 
to the germ. The life of the germ, however, passes over into the 
The principle plant ; and the principle of Christianity must similarly 
toust^be^'ever ^^ traceable in every manifestation, any phase of church 
present. life being morally justifiable only in so far as that prin- 

ciple can be made to appear. Wherever this principle is lacking, 
or has been perverted into its contrary, the existence of a morbid 
state cannot be mistaken, though there are many different degrees 
in the malady. An entire 'institution in the Church, for instance 
the papacy, may, with all its consequences, appear to deserve re- 
jection from the standpoint of pure apostolical Christianity, as be- 
ing itself morbid and the product of morbid conditions, without "^ 
compelling the conclusion that the history of the popes is, for that 
reason alone, a history of antichrist. On the one hand, it will be 
necessary to consider the papacy itself in its historical relation to 
the Christian world under its Germanic form, as the counterpoise 
to barbaric wilfulness and boorishness ; and, on the other, to esti- 
mate the different popes by the measure of the papal idea, which 
will at all events reveal a wide chasm between a Gregory VII. and 
an xAlexander VI. 

It is also possible "for a historian to defend the mediaeval popes, 
and, at the same time, to be a determined opponent of the persons 
who desire the restoration of the papacy of the Middle Ages for 
our own times." ^ The same applies to monasticism, from which 
the Reformation itself came forth, while the historical Reformation 
differs from a mere abstract theory of doctrinal improvement by 
reason of the fact that Luther passed through this very vital expe- 
rience of the mediaeval Church, upon which he was subsequently 
called to exert a reformatory influence. A comforting feature in 

^ . . history lies in the fact that error, even where it is most 
Remedies m -^ , , ' 

even a corrupt obdurate, is yet manifested only as an excrescence upon 
^^^' the truth, and that even a corrupt age contains within 

itself, though unconsciously, the remedies upon which a later time 
will lay hold with a more untrammeled judgment. 

History thus becomes the teacher of the present, but only in the 
entirety of its development, though it may be said, with greater 
accuracy, that the present thus results from history. Hence it 
must be regarded as a gross abuse to make history subservient to 
so-called interests of the times and to personal preferences, in such 

^ Mohler, Kleine Schriften, i, p. 76. A striking example is found in Yoigt in his 
treatment of Gregory VII. ; comp. his Antwort an den Bischof von La Rochelle, June 
23, 1829, (in pref. to 2d ed.) 



TREATMENT OF CHURCH HISTORY. 329 

way as to compel it to yield either ideals with which to dazzle the 
uninformed, or caricatures with which to excite their fears/ His- 
tory is thus reduced to the character of an armory to which every 
combatant resorts for the weapon needed in any special emergency; 
and what they term " the spirit of the times," which they thus call 
up, according to their belief is not rarely " the spirit of the gentle- 
men themselves." 

3. Our third requirement, the moral and religious disposition, is 

for this reason closely connected with the preceding re- „ , 

•^ . . Moral and re- 

marks. It was during an extended period considered ugious disposi- 

the highest wisdom of historical pragmatism to insist ^°^' 
that the historian should belong to no religion, and that, therefore, 
the best Church History is that which displays the least affection 
for its object, and, at the same time, evinces no preference for any 
current tendency of thought — hence, which is distinguished by its 
lack of colour and animation. We recall attention, at this point, to 
our remarks on the objective tendency in exegesis. It is doubtless 
true that prejudice in any direction is damaging to free Damage from 
historical vision. The historian should be superior to prejudice. 
the appeals of party interest. But this does not imply that he 
should neither have convictions nor express them. If such convic-r 
tions do not amount merely to a clinging to blind prejudices, but 
are, instead, the fruit of intellectual effort, they may find expres- 
sion, and naturally will, and ought to be, avowed, in proportion as 
they are living convictions. The person who possesses an enthusi- 
asm for art, and has been initiated into the mysteries of its life, will 
surely be more competent to write its history than one Best historians 
wiio stands far aloof from it. Moreover, as a rule, the ^^j^ \h°e^p«Z 
best history of a people will be furnished by him who pie. 
has lived and felt with that people, and has been penetrated with a 

* Schleiermacher, § 155, note: "An excited, egoistic interest, and, consequently, 
every partial tendency, is a most potent influence to pervert tlie historical vision in 
the scientific sphere, as in common life." Comp. Ullmana, p. 6*77 : " In an age that 
is agitated by the spirit of partisanship, nothing is so likely to mislead as the tempta- 
tion to make historical inquiry, among other things, subserve the demands of party 
and the interests of the day, because fame and advantage may be thus secured, for 
the moment at least, if not permanently. But where this is the case, the thorough 
and comprehensive study of sources will possess no great value." " The introduction 
of present interests into historical labours," says Rauke, " generally results in hinder- 
ing the independent performance of such undertakings" (Pref. to Engl. Geschichte, 
p. xi). Ranke, no doubt, follows his objective tendency to an extreme, with reference 
to ecclesiastical contrasts as well as other matters. He writes history " in the placid 
frame of a painter of fancy pictures." See the reviesv in the Augsburg Allgem. 
Zeitung, supplement, 345, 1860. 



.^.^0 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

recognition of its most sacred interests — such as Tacitus, Moser, 
J. von Mtiller, Macaulay, Palacky. The objection might be raised, 
indeed, that, for example, on this principle, the history of Islam 
could be best treated by a Mohammedan, and that of Judaism by a 
Jew. We must acknowledge the force of this reply, in so far as 
the Christian inquirer into history who would know and describe 
those religions as they are in their ininost being, will be required to 
enter personally into the life of Mohammedanism or Judaism, so as 
to reproduce them from within himself. It only remains to inquire 
whether such reproduction be possible j and at this point frequent 
errors have, unquestionably, taken place. Often, too, has the nar- 
row spirit of Christian ecclesiastical historians prevented them from 
forming a correct estimate of the conditions of heathendom. For 
Christianity not this, however, Christianity must not be blamed. Where 
narrow^church ^^® latter has attained to its highest development, it 
history. can be said with propriety that the Christian "proves 

all things." For the most independent and unprejudiced repre- 
sentation of a lower condition is always executed from a higher 
The lower best ^^^^^' Indeed, the really moving principle of the lower 
understood by state can be thoroughly apprehended and understood 
^ ^^ ®^' by him only who occupies the higher level.* The man- 
ner in which the Christian may apprehend and elaborate Judaism 
and Mohammedanism differs greatly from the treatment which the 
Jew or Mohammedan is able to accord to Christianity, or even to 
his own religion, to which he stands related as a dreamer. The 
"veil of Moses" is on their faces. The real character of such in- 
stitutions is apparent only to the awakened and sober research of 
Christendom. The further elucidation of this question belongs to 
apologetics. We do not assert that certain branches of Church 
history are beyond the capacity of persons who have no sympathy 
with the vital principle of Christianity, or who are even in antagon- 
ism with it. But the efforts of such inquirers must be restricted 
either to the mere collecting of material or to narrow criticisms, 
while that which really gives movement and life to history remains 
concealed from their vision. This was emphatically the case with 
Gibbon. 

Life, in its inmost relations, is disclosed only to him who loves,' 

^ Upon this point we coincide with Mohler (Kleine Schriften, ii, p. 284), the only 
difference being that he considers Roman Catholicism as constituting the highest stage, 
while we assign that character to Protestantism. Which of these latter is better 
qualified to understand the other, is, of course, a question of time, upon which, how- 
ever, our own opinion is formed. 

* Marcus Aurelius was a good and also an intelligent man, but he was no more able 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 331 

while it is doubtless true that the eye of a cold observer, or of a 
foe, will be keener to discover faults and frailties than that of love, 
which is often blind to such traits. Such blindness, however, is 
checked by the cultivation of the true Christian spirit, ^^^ chrstia 
which is a spirit of truth. In this spirit, and in the spirit both lov- 
measure in which it has been received into us, the im- ^^^ ^^ -^^^ ' 
age of the Church is most accurately reflected, not, indeed, without 
spot or wrinkle, but exactly as it is, and with all its lights and 
shadows. The cold spirit of worldly wisdom catches upon the con- 
cave mirror of its really hollow head and heart only the caricature 
of the original picture, while it remains itself unknown/ 

SECTIOX XII. 

METHOD OF CHCRCH HISTORY. 

It is impossible, in view of the wide extent of Church History, to 
give equal attention to all the noteworthy factors within its do- 
main. For this reason the relation of the general to the particular 
will be determined by the degree of theological interest which at- 
taches to a given matter. Every scholar who desires to work suc- 
cessfully upon details will need to possess a general and 
systematic acquaintance with the whole field in its must be under- 
synchronous relations, in order to which the study of ^^° ' 
tables, or, better, the construction of them, will become necessary. 

to conceive of the spirit that brought the martyrs to the stake, and strengthened them 
there, than a person absolutely devoid of speculative ability is able to comprehend 
Spinoza's ethics. — Kliefoth, Einl. in d. Dogmengesch, p. 1V4. 

^ Gieseler says : " The ecclesiastical historian must renounce party interest, as well 
as prejudices arising from the peculiarities of his time. On the other hand, he can- 
not penetrate into the internal character of the phenomena in Church history without a 
Christian, religious spirit, because no spiritual manifestation that is foreign to our 
habits can be apprehended with historical correctness without being reproduced in the 
imagination of the inquirer. Only such inquiry can discover where the Christian 
spirit is entirely wanting, where it is only used as a mask, and what other spirit has 
taken its place. Nor will it fail to recognize its presence, even though finding expres- 
sion under forms of manifestation that are strange to our eyes." — Church History, 
American edition, vol. i, pp. 23, 24. Corap. also Schleiermacher, § 193, and Fricke, 
Lehrbuch der Kirchengesch, i, § 7. Thiersch makes it the great task of Church his- 
tory " to recognize what, in the course of events, was natural development, what was 
human guilt, and what, in consequence of man's sin, supernatural interference." He 
continues : " Church history rises to the character of a true and real theological sci- 
ence only when it connects the whole of the past with the present, and traces the 
progress of events from the beginning of the Church to our day, in order thus to re- 
veal the work of the Church that now is, to lay a foundation for the understanding of 
our own times, and open a conjectural view into the future of the Church," (Vorles- 
ungen iiber Protestantismus und Katholicismus, vol. i, p. 138 sq. Erlangen, 1846.) 
Comp. also Ullmann, in the Preface to the 3d ed. of Neander, Church History. 



333 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

But, from this whole, the Protestant theologian will be able to select 
those particular sections in which the Church was either predomi- 
nantly engaged in the course of healthful development, or was 
returning to such state, involving, of course, the leading features of 
the history of its decline and degeneration during the Middle Ages, 
and also, as a necessary connecting link, the grand outward form 
assumed by the Church of that period. 

Every scholar should, moreover, be especially acquainted with 
the history of the Church, and the Reformation, and Protestantism, 
in his own country; and, since the universal derives animation and 
clearness only through its details, it follows that the study of spe- 
cial features is to be recommended as being particularly fitted to 
stimulate and shape the mind. 

The field of Church history is infinite in its extent,^ and there is, 
consequently, no limit to the labours of the Church historian. The 
student, however, who is preparing for ordinary service in the 
Church, the theologian in a general way, can only be required " to 
be familiar with so much of this infinite material as is necessary to 
his independent participation in the government of the Church." 
To this end the general history of the Church, which furnishes him 
Necessity of with the needed outline, is first of all necessary.'* Ev- 
generai history. gj.y scholar should be SO familiar with this as to leave 
no gap in the progress of centuries of development which he can- 
not fill with the names about which its principal reminiscences 
cluster. The fixing of this synchronistic syllabus in the mem- 
ory, by the use of tables, is indispensable, the entering upon par- 
ticulars being nothing more than a planless digging and grubbing 
unless such a picture of the whole has been impressed on the 
mind. 

Nor is the mere picture all that is necessary. The outline must 
be filled in, and made to live — a feature that should not be made to 
depend on accidental circumstances. No general decision can be 
rendered as to whether the history of the Church is more important 
in its ancient, its intermediate, or its modern periods. It is easy to 
see that the intermediate history will sustain a different relation to 
both the ancient and the modern, according to the Protestant or 
the Roman Catholic view. But it would be unhistorical, and ultra- 
Protestant as well, to argue that we might dispense with the his- 
tory of the Middle Ages and the hierarchy as beyond the limits of 
the Church. If it be regarded simply as a history of the decline 
and corruption of the Church, it would be important to understand 
it for that very reason. But it is more than this. It connects the 
' Schleiermacher, § 184. 2 Schleiermacher, §§ 91, 185, ISY. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 333 

various threads in many ways, however much it severs and entan- 
gles them in other respects; and it is necessary that such 
points of connexion be recognized, and that the Roman understand 
Catholicism of the Middle Ages be apprehended in its ^^^^^® ^^®^- 
principles, a work that is possible only when some acquaintance 
with the details of the material of history has been secured. It 
would, nevertheless, lead away from the goal at which the Protes- 
tant student of theology aims in the study of Church History, if 
special attention were directed, for instance, upon the details of the 
history of the popes and religious orders, or of the Romish ritual — 
as has been done in Hurter's Innocenz III.^ — while only a rapid 
survey is taken of the Reformation and the history of more recent 
times, or too great brevity is exercised while treating the ancient 
Church. The latter and the history of the Reformation, with the 
events resulting from it, constitute, therefore, the real soil of the 
Protestant Church, upon which the Protestant theologian should 
by all means be at home, even though he may not ignore the Middle 
Ages. The relation might almost be compared with that of the 
study of the Old Testament to that of the New, in the department 
of exegesis. 

To the above we must add the Church history of the student's 
native land. Every one ought to possess a more inti- Necessity of ac- 
mate knowledge of the founding and extension of Chris- quaintance 

^- V • 1 • ^ ^1. £ •!• 1 wi<^h Church 

tianity m his own country, and be more familiarly history of our 

acquainted with the history of its ecclesiastical institu- own country. 

tions, and especially of Protestantism within its bounds, than will 

be possible to him from general history alone. In this direction 

private studies will become necessary to supplement the instruction 

received in the theological seminary. 

It is further necessary that just proportions be observed in the 

extent of treatment accorded to the different departments in the 

life of the Church. Protestants are inclined to discuss the history 

' Comp. § 14, and Schleierraacher, §§ 154 and 191. We would direct attention to 
the fact that, in the study of Church history in general, the leading object is not a 
mere knowledge of details and the cramming of the memory — not merely conception^ 
but perception. Comp. Roth (in Gelzer's Prot. Mon. Blotter, 1851, Dec, p. 364): " The 
objective history of the Church may be learned from lectures or books, and is an ob- 
ject of conception ; but the subjective history requires perception, as does scarcely 
another study. If the latter be taken as the object of conception merely, it will afford 
no nourishment to the mind. Is there anything more discouraging than an examina- 
tion at which the candidate expresses his opinion respecting Augustine, Bernard of 
Clairvaux, or Abelard, in the precise terms which he copied from the respective lec- 
tures?" It appears, then, that to stimulate — be the subject what it may — remains 
the principal object of the historical lecture. 



334 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

of teaching with greater thoroughness than the history of constitu- 
Protestant em- tions and worship. For a long time they neglected 
M?for7 ^f ^^^ history of art altogether, though it has now been 
teaching. properly restored by Hase, Piper, Hemans, and North - 

cote to a place in the organism of Church History. The history of 
heresies should be treated in such way as to give prominence to the 
principal tendencies represented by the several heresies, and avoid 
distracting the gaze by dwelling too greatly upon unimportant de- 
tails. At the same time, the danger incident to the generalizing 
process, of becoming superficial, and obliterating what is peculiar 
in any particular instance, should not be overlooked. It will, ac- 
cordingly, be useful to pursue, at times, a thoroughly specific and 
particular question down to its last threads, and this not only for 
him who devotes himself professionally to the study of Church 
History, but for every person who desires to arrive at a clear 
and living apprehension of the facts of ecclesiastical history in 
general. 

This leads us to monography, and, more immediately, to biogra- 
Necessity of P^^y* It is not only greatly instructive, but also truly 
monography. refreshing and edifying, to enlarge one's own limited 
life by the process of entering thoroughly into the life of an age, 
or even of an individual and his inmost soul, until, so to speak, we 
breathe, think, and feel with him, look with his eyes upon the outer 
world, and travel, preach, and suffer with him. Let it be admitted 
that a momentary partiality is likely to result from this process. 
It will yet be most readily removed by a later absorption into a 
contemporaneous character of different type, by which means a new 
metempsychosis is passed through, and by a different road. An in- 
creased interest will also be obtained by studying, side by side, two 
antagonizing personalities, which appear to have been raised up in 
order to complement each other, like the two poles of the physical 
world; by explaining each by comparison with the other ; and by 
constructing, in a psychological way, the history to which they give 
movement and life from such personal factors. 

For illustration, let Bernard of Clairvaux be placed beside Arnold 
Necessity of of Brescia, Anselm beside Abelard, Erasmus beside 
parallels. Hutten, Luther beside Zwingli, Calvin beside Castellio, 

Knox beside Cranmer, and Bossuet beside Fenelon. Such parallels, 
if drawn by the hand of some Christian Plutarch, would necessar- 
ily be highly suggestive. In connexion with this subject it is im- 
portant, however, that the law of mutual interaction be not over- 
looked, by which each age is seen to be the product of the spiritual 
and personal forces that exert a controlling influence upon it, while 



HISTORY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 335 

they, in turn, are the product of their age, having been rooted in a 
long, extended past. It is equally improper to say that men make 
history, and to regard them as being merely the expression and hu- 
man image of the prevalent spirit of their time. Every person is 
the child of his time; but it is not given to every one to become the 
father of a new generation. 

While biography is undoubtedly a most valuable study for the 
developing theologian,^ it yet does not exhaust the task of monog- 
raphy. The description of sjjecial forms of ecclesiastical life, for 
example, of Port Royal in the seventeenth century, and the pursuit 
of special tendencies of mind down to their ultimate details, such 
as monasticism, mysticism, and other vagaries, is, likewise, highly 
instructive and invigorating, provided the particular subject be not 
treated as a dry curiosity, but in its connexion with the entire de- 
velopment of the life of the Church.* 

The History of Church History. 

* F. C. Baur, Epochen d. kirchl. Geschichtsschreibung, Tub., 1852 ; Ter Haar, His- 
toriographie der Kerkgeschiedenis, part i, Eusebius to Laurentius Valla ; part ii, Flac- 
cius to Semler, Utrecht, 1870-71. John G. Dowling, New Introduction to the Critical 
Study of Ecclesiastical History, Attempted in an Account of the Progress, and a Short 
Xotice of the Services, of the History of the Church, Lond., 1838. Philip Schaff, 
What is Church History? Phila., 1846. 

The origin of the Church itself furnishes the necessary condition 
for the origin of its history, and every monument of the life and 
work of the Church is, directly or indirectly, a source for that his- 
tory. The construction of a historical representation could not be 
undertaken before some time had elapsed, that is to say, before 
ground had been gained upon which to rear the structure of Church 
history. The first work of this kind was furnished by 
Eusebius, to A. D. 324, who availed himself, however, 
of the labours of an earlier writer, Hegesippus, about A. D. 150. 
Editions of Eusebius were published by Valesius, Paris, 1659 sqq., 
and Reading, Cant., 1720; manual edition by Heinichen, Leips., 
1827-39, 4 vols.; and by Burton, including Yita Constantini, 1838. 
Later editions have been by Schwegler, 1852; Lammer, 1859; and 
Dindorf, 1867. With regard to his trustworthiness, compare the 

' Fricke says : " Every person is an individual mirror of his time. But the great 
spirits of any age are those who are most pure, clear, and prophetic. It should never 
l)e forgotten, however, that both for the purposes of conception and representation, 
they are only important as being the especially prominent expression of the common 
mind of their respective times, which ought always to be apprehended," p. 6. 

^ Upon this point compare, especially, Ullmann in the Preface to Trechsel, History 
of Early Antitrinitarians. 



336 *. HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

works of Moeller, 1813, Danz, 1815, Kestner, 1817, Reuterdahl, 
1826, Rienstra, 1833, and Baur, 1834. 

Eusebius was succeeded by Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and the 
Arians, and by Pbilostorgius in the fifth century, and Theodorus and 
Evagrius in the sixth. Concerning the first three, compare Holz- 
hausen, 1825. The Arians are found in the editions by Reading 
and Valesius. 

The Latin Church was less prominently engaged than the Greek 
Latin bisto- during the first period in writing Church history. Men- 
^^^^^- tion should, however, be made of Rufinus, the trans- 

lator of Eusebius, Sulpicius Severus at the beginning of the fifth 
century, Cassiodorus and Epiphanius (Tripartita History) in the mid- 
dle of the sixth, and Gregory of Tours at its close. In the Middle 
Ages the following chroniclers in the West are prominent, besides 
the Byzantines (collected by [NTiebuhr, 1828 sqq., 46 vols.) — Syncel- 
lus, Theophanes, and Nicephorus, in the fourteenth century; Jor- 
nandes (550), Gregory of Tours (died 595), the Venerable Bede 
(died 735), Paul Warnefried (died 795), Haymo of Halberstadt 
(died 853), Anastasius (died 886), Hermannus Contractus (died 
1054), Lambert* of Herzfeld (died 1077), Sigbert of Gemblours 
(Gamblacensis, died 1112), Adam of Bremen (died about 1076), and 
still others. Besides these are many martyrologists and legend 
writers, who are generally uncritical and deficient in the qualities 
belonging to the historian. 

The influence of the Reformation was less immediately effective 
Reformation of upon Church history than upon exegesis. It was not 
chuSThistOT? ^^*il ^^^^^ ^^^ religious Peace of Augsburg, when the 
than exegesis, storms were in part over, that a number of Lutheran 
theologians at Magdeburg, headed by Matthias Flacius (Illyricus), 
undertook a diffuse history of the Church, arranged by centuries, 
and, at the same time, under rubrics. This is the Magdeburg Cen- 
turies, 1559-74. The work consisted of thirteen folio volumes, 
each of which covered a century. The German edition is by Count 
Mllnnich, Hamburg, 1855. Compare Twesten's Matthias Flacius, 
Berlin, 1844, pp. 16, 17. In opposition to the Centuries, Caesar 
Baronius published Ecclesiastical Annals (12 vols., Rome, 1588- 
1607) extending to 1198; other editions, with continuations, have 
also been issued from a Romish point of view. 

For a long time afterward Church history was cultivated simply 
in the interests of denominational parties. Of Lutherans, the more 
prominent writers were Kortholdt, Ittig, Cyprian, Buddseus, Weiss- 
mann, and Pfaff. Among the Reformed we may mention Hospin- 
ian, Turretin, J. Hottinger, Jablonsky, and others. Of Roman 



HISTORY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 337 

Catholics we enumerate Natalis (Noel), Alexander, Fleury, Bos- 
suet, and Tillemont. To these naroes miarht be added ^ . ^. 
' *^ ^ Denommation- 

those of members of the order of St. Maur in France, ai character of 

who rendered useful service by publishing editions of ^^^ ^^'^^^' 

the Church Fathers, and by the investigation of special portions of 

Church history. The mystic Gottfried Arnold endeavoured to 

give an impartial attitude to Church history by taking the part of 

the hitherto despised heretics and sectarians, in his History of the 

Church and of Heretics, published in 1699, and frequently since. 

But his impartiality became partiality in their behalf. The great 

Mosheim, who died in 1755, was the first to succeed in _, . . 

' _ ' _ Mosheim the 

obtaining for Church history the character of an inde- reformer of 
pendent science, and from his time Gottingen became ^^^ ^^ "^^* 
the seat of ecclesiastical historiography.^ Special departments of 
Church history were industriously cultivated by Chr. Wilhelm Fr. 
Walch, who died in 1784, and by Jiis father, Joh. Georg Walch, 
of Jena, who died in 1775. 

Semler made use of criticism that was carried to the extent of scep- 
ticism, but '* without any capacity to appreciate the peculiar condi- 
tions of earlier times," ^ or a single trace of historical art. At this 
time the influence of modern views also began to miake itself felt, 
giving rise to the pragmatical method of writing history. We 
must regard G. J. Planck, of Gottingen, as the chief representative 
of this tendency. L. T. Spittler wrote a manual which is thought- 
ful, though evincing a rather worldly judgment, and devoted to the 
service of the enlightenment of the age. By its perspicuous ar- 
rangement, however, it aif ords a clear view of the field. Schrockh's 
work, in forty-five volumes, furnishes a rich wealth of material, and 
is written from the standpoint of moderate orthodoxy. The ra- 
tionalistic idea of Church history, by which it becomes predomi- 
nantly the history of human folly, finds expression in Henke. 
Schmidt, of Giessen, retraced the way to that purely objective pos- 
ition which requires indifference as the primary and cardinal virtue 
of history. Danz and Gieseler, in their text-books — the latter fur- 
nishing a more judicious and comprehensive selection — led the stu- 
dent back to the sources, by accompanying the text step by step with 
extended quotations from the original authorities. Gieseler, espec- 
ially, has added the most thorough elucidations of difficult points. 

This pre-eminently learned treatment was followed by the or- 
thodox and emotional method of Neander, who made 

Neander. 
it his object to present the history of the Church upon 

the basis of learned inquiry, "as a speaking demonstration of the 

' Compare F. Luecke, De Joanne Laurentio Moshemio, Gott., 1837. ^ Hase. 

23 



338 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

divine power of Christianity, as a school of Christian edification, 
doctrine, and warning, for all who are willing to hear." ' While his 
glance was almost exclusively directed to the internal side of eccle- 
siastical events, in order to ascertain their religious importance, the 
rich mind of Hase reflected, in all its features, the image of the 
times w^hich, by his artistic skill, he outlines in glowing colours for 
such persons as are already somewhat familiar with the subject. 
Geuricke, occupying the position of a prejudiced denominational 
polemic, employed the rich material, which had to some extent been 
borrowed from other writers, for the purpose of a defence of Luther- 
anism, accompanied with unjust insinuations against the Reformed 
Church views. A similar, though more independent, disposition 
characterizes the work of Kurtz, which is distinguished, however, 
by the richness of its material. Schleiermacher has left a valuable 
work behind him in his Church History. It, however, lays no claim 
to completeness, and is rather a magnificent sketch in the spirit of 
the author than a work of history. Baur has given the results of 
his critical inquiries and combinations from the standpoint of a defi- 
nite, philosophical theory, in a series of descriptions of the several 
periods, which have lately been combined into a whole. 

In the Roman Catholic Church various tendencies likewise come 
into view. Jansenism found its organs, and also the Illuminati of 
the reign of Joseph II. of Austria (1765-90), both being in oppo- 
sition to the method of writing history in support of ultramontan- 
ism. Stolberg's Church History came to an end wdth the year 530, 
and was continued by Kerz to the year 1300, and by Brischar to the 
present time. Among later works, those by Katerkamp, Ritter, 
Locherer, Doellinger, Annegarn, Reichlin-Meldezg, and Alzog are 
of principal importance. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTORY. 

I. GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY. 

Allen, Joseph Henry. Christian History in its Three Great Periods. 16ino, 3 vols. 

Boston, 1883. (This book contains the Fragments of Christian History, published 

by the same author in 1880.) 
Alzog, John. A Manual of Universal Church History. Translated from the ninth 

enlarged and improved German edition, and edited and brought down to the 

present time by F. J. Pabiseh and Thomas S, Byrne. 3 vols. I. Early Church 

History. II. The Middle Ages, III. To the Present Time. 8vo, pp. xiii, 776; 

XV, 1096; xiv, 1090. Cincinnati, 1874-78. (The best Roman Catholic Church 

history that we have in English di-ess.) 
Blackburn, W. M. History of the Cliristian Church, from its Origin to the Present 

Time. 8vo, pp. viii, 719. Cincinnati, 1879. 

^ Hagenbach, Neander's Verdienste und Kirchengeschichte, in Stud. u. Krit., 1851, No. 2; O. 
Krabbe, Aug. Neander, Harnb., 1852 ; UUmann, Pref. to the 3d ed. of Neander's Church History. 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 339 

Butler, C. M. An Ecclesiastical History, from the 1st to the 19tli Century. 8vo, 
2 vols. Philadelphia, 186S-72. 

Campbell, George. Lectures on Ecclesiastical History. New edition. 8vo, pp. 458. 
London, 1840. 

DoUinger, John Joseph Ignatius. Manual of Church History. Translated from Dr. 
DoUinger's unfinished Handbook of Christian Church Histoiy, 1833, and Manual 
of Churcli History, 1836, by Edward Cox. 8vo, 4 vols. London, 1840-42. 

Dowling, J. G. An Introduction to the Critical Study of Ecclesiastical History. 
London, 1848. 

Gleseler, John C. L. Text-Book of Church History. 5 vols. Bonn, 1824-56. Bc^st 
edition, translated by Henry B. Smith. 5 vols. New York, 1857-80. (Giese- 
ler's citations from the original texts are of tlie utmost vahie.) 

Guericke, H. E. F. Handbook of Church History. Translated, in part, by W. G. T. 
Shedd. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xvi, 433; viii, 160. Andover, 1857 and 1870. Vol. I. 
to A. D. 590. Vol. II, to A. D. 1073. 

Hardwick, Cliarles. A History of the Christian Church. 12rao, 2 vols. Vol. I, 
Middle Ages, with Maps constructed for tlie Work, by A. Keith Johnson. 
Vol. II, The Reformation. Cambridge and London, 1861-65, 

Hase, Charles. A History of the Christian Church. Translated from the German 
by C. E. Blumenthal and C. P. Wing. 8vo, pp. xxiv, 720. New York, 1855-70. 
(A tentli edition of the original appeared in 1877.) 

Hitchcock, R. D. The True Idea and Uses of Church History. New York, 1856. 

Hurst, Johrt Fletcher. Short History of the Christian Churcii ; with Maps. 8vo, 
pp. XXXV, 672. New York, 1893. (Very full on the Reformation and post- 
Reformation periods, this section covering the space from p. 195 to p. 642. 
The tables and indexes add much to its value.) 

Hurst, J. F. Outlines of Church History. 12mo. New York, 1884. 

Index to Neander's General History of the Christian Religion and Church, 8vo, 
pp. 239. Boston, 1881. 

Jennings, A. C. A Manual of Church History. 8vo, 2 vols. Vol. I, From the 
First to the Tenth Century. Vol. IT, From the Tenth to the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury. London, 1887, 1888; also New York. 

Jones, W. The History of the Christian Clnirch, from the Birth of Christ to the 18th 
Century; including History of the Waldenses and Albigenses. 8vo, 2 vols., 
pp. XV, 483; vii, 492. London, 1826. 

Kurtz, John Henry. Text-Book of Church History. Translated, with Corrections 
and Additions, 8vo, 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1860, 1881. (Tlie ninth edition of 
the original appeared in 1885 in 2 vols., 4 parts. This manual has a high stand- 
ing in Germany.) 

Lawrence, E. Historical Studies. 8vo, pp. 508. New York, 1876. (Contents: 
The Bishops of Rome; Leo and Luther; Loyola and the Jesuits ; Ecumenical 
Councils; The Vaudois; The Huguenots ; The Church of Jerusalem; Dominic 
and the Inquisition; The Conquest of Ireland ; The Greek Church.) 

Matheson, G. Growth of the Spirit of Christianity from the First Century to the 
Dawn of the Lutheran Era. 8vo, 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1877. 

Milner, Joseph. The History of the Church of Christ, Continued by the Rev. I. 
Milner. New edition. Revised by Thomas Grantham. 8vo, 5 vols, London, 
1794-1809, and often after. (This is more a history of the good men of the 
Christian Church than a Church history in the proper sense. It has, however, 
been frequently reprinted. It has been continued to a later date by several 
writers, among others from 1530 to the eighteenth century, by Stebbing.) 



340 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Moffatt, James 0. Church History in Brief. 16mo, pp. 492. Philadelphia, 1888. 

Mosheim, John Lawrence. Institutes of Ecclesiastical History, Ancient and Modern. 
Translated from the Latin, with Copious Additional Notes, Original and Selected, 
by James Murdock. 8vo, 3 vols. New York, 1854. 3 vols, in one. 8vo, pp. 
470, 485, 5U6. New York, 1881. 

Neander, J. Augustus W. General History of the Christian Religion and Cliurch, 
Translated from the German by Joseph Torrey. 8vo, 5 vols. Boston, 1854 
12mo, 8 vols. London and New York, 1861. Twelth edition. Boston, 188L 
(In the preface to his first edition Neander describes his purpose to be the exhibi- 
tion of " the history of tiie Church of Christ as a living witness of tlie divine 
power of Christianity, as a school of Christian experience, a voice sounding 
through the ages, of instruction, of doctine, and of reproof for all who are dis- 
posed to listen." In this spirit he has performed his task.) 

Palmer, William. A Compendious Ecclesiastical History, from the Earliest Period 
to the Present Time. American Edition, with Preface and Notes, by Bishop 
Whittingham, of Maryland. 12mo. 1862, 

Robertson, James Craigie. History of the Christian Church. 8vo, 4 vols. Yol. I, 
A. D. 64-590. Vol. II, A. D. 590-1122. Yol. Ill, A. D. 1122-1303. Yol. lY, 
A. D. 1303-1517. London, 1854-75. 

Schaff. Philip. History of the Christian Church. Christianus sum : Christiani nihil 
H me aUenum puto. A new edit'on, revised and enlarged. Yol. I, Apostolic 
Christianity, A. D, 1-100, pp. 871. New York, 1882. Yol. II, Ante-Nicene Chris- 
tianity, A. D. 100-325, pp. 877. Yol. Ill, Nicene and Post-Nicene Cliristianity, 
A. D 311-600, pp. 1049. New York, 1884. Yol. lY, Medieeval Cliristianity, 
A. D. 590-1073, pp. 799. New York, 1886. Yol. YI. The German Reforma. 
tion, A. D. 1519-1530, pp. 755. New York, 1888. (Yolume Y has been de- 
ferred, and Yol. YII is announced as in press. Of the great merit of this His- 
tory it is needless to speak.) 

Schaff, Philip. General Introduction to Church History, Bibhotheca Sacra, Yol. 
YI, 1849, p. 409 (pp. 33) ; and Progress of Church History as a Science, Bib. 
Sac, Yol. YII, 1850, p. 54 (pp. 37). 

Schaff, Pliilip. What is Church History? A Yindication of the Idea of Historical 
Development. 12rao, pp. 128. Philadelphia, 1846. 

Smith, Henry B. History of the Church of Christ in Chronological Tables. With 
Two Supplementary Tables upon the Church in America, and an Appendix Con- 
taining the Series of Councils, Popes, Patriarchs, and other Bishops, and a Full 
Index. Folio, pp. 92. New York and London, 1875. (A most valuable work 
of reference.) 

Smitli, H. B. Nature and Worth of the Science of Church History. Andover, 1851. 
In Bibliotheca Sacra, Yol. YIII, 1851, p. 412 (pp. 30). 

Stanley, A. P. Christian Institutions: Essays on Ecclesiastical Subjects. (Bap- 
tism and the Eucharist, Absolution, Ecclesiastical Yestments, the Basilica, the 
Clergy, the Pope, the Litany, the Roman Catacombs, the Creed of the Early 
Christians, the Lord's Prayer, the Council and Creed of Constantinople, the 
Ten Commandments.) 8vo. London, 1881; fourth edition, 1884; also l2mo. 
New York. 

Stanley, A. P. Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Ecclesiastical His- 
tory. 8vo. Oxford, 1857. Republished as an Introduction to the American 
Edition of the Author's History of the Eastern Church. New York, 1873. 

Waddington, George. History of the Church, from the Earliest Ages to the Refor- 
mation. Svo, 3 vols., pp. xi, 460; viii, 433; x, 437. London, 1841. 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 341 

n. SPECIAL CHURCH HISTORY. 

1. Tfte Ancient Period. 

Aristides, The Apology of, from a Syriac Manuscript Preserved on Mount Sinai. 

Edited with an Introduction and Translation by J. Rendel Harris. With an 

Appendix Containing the Main Portion of the Original Greek Text, oj J. A. 

Robinson. 12mo, pp. iv, 118, 32. 1891. (This important contribution to our 

knowledge of early Christianity is published as one of the Cambridge " Texts 

and Studies.") 
Backhouse, PI, and Tylor, C. Early Church History to the Death of Constan- 
tino. With a Biographical Preface by Dr. Hodgkin. 8vo, pp. 314. London, 

1892. 
Baur, Ferd. Christ. The Christians and the Christian Church of the First Three 

Centuries. Tiibingen, 1853. Translated by A. Menzies. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 256, 

300. London, 1879. 
Burton, Edward. Lectures Upon the Ecclesiastical History of the First Three Cen- 
turies. 8vo, 2 vols. Oxford, 1833; also 1845. 
Butler, Alfred J. The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt. 8vo, 2 vols. Oxford, 

1885. (An accurate account of the present state of the buildings, antiquities, 

and ritual of tlie Coptic Church, " based on observations and experiments made 

with pencil, measuring-tape, rule, and compass.") 
Cave, William. Primitive Christianity ; or. The Religion of the Ancient Christians in 

the First Ages of the Gospel. 8vo, pp. xiv, 464. Revised edition. Oxford, 

1840. (An old work frequently reprinted ) 
Cave, William. Lives of the Most Eminent Fathers of the Church that Flourished 

in the First Four Centuries. 2 vols. 1683. Revised edition in 3 vols. Oxford, 

1840. 
Chrystal, James. Authoritative Christianity, The First (Ecumenical Council. Its 

Undisputed Remains, with an English Translation. 8vo, pp. xvi, 483. Jersey 

City, 1891. 
Colman, Lyman. Ancient Christianity Exemplified in the Private, Domestic, Social, 

and Civil Life of the Primitive Christians, and in the Original Institutions, 

Offices, Ordinances, and Rites of the Church. 8vo, pp. 645. Philadelphia, 

1853. (An excellent manual by no means out of date.) 
Cooper, B. H. The Free Church of Ancient Christendom and its Subjugation under 

■Constantino. 12mo, pp. 400. London, no date. 
Dale, Alfred William Winterslow. The Synod of Elvira, and Christian Life in the 

Fourth Century. A Historical Essay. "Nisi Dominus, aedificaveiit Domum 

in vanum laboraverunt qui aedificant earn." 8vo, pp. xxviii, 354. London, 

1882. 
De Soyres, J. Montanism and the Primitive Church. A Study in the Ecclesiastical 

History of the Second Century. Hulsean Prize Essay, 1877. 8vo, pp. 163. 

London, 1878. 
Dollinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz. The First Age of Christianity. Translated by 

H. X. Oxenham. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1866. 
Dollinger, J. J. I. Hippolytus and Callistus ; or. The Church of Rome in the First 

Half of the Third Century. In German, 1853. Translated by Alfred Plummer. 

8vo, pp. 360. Edinburgh, 1876. 
Donaldson. James. A Critical History of Cliristian Literature and Doctrine from 

the Death of tlie Apostles to the Nicene Council. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. 319, 344, 305. 



342 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

London, 1866. (Yol. I discusses tlie Apostolic Fathers ; Yols. II and III, the 
Apologi'^ts. So mucli h'ght lias been thrown iipon ancient Christianity by 
recent discoveries that the conclusions of Dr. Donaldson at various points must 
be modified.) 

Duff, David. The Early Church. A History of Christianity in the First Six Cen- 
turies. 8vo, pp. viii, 623. Edinburgh, 1891. 

Early Christian Literature Primers. I. The Apostolic Fathers and the Apologists 
of the Second Century. II. The Fathers of the Third Century. III. The Post- 
Nicene Greek Fathers. IV. The Post-Nicene Latin Fathers. Edited by George 
A. Jackson. 16mo. New York, 1883-84. (These little manuals form a good 
introduction to ancient Church history.) 

Eliot, Samuel. History of the Early Christians. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 393, 417. Lon- 
don, 1853. (Through the reign of Justinian.) 

Etheridge, J. W. The Syrian Churches : Their Early History, Liturgies, and Liter- 
ature. With a Literal Translation of the Four Gospels, from the Peshito, etc. 
12mo, pp. 538. London, 1846. (Contains an extended notice of the Nestorians 
and several of the Syrian peels.) 

Kusebius Pamphilus. Church History. Translated, with Prolegomena and Notes, by 
Arthur C. McGiffert. Large 8vo, pp. x, 632. Oxford, London, and New York, 
1890. (This is the best edition of Eusebius. It is one of the volumes of the 
Nicene and post-Niceue Fathers of the Church, edited by Philip Schalf and 
Henry Wace.) 

Fisher, G. P. The Beginnings of Christianity, with a Yiew of the State of the Roman 
World at the Birth of Christ. 8vo, pp. xii, 591. New York, 1877. 

Greek Ecclesiastical Historians (The) of the First Six Centuries of the Christian 
Era: Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius. 6 vols. London, 
1843-47. 

Guericke, Henry E. F. The Ancient Cinirch, Comprising the First Six Centuries. 
Translated by William G. T. Shedd, D.D., with a Preface by the Translator, a 
Chronological Table, an Index, and a Series of Questions. 8vo, pp. xvi, 433. 
Andover, 1857 and 1870. 

Hatch, E. The Organization of the P]arly Christian Churches. Barapton Lectures 
for 1880. 8vo, pp. 216. Oxford and Cambridge, 1881. (A work of great 
originality, and destined to modify the prevalent theory of the Church's first 
organization.) 

Hefele, Charles Joseph. A History of th6 Councils of the Church, from the Original 
Documents. Translated by Henry Natcombe Oxenham. Svo, 3 vols., to A. D. 
451; pp. xi, 502; xvi, 503; xii, 480. Edinburgh, 1882, 1883. (One of the 
great works on the early Church councils.) 

Heurtley, C. A. A History of the Earlier Formularies of Faith of the Western and 
Eastern Churches ; to which is added an Exposition of the Athanasian Creed. 
8vo, pp. 162. London, 1892. 

Hinds, Samuel. Tiie Rise and Early Progress of Christianity. 12mo, pp. xv, 397. 
London and Glasgow, 1850. (Originally a contribution to the Encyclopasdia 
Metropolitana. John Henry Newman contributes to the volume an essay on 
Apollonius of TyRna.) 

Hitchcock, Roswell D., and Brown, Francis. Teaching of the Twelve Apostles. 
Svo, pp. cxv, 85. New York, 1885. New edition, revised, and greatly 
enlarged. 

Jackson, Samuel M. Lipsius on the Roman Peter Legend. In the Presbyterian 
Quarterly and Princeton Review, New York, 1876, p. 265, sqq. 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 343 

Jackson, F. J. History of the Christian Church from the EarUest Times to the 
Death of Constantine, A. D. 33V. "With Chronological Tables, Index, etc. 8vo, 
pp. 346. Cambridge, 1891. 

Jeremie, J. A. History of the Christian Church in the Second and Third Centuries. 
Small Svo. London, 1852. (Originally published in the Encyclopaedia Metro- 
politana.) 

Julian the Emperor. Containing G-regory Nazianzen's Two Invectives and Llbanius's 
Monody, with Julian's Extant Tiieosophicul TTorks. Translated by C. W. 
King. 12mo, pp. 280. Xew York, 1888. 

Kaye, Bishop John. Ecclesiastical History of the Second and Third Centuries. Illut*- 
trated from the "Writings of TertuUian. Svo. London, ] 845. 

Kaye, Bishop John. Some Account of the Council of Xicsea, in Connection with tl'O 
Life of Athanasius. Svo, pp. vii, 306. London, 1853. (A work by one of the 
learned English bishops.) 

Killen, W. D. The Ancient Church : Its History, Doctrine, Worsliip, and Constitu- 
tion Traced for the First Three Hundred Years. A Xew Edition, Carefully 
Revised, with a Preface, by Jolin Hall, D.D. New York. Original edition in 
Svo. London, 1859. 

King, C. W. The Gnostics and their Remains, Ancient and Mediaeval. Containing 
Illustrations of Gnostic Art and Symbols. Svo, pp. 466. London, 1864. (The 
second edition, New York and London, 1887, contains a bibliography of Gnos- 
ticism, by Joseph Jacobs.) 

Lamson, Alvan. The Church of the First Three Centuries ; or, Notices of the Lives 
and Opinions of Some of the Early Fathers, with Special Reference to the Doc- 
trine of the Trinity; Illustrating its Late Origin and Gradual Formation. Svo, 
pp. 352. Boston, 1860. 

Lightfoot, J. B. St. Clement of Rome. An Appendix Containing the Newly 
Recorded Portions. "With lutroductions. Notes, and Translations. Svo, 
pp. vii, 223-4T0. London, 1877. (This work is a supplement to the 
author's edition of St. Clement issued in 1869, and was made necessary by 
the publication of the Bryennios Manuscript in 1875. The title of the 
earlier work is St. Clement of Rome: Tiie Two Epistles to the Corinthians. 
A Revised Text, etc. The Appendix necessarily supersedes much of the first 
edition.) 

Lightfoot, J. B. The Apostolic Fathers. Part II, St. Ignatius and St. Polycarp. 
Revised Texts, with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations. Svo, 
2 vols., pp. 740, 1117. London, 1885. (The genuineness of the seven Ignatian 
epistles of the shorter form is accepted, and Cureton's Syriac form is rejected, 
in so far as it claims to be the representative of the original Ignatius. A work 
of great value to the student of Church history.) 

Lundy, John P. Monumental Christianity ; or, The Art and Symbolism of the 
Primitive Church as Witnesses and Teachers of the One Catholic Faith and 
Practice. 4to. New York. 1876. New edition, enlarged, illustrated, pp. 453. 
1882. 

Malian, Milo. A Cliurch History of the First Seven Centuries. Second edition. 
Svo. New York, 1878. (This is an enlarged edition of the same author's 
Church History of the First Three Centuries.) 

Maitland, Charles. The Church in the Catacombs. A Description of the Primitive 
Church of Rome. Illustrated by its Sepulchral Remains. Svo, pp. 396. Lon- 
don, 1847. (Contains many copies of the Inscriptions.) 

Hansel, Henry Longueville. The Gnostic Heresies of the First and Second Cen- 



844 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

turies. With a Sketch of the Work, Life, and Character of the Author, by the 
Earl of CarnarvoD. Edited by J. B. Liglitfoot. 8vo, pp. xxxii, 288. London, 
18t5. (Ricli ia matter and lucid in style.) 

Mason, A.J. The Persecutions of Diocletian. Hulsean Prize Essay, 1874. 8vo, 
pp. 370. London, 1876. (A defense of Diocletian.) 

M.uirice, P. D. Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First and Second Cen- 
turies. 8vo, pp. 401. Cambridge and London, 1854. 

Merivale, C. Four Lectures on Some Epochs of Early Church History. Bvo. Lon- 
don, 1879. 

Mil man, Henry Hart. The History of Christianity from the Birth of Christ to the 
Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. 485, 478, 507. 
New York, 1866. 

Moehler, Wilhelm. History of the Christian Church, A. D. 1-600. Translated from 
the German by Andrew Rutherford. 8vo, pp. xii, 545. London and New 
York, 1892. 

Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Catac mbs. In the Contemporary Review, Yol. XYII 
(1871), pp. 160-175. 

Mosheim, J. L. Historical Commentaries on the State of Christianity During the 
First Three Hundred and Forty-five Years of the Christian Era. Yol. I, Trans- 
lated by S. Yidal. Yol. II, Translated by James Murdoch. 8vo, pp. 537, 512. 
New York, 1852. 

Newman, J. H. The Arians of the Fourth Century, Third edition. ]2mo, pp. 478. 
London, 1871. 

Northcote, J. Spencer. Epitaphs of the Catacombs; or, Cliristian Inscriptions in 
Rome During the First Four Centuries. 8vo, pp. xi, 193. London, 1878. (The 
author has studied the Catacombs themselves, but has taken his inscriptions 
mainly from Do Rossi.) 

Northcote, J. S., and Brownlow, W. R. Roma Sotterranea. 8vo, pp. 368. London, 
1879. Illustrated. 

Parker, John Henry. The Archaeology of Rome. Illustrated. 8vo. London and 
Oxford, 1877. 

Roberts, Alexander, and Donaldson, James. The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Transla- 
tions of the Writings of the Fathers down to A. D. 325. American Reprint of 
the Edinburgh Edition. Revised and Chronologically Arranged, with Brief 
Prefaces and Occasional Notes, by A. Cleveland Coxe, D.D. Yol. I, Apostolic 
Fathers — Justin Martyr, Irenseus. 8vo, pp. 602, double columns. Buffalo, 
1887. (This entire series of eight volumes, edited by Bishop A. Cleveland Coxe, 
.is Issued by the Christian Literature Publishing Company. A ninth volume is 
added, containing a bibliographical synopsis and a general index. The best 
edition in English of the Ante-Nicene Fathers.) 

Sciiaff, Philip. A Select Library of the Nicone and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christ- 
ian Church. 8vo, double columns. New York, Christian Literature Company, 
1887-90. (The first series, beginning with Augustine and closing with 
Clirysostom, is in fourteen volumes. The second series begins with Eusebius; 
of this, five volumes have been issued, the last on Gregory of Nyssa. Of the 
Church Fathers this is the best edition in English.) 

Semlsch, Charles. Justin Martj-r: His Life, Writings, and Opinions. From the 
German, by J. E. Ryland. 16mo, 2 vols., pp xx, 348; vi, 387. Edinburgh, 
1843. (Semisch is an authority continually quored. His examination of the 
works of Justin is of the most minute and painstaking kind.) 

Socrates. Ecclesiastical History ; from the Accession of Constantine, A.D. 305, to the 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. ^5 

Thirty-eighth Year of Theodosiua II, including a Period of 140 Years. With the 
Notes of Yalesiiis. 12nio, pp. 449. London, 1853. 

Stanley, A. P. Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age. 8vo, pp. 384. Oxford, 
1848. 

Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church, with an Introduc- 
tion on the Study of P]cclesiastical History. 8vo, pp. xxiv, 551. New York, 
1862. New edition. New York, 1884. (Not very critical, but brilliant.) 

Taylor, Isaac. Ancient Christianity and the Doctrine of the Oxford "Tracts for the 
Times." Fourth edition, with a Supplement. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1844. (A 
polemic against the Oxford Movement.) 

Taylor, W. C. History of Christianity ; from its Promulgation to its Legal Establish- 
ment in the Roman Empire. Svo. Oxford, 1844. 

Tyrwhitc, R. St. John. The Art Teaching of the Primitive Church ; with an Index of 
Subjects, Historical and Emblematic. 12mo, pp. 382. London, no date. 

Ullman, Carl. Gregory of Nazianzum. A Contribution to the Ecclesiastical History 
of the Fourth Century. Translated by Gr. V. Cox. 16mo, pp. xvi, 317. Lon- 
don, 1851. 

Uhlhorn, Gerhard. The Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism. Edited and 
Translated, with the Author's Sanction, from the Third German Edition, by 
Egbert C. Smyth and C. J. H. Ropes. 12mo, pp. 508. New York, 1879. (An 
indispensable book for the student of early Christian history.) 

Uhlhorn, Gerliard. Christian Charity in the Ancient Church. Svo, pp. 424. New 
York, 1883. (Thorough in its historical treatment and unusually original.) 

Watson, P. Tlie Aute-Nicene Apologies : Their Character and Value. 8vo, Cam- 
bridge, 1870. (A Hulsean Prize Essay.) 

Withrow, W. H. The Catacombs of Rome, and their Testimony Relative to Primi- 
tive Christianity. 12mo, pp. 560. New York, 1874. 

Wordsworth, Chr. A Church History to tlie Council of Nicaea, A. D. 325. 8vo, 
pp. 481. New York, 1881. (Anglo-Catholic.) 

Wynne, T. R., Barnard, J. H., and Hemphill, S. The Literature of the Second Cen- 
tury. 12mo, pp. 270. London and New York, 1891. 

2. Mediceval Period. 

Allen, Joseph Henry. Christian History in its Three Great Periods. Second Period, 
The Middle Age. Svo, pp. 316. Boston, 1883. 

Balraes, James. European Civilization : Protestantism and Catholicism Compared in 
their Effects on the Civilization of Europe. Svo, pp. 452. London, 1849; 
also Baltimore. Sixteenth edition. 1850. (Indirectly a reply to Guizot's History 
of European Civilization. The topics of Chaps, xxxiv-xxxviii are '-Tolerance in 
Matters of Religion," "The Right of Coercion," and » The Inquisition in Spain.") 

Bright, William. Chapters of Early English Church History. Second edition. 
Svo, pp. XV, 476. London, 1888. (The period covered by this history extends 
from the fourth to the eighth century.) 

Bryce, James. The Holy Roman Empire. 12mo, pp. xxvii, 479. New York, 1880. 
Seventh edition, 1887. (Mr. Bryce has treated the relations between the Papacy 
and Empire during the Middle Ages more clearly than any other historian has 
done.) 

Comba, Emile. History of the Waldenses of Italy, from their Origin to the Refor- 
mation. Translated by T. E. Comba. Svo, pp. 345. New York, 1889. 

Cox, (Sir) G. W. The Crusades. Svo. London and New York, 1878. (A good 
book for the general reader, and exceedingly well written.) 



346 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Creighton, Mandell. A History of tlie Papacy During the Period of tlie Reforma- 
tion. 8vo, 4 vols., pp. xxiii, 453; xx, 555; xvi, 307; xii, 314. London, 1887. 
(These four volumes contain the preliminary history, and cover the period from 
1378 to 1517. Vol. I treats of '' Tlie Great Schism of the Council of Constance." 
Vol. H, " Tiie Council of Basel and the Papal Restoration." Vols. HI and IV, 
"The Italian Princes, 1464-1518." It is the author's purpose to extend the 
history to the Council of Trent. The relations of the Papacy with Germany and 
Italj' are treated with the greatest fuUoess.) 

Dollinger, J. J. I. Fables Respecting the Popes of the Middle Ages, together with 
Dr. Dollinger's Essay on the Prophetic Spirit and the Prophecies of the Christian 
Era. Translated by Alfred Plummer, with Introduction and Notes by H. B. 
Smith. 12mo, pp. xii, 463. New York, 1872. 

Duruy, Victor. The History of the Middle Ages. Translated by E. N. and M. D. 
Whitney. "With Notes and Revisions by George Burton Adams. 12mo, pp. 
XV, 588. New York, 1891. (This is the foremost in quality of the recent works 
on the Middle Ages. Duruy's treatment of history is always masterly.) 

Eginhard. Life of Charlemagne. From the Original Text, by Samuel Epes Turner. 
New York, 1877. Harper's Half Hour Series. 

Emerton, Ephraim. An Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages (375-814). 
12rao, pp. xviii, 268. Boston, 1888. (An excellent manual, and provided with 
helpful maps, one of them showing the Church centers in Europe in the time of 
Charlemagne.) 

Freeman, Edward A. Historical Essays. First Series. Third edition. 8vo, pp. vi, 
406. London, 1875. (The essays relating to the Middle Ages are: St. Thomas of 
Canterbury, Edward III, The Holy Roman Empire, The Franks and the Gauls, 
Frederick I, King of Italy, Frederick II, Emperor Charles the Bold.) 

Freeman, Edward A. The Chief Periods of European History. Six Lectures. 8vo, 
pp. ix, 250. London, 1886. (The essays relating to the Middle Ages are: 
Rome and the New Nations, The Divided Empire, Survivals of Empire. Of 
special interest to the student of history is the last essa}--. The World Rome- 
less.) 

Geffcken, Heinrich. Church and State: Tiieir Relations Historically Developed. 
Translated by Edward Fairfax Taylor, 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xvii, 553; x, 531. 
London, 1877. (Chap, vii^ Vol. I, treats of the Papal Primacy; Chap, viii, The 
Empire and the Papacy ; Chap, ix, Triumph and Meridian of the Papacy ; Chap. 
X, Decline of the Mediaeval Church. The work is one of high authority ; the 
point of view is Protestant.) 

Gillett, E. H. The Life and Times of John Huss ; or. The Bohemian Reformation of 
the Fifteenth Century. 8vo, pp. 632,651. Boston, 1863. New York. (The 
best life of Huss yet to be had in Enghsh, though superseded on various points 
by the later monographs.) 

Gosselin, Jean E. Auguste. The Power of the Popes During the Middle Ages. An 
Historical Inquiry into the Origin of the Temporal Power of the Holy See. 
Translated by the Rev. Matthew Kelley. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xxxvi, 342; xv, 411. 
London, 1853. (A work by a French abbe. It discusses two points: 1. Tlie 
origin of the temporal sovereignty of the Holy See. 2. The authority claimed 
by the Popes over temporal princes, and its grounds. The book should be read 
in connection with other works.) 

Gray, G. Z. The Children's Crusade. 12mo. London, 1871; New York, 1872. 

Guizot, Francis. General History of Civilization in Europe, from the Fall of the 
Roman Empire to the French Revolution. 12mo, pp. 316. New York, 1850, 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 347 

and many other editions. (No work of Guizot's has been so much read as this. 
Lectures II, V, VI, X deal vvitli the Christian Church in the Middle Ages.) 

Gruizot, Francis. The History of Civilization, from the Fall of the Roman Empire 
to the French Revolution. Translated by William Hazlitt. 12mo, 4 vols, 
in two, pp. 416, 424, 414, 391. (The first volume comprises the History of 
Civilization already noticed ; the reuiainmg three volumes relate to the History 
of Civilization in France. The reign of Charlemagne and the feudal system are 
presented with great fullness.) 

Hallam, Henry. The State of Europe During the Middle Ages. 8vo, pp. viii, '568, 
double columns. New York, 1857. (A standard work, but since its first publi- 
cation great progress has been made in the study of mediaeval history.) 

Hardwick, Charles. A History of the Christian Church, Middle Age. With four 
maps. 8vo, pp. xv, 481. Cambridge, 1853. (An excellent manual, with very 
ample citations from authorities.) 

Hodgkin, Thomas. Theodoric the Goth, the Barbarian Champion of Civihzation. 
Svo, pp. xvi, 442. New York, 1891. (The story of the Ostrogothic migrations 
and of the struggle between Arianism and Catholicity in Italy is delightfully 
told.) 

Hodgkin, Thomas. Italy and Her Invaders. 8vo, 4 vols., pp. 408, 672, 727, 798. 
Oxford, 1880-85. (Vol. I treats of the Visigothic invasion; Vol. II, of the inva- 
sion of the Huns and Vandals ; Vols. Ill and IV, of the Ostrogothic kingdom. 
Though not drawn wholly from original sources, this work embodies the results 
of modern research.) 

Hook, Walter Farquhar. Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. 8vo, 11 vols. 
London, 1861-75. (The first five volumes of this standard work are devoted 
to the pre-Re formation period.) 

Joyce, James Wayland. England's Sacred Synods. A Constitutional History of the 
Convocations of the Clergy from tlie Earliest Records of Christianity in Great 
Britain to the date of the Promulgation of the Present Book of Common Prayer. 
Svo, pp. 751. 1855. 

Lacroix, Paul. Works on the Middle Ages. Imperial Svo, 5 vols. London, 1880. 
New York. (Vol. Ill is entitled " Military and Religious Life in the Middle 
Ages and at the Period of the Renaissance.") 

Lea, Henry C. Studies in Church History. Tiie Rise of the Temporal Power, Ben- 
efit of Clergy, Excommunication. Svo, pp. xvi, 516. Philadelphia, 1869. 

Lea, Henry C. Superstition and Force. Essa3'^s on the Wager of Law ; The Wager 
of Battle; The Ordeal; The Torture. Svo, pp. xii, 480. Philadelphia, 1870. 
(President Adams says of this book: " It is by far the most complete and satis- 
factory account we have in English of what may be called the methods of ad- 
ministering injustice in the Middle Ages;" and in this estimate every reader 
will concur.) 

Lea, Henry C. A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages. Svo, 3 vols., 
pp. xiv. 583; x, 586; ix, 736. New York, 1888. (This is the most complete 
history of the Inquisition in the English language. It has all the author's char- 
acteristics, thoroughness of investigation, impartiality, and clearness of state- 
ment. Mr. Lea regards the Inquisition " as a natural evolution of the forces at 
work in the thirteenth century.") 

Lea, Henry C. Historical Sketches of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Christian Church. 
Svo, pp. XX, 601. Boston, 1884. (Largely from the original documents.) 

Llorente, D. Jean Antoine. The History of the Inquisition of Spain from the Time 
of the Establishment to the Reign of Ferdinand VII. Composed from the 



348 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Original Documents in the ArchivL\s of the Supreme Council, and from those of 
Subordinate Tribunals of the Holy Office. 8vo. London, 1826; also Philadel- 
phia, 1843. (Llorente was secretary of the Spanish Inquisition.) 

Maitland, S. R. The Dark Ages. A Series of Essays, Intended to Illustrate the 
State of Religion and Literature in the Ninth, Tenth, P]leventh, and Twelfth 
Centuries. Fifth edition. 8vo, pp. xvi, 558. With an lutroduciion by Frederick 
Stokes. London, 1890. (A series of essays originally contributed to the 
British Magazine. They discuss the Dark Ages in a sympathetic spirit. The 
topics are all well chosen, and are treated in an interesting manner.) 

Michaud, J. F. History of the Crusades. Translated from the French by W. 
Robson. ]2mo, 3 vols., pp. xxvi, 509, 493, 558. New York, 1881. (A history 
by a French academician, who devoted twenty years to his investigations. 
The original is said to be much superior iu style to the English transla- 
tion.) 

Milman, Henry Hart. History of Latin Christianity; Including that of the Popes 
to the Pontificate of Nicholas V. 12mo, 8 vols., pp. 554, 551, 525, 555, 530, 
539, 570, 561. New York, 1881. (Scholarly and very readable.) 

Mombert, Jacob Isidor. A History of Charles the Great (Charlemagne). Svo, pp. 
xi, 564. New York, 1888. 

Montalembert, The Count de. The Monks of the West, from St. Benedict to St. 
Bernard. From the French. Svo, 3 vols., pp. xii, 515; x, 549; viii, 471. 
Edinburgh and London, 1867. (Montalembert is an ardent admirer of monasti- 
cism, and not only writes the history of the system as it was in the Middle Ages, 
but makes an eloquent plea for it.) 

Murphy, John Nicholas. The Chair of Peter ; or, The Papacy Considered in its In- 
stitution, Development, and Organization, and in the Benefits which, for over 
Eighteen Centuries, it has Conferred on Mankind. Svo, pp. x, 574. London 
and New York, 1883. (From the Roman Catholic point of view.) 

Pears, Edwin. The Fall of Constantinople, Being the Story of the Fourth Crusade. 
Svo, pp. xiii, 413. London and New York, 1886. (Mr. Pears aims to show 
that the Fourth Crusade made the subsequent incursion of the Turks into Europe 
an easy task.) 

Pennington, Arthur Robert. Epochs of the Papacy. From its Rise to the Death of 
Pope Pius IX in 1878. Svo, pp. xiv, 496. London, 1881. (The first half of 
this book is devoted to the mediaeval history of the Popes, The treatment is 
popular, but it has the advantage of presenting the entire life of the Papacy in 
one view.) 

Porter, Whitworth. A History of the Knights of Malta ; or. The Order of St. John 
of Jerusalem. Revised edition. Svo, pp. 744. London, 1883. 

Reichel, Oswald J. The See of Rome in the Middle Ages. Svo, pp. xxxv, 669. 
London, 1870. (Takes a sympathetic yet Protestant view of the Middle Ages. 
The book is enriched with English translations of some important documents, 
for example. Magna Charta, the statute of Praemunire, and the statute of 
Provisors.) 

Bule, William H. History of the Inquisition, from its Establishment in the Twelfth 
Century to its Extinction in the Nineteenth. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xii, 367 ; iv, 360. 
London, 1874. (Dr. Rule lived in Spain, and has investigated fcr himself. The 
tone of his work is controversial, but it is written with great ability.) 

Schweinitz, Bishop De. The History of the Church Known as the Unitas Fratrum, 
or the Unity of the Bretlircn; Founded by the Followers of John Huss, the 
Bohemian Reformer and Martyr. Svo, pp. vi, 692. Bethlehem, 1885. (Based 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 34v 

on the latest researches of Bohemian schohirs. The book contains a literature 
of the most important sources of information.) 

Shephard, John G. Tlie Fall of Rome and the Rise of the New Nationalities. Svo, 
pp. X, 797. London and New York, 1861. (A good book for the student.) 

Snow, Abbot. St. Grregory the Great: His Work and His Spirit. Svo, pp. 390. 
London, 1892. (In Heroes of the Cross Series.) 

Stephen, Sir James. Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. &vo. pp. xvi, 663. Lon- 
don, 1875. Essay I is on Hildebrand, and H on St. Francis of Assisi.) 

Stille, C. J. Studies in Mediaeval History. Second edition. I'inio, pp. 474. Philadel- 
phia, 1888. (The discussion is largely on the ecclesiastical w^ide of the history.) 

Stubbs, "William. The Constitutional History of England, in its Origin and Develop- 
ment. 8vo, 3 vols. Oxford, 1880. (Tiiis learned and iix some respects incom- 
parable work treats medijBval histor}" mainly on its secular side; but Vol. H 
discusses the political relations of Wyclif ; and Chap, xix. Vol. Ill, is on " The 
Clergy, the King, and the Pope.") 

Stubbs, William. Select Charters and Other Illustrations of English Constitutional 
History, From tlie Earliest Times to tiie Reign of Edward the First. 8vo, pp. xii, 
552. Oxford, 1888. (Among other documents is to be found Magna Charta, in its 
Latin text. The Appendix contains some of the modern English Charters, such 
as the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act, etc. For the ecclesiastical 
as well as the secular iiistory of England in the Middle Ages this book is in- 
valuable.) 

Sybel, H. von. History and Literature of the Crusades. Edited by Lady Duff 
Gordon. 12rao, pp. viii, 356. London, 1861. (Part I is the History of the 
Crusades ; Part 11, The Literature of the Crusades, and contains a critical account 
of the original authorities.) 

Townsend, W. J. Great Schoolmen of tlie Middle Ages. An Account of their 
Lives and. the Services they Rendered to the Church and the AVorld. 12mo, 
pp. 361. London, 1881. (A sketchy book, but interesting.) 

Trench, Richard C. Lectures on Mediaeval Church History. Svo, pp. vii, 439. New 
York, 1878. (Eloquently written.) 

Trollope, T. Adolphus. The Papal Conclaves, as They Were and as They Are. 
8vo, pp. xviii, 434. London, 1876. (Mr. Trollope aims to trace the causes 
which led in the Middle Ages to the establishment of the conclave, its modifica- 
tions, and its methods in more modern times.) 

Vaughan, Roger Bede. The Life and Labors of St. Thomas of Aquin. Svo, 2 vols., 
pp. xxii, SOS ; xiv, 928. London, 1872. (This is by far the fullest and best 
account of Thomas Aquinas accessible in our language. Each volume has its 
own index. An abridged edition was published by Canon Vaughan in 1875.) 

Villemain, M. AbelFran90 s. Life of Gregory the Seventh. Preceded by a Sketch of 
the History of the Papacy to the Eleventh Century. Translated by James Baber 
Brockley. Svo, 2 vols., pp. vii, 400; viii, 357. London, 1874. (A work by one 
of the first of French historians. The antecedent history of the Papacy is dis- 
cussed in six periods; then, beginning with the Othos, the struggle of the Papacj' 
for temporal supremacy is traced.) 

Williams, Folkstone. Lives of the English Cardinals, including Notices of the Papal 
Court, from Pope Adrian IV to Thomas Wolsey. Svo, 2 vols., pp. x, 484; 
iv, 543. London, 1868. (The period covered is from the twelfth to the sixteenth 
century. The account of Cardinal Wolsey is particularly full.) 
Worsfold, J. N. The Vaudois of Piedmont: A Visit to their Valleys, With a 
Sketch of their History to the Present Date. Svo. London, 1873. 



350 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 



3. The Reforraation. 
(1) Forerunners of the Reformation. 

The commemoration in 1884 of the five hundredth anniversary of the death of John 
Wiclif led to a great revival of interest in this forerunner of the Keformation. 
Recent Wiclif literature is, therefore, abundant. For tlie fullest information 
upon "Wiclifs opinions the student is referred to his English works in 3 vols.- 
edited by Thomas Arnold (London, 1869-71), and to his Latin works, now in 
course of publication under the direction of the Wyclif Society of England. Of 
these latter seventeen volumes have already appeared. Mr. F. D. Matthew, 
who has given so much time and scholarly labor to the publication of the Latin 
works, has edited " The English Works of Wyclif, Hitherto Unprinted." In 
this volume he has included all tiiat was omitted by Mr. Thomas Arnold in his 
collection of the reformer's Englisli writings. (8vo, pp. 572. London, 1840.) 

Buddensieg, Rudolf. John Wicklif, Patriot and Reformer. Life and Works. 18mo, 
2 vols. London, 1884. 

Bonnechose, Emil De. The Reformers Before the Reformation. The Fifteenth Cen- 
tury. John Hu8s and the Council of Constance. Translated from the French 
by Campbell Mackenzie. 12ino, pp. xxxvi, 375. London, no date. , 

Burrowes, Montagu. Wlclifs Place in History. Three Lectures Delivered before 
tlie University of Oxford in 1881. 12mo, pp. 135. London, 1884. (The titles 
of the lectures are : 1. The History and Present State of the Wiclif Literature. 
2. Wiclif s Preparation. 3. Wiclif's Work and His real Place as a Reformer.) 

Earbery, Matthias. The Pretended Reformers ; or, A True History of the German 
Reformation. Founded upon the Heresie of John Wickliffe, John Huss, and 
Jerome of Prague. Made English from the French Original, with an Introduc- 
tory Preface. 12mo, pp. xxvi, 93. London, 1720. (Earbery was a Presbyter 
of the Church of Englaud. This book stirred up John Lewis to publish his 
'' History of the Life and Sufferings of John Wickliffe." The original French 
author, according to Lewis, is Varillas.) 

Foxe, John. Acts and Monuments of Martyrs. 8vo, 8 vols. London, 1843-49; 
also 8 vols., London, 1853. Also an American Edition in 1 vol., pp. 1082. 
(Useful for its account of Wiclif. Of Foxe Professor Burrowes says: "Of all 
his services, none is greater than the revival of a knowledge of Wiclif Now, 
for the first time, the main outlines of the reformer's career became a part of 
English histor3^") 

Gillett, E. H. The Life and Times of John Huss ; or. The Bohemian Reformation in 
the Fifteenth Century. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xx, 632 ; xiii, 686. (But little has been 
done in EngHsh for the memory of Huss. Dr. Gillett's Life is from original 
documents, and is the best we have.) 

Gilpin, William. Lives of John Wicliff and of the Most Eminent of his Disciples, 
Lord Cobham, John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and Zisca. Second edition. Bvo, 
pp. 272. Lnidon, 1766. 

Hodgson, William. The Lives, Sentiments, and Sufferings of Some of the Reformers 
and Martyrs Before, Since, and Independent of the Lutheran Reformation. 
12mo, pp. 465. Philadelphia, 1867. (A very serviceable compilation.) 

Hook, Walter Farquhar. Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. 8vo, 11 vols. 
London, 1865. (In Vol. IV, Chaps, xii, xiii, xv, xvi, there is an account of 
Wiclifs ecclesiastical and political life.) 

Le Bns, Charles Webb. The Life of Wiclif. 16mo, pp. xviii, 395. Xew York, 1832. 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 351 

(One of the volumes of Harper's Family Library, but originally publislied in 
London, 1832.) 

Lecliler, Professor Gotthard. John "Wiclif and his English Precursors. Trans- 
lated from tlie German by Peter Lorimer. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xvi, 352 ; vii, 387. 
London, 187 (i. (Lecliler's work is the best account of Wiclif thus far written. 
It is a reverent and diligent study of the life of the English reformer from the 
original documents. The opinions of Wiclif are exhibited with much detail. 
A revised edition in one volume has been issued by the Religious Tract Society 
of London.) 

Lewis, John. The History of the Life and Suflferings of the Reverend and Learned 
John Wiclifif, D.D., Warden of Canterbury Hall, etc. Together with a Collection 
of Papers Relating to the said History, never before Printed. Svo, pp. xxvi, 
405. London, 1720. (This is the earliest formal English Life of Wiclif. It is 
a curious fact that it is written in part as a confutation of an impeachment of 
Wiclifs fame by an English clergyman. A new edition was issued at Oxford 
in 1820. See Earbery.) 

Loserth, Johaun. Wiclif and Huss. Translated b}'- H. J. Evans. Svo, pp. xiii, 366. 
London, 1884. (The purpose of Professor Loserth is to show that the important 
theological treatises of Huss, especially the tractate on the Church, are taken 
verbally as well as substantially from the writings of Wiclif.) 

Oliphant, Mrs. The Makers of Florence: Dante, Giotto, Savonarola, and their City. 
Svo, pp. XX, 422. London, 1891. (Mrs. Oliphant tells the story of Savonarola's 
sufferings eloquently.) 

Pennington, Arthur Robert. Preludes to the Reformation: From Dark to Dawn in 
Europe. Svo. London, 1886. 

Pennington, A. R. John Wyclif : His Life, Times, and Teaching. 12mo. London, 
1884. (A Life by one of the scholarly English Churchmen of our time.) 

Rule, W. H. Savonarola. With Events of the Reign of Pope Alexander YI. 16mo. 
London, 1855. (An excellent Life. Dr. Rule cites passages from Savonarola's 
own account of his prophetic gift.) 

Shirley, Walter W. Fasciculi Zizaniorum Magistri Johannis Wyclif cum Tritico. 
Svo, pp. 644. Oxford, 1858. (Professor Sliirley has prefixed an account of 
Wyclif to this work.) 

Trollope, T. Adolphus. A History of the Commonwealth of Florence, from the 
Earliest Independence of the Commune to the Fall of the Republic in 1531. 
Svo, 4 vols., pp. 430, 486, 471, 591. London, 1865. (Yol. Ill, Chap, iv, and Yol. 
lY, Cliaps. V to viii, both inclusive, treat of the life and career of Savonarola.) 

Ullman, C. Reformers Before the Reformation, piincipally in Germany and the 
Netherlands. Translated by Robert Menzies. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 416, 643. 
Edinburgh, 1877. (The life of Wessel is especially full.) 

Vaughan, Robert. Life and Opinions of John De Wicliffe, D.D. Illustrated prin- 
cipally from his Unpublished Manuscripts, etc. 8vo, 2 vols. 1828. Second 
edition. 1831-32. An abridged edition in 12mo, 1843. (Yaughan preceded 
Lechler, and has done much to revive the interest in Wiclifs life and work. He 
is the foremost of the English biographers.) 

Vaughnn, Robert. John De Wycliffe. A Monograph, including an Account of the 
Wyclifife Manuscripts. 4to. London, 1854. 

Yillari, Pasquale. Life and Times of Giralomo Savonarola. Translated by Lindi 
Villari. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 349, 439. New York, 1890. (Though not a Protes 
tant, Yillari writes sympathetically of Savonarola. His life of the martyr is the 
best we have.) 



852 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Watkinson, W. L. John "Wycklif. 8vo. London, 1884. 

Wilson, John Laird. John WycHfEe, Patriot and Keformer. A Biography. 12rao. 

New York, 1884. (Popular, but exact, and from best s^ources of information.) 

Wray, James Jackson. John Wyclif. A Quincentenary Tribute. Svo. London, 

1884. 

(2) General History of the Reformation. 

Fisher, George P. The Reformation. 8vo, pp. xxxiv, G20. New York, 1875. (For 
the English-speaking student the best condensed history of the Reformation 
attainable.) 

Hardwick, Charles. A History of the Christian Church during the Reformation. 
8vo. London, 1856. Second edition, by F. Proctor, 1865, Third edition, by W. 
Stubbs, 1873. 

Hauser, Ludwig. The Period of the Reformation, 1577-1648. 12mo. London and 
New York, 1874. (Treats witli great ability the Refoimatiou on its political 
side, and has an especially full treatment of tlie Thirty Years' War.) 

Merle D'Aubigne, J. H. History of the Great Reformation in the Sixteenth Century 
in Germany, Switzerland, etc. 12mo, 5 vols. New York, 1844, and many 
editions. (The most popular of all the histories of the Reformution ; earnest 
and animated in style, but not regarded by critics as always exact.) 

Merle D'Aubigne, J. H. History of the Reformation in iMirope in the Time of 
Calvin. 12mo, 8 vols. New York, 1878-79; also Loudon, 1864-78. (This 
work has all the characteristics of the author's History of the Reformation in 
Germany. It is ardent, eloquent, and popular.) 

Ranke, Leopold Von. History of the Reformation in Germany. Svo, pp. xviii, 545; 
iv, 540. London, 1845. (Tlie period covered by these two volumes extends 
from 1486-1528 A. D. A third vulume appeared in 1847. Much attention is 
giveii to the political relations of Germany with other continental States during 
the Reformation period.) 

Seebohm, Frederic. Era of the Protestant Revolution. 12mo, pp. xv, 250. Lon- 
don, 1874. (In "Epochs of Modern History.") 

Waddington, George, A History of tlie Reformation on the Continent. 8vo, 3 vols., 
pp. 439, 402, 403. London, 1841. (There is much valuable matter in Wad- 
dington's history not readily found elsewhere.) 

(3) Leaders of the Reformation. 

Bersier, Eugene. Coligny. The Earlier Life of the Great Reformer. Translated 
by Annie Harwood Holmden. 12mo, pp. xxxvi, 351. London, 1884. (The 
narrative closes with the year 1562, ten years before the death of the admiral.) 

Blackburn, William. William Farel and the Story of Swiss Reform. 18mo. 
Philadelphia, 1866. 

Blackburn, William. Admiral Coligny and the Rise of the Huguenots. 12mo, 
2 vols. Philadelphia, 1869. 

Blackburn, William. John Calvin in Paris and the Little Flock that he Fed. 18mo. 
Philadelphia, 1865. 

Demaus, R. William Tyndale. A Biography. A Contribution to the Early History 
of the English Bible. Revised by Richard Lovett. Svo, pp. 468. London 
(Religious Tract Society), 1886. 

Drummond, Robert B. Erasmus: His Life and Character as Shown in his Corre- 
spondence and Works. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1873. (The Athenseu n says of 
this work that it " gives a pretty full picture of the scholar as he lived and 
labored for the advancement of learning.") 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 353 

Djer, Thomas H. The Life of John Calvin, Compiled from Authentic Sources, and 
Particularly from His Correspondence. 12mo, pp. xi, 458. New York, 1850. 
(Dyer is no eulogist of Calvin, but has, nevertheless, written an impartial history. 
His book shows much care hi investigation and statement.) 

Guizot, M. St. Louis and Calvin. 12mo, pp. vi, 362. Philadelphia, no date. (Tlie 
essay on Calvin is one of Guizot's best; his delineation of Calvin's ecclesiastical 
system is especially clear.) 

Hare, Charles Julius. A Vindication of Martin Luther. 8vo, pp. 308. London, 
1854. (This is a masterly refutation of the charges brought against Luther l)y 
Hallam, Sir Wihiam Hamilton, and Newman.) 

Hazlitt, William, Translator. The Table Talk of Martin Luther. With a Memoir 
by Alexander Chalmers. 12mo, pp. cii, 390. London, 1890. 

Henry, Paul. The Life and Times of John Calvin, the Gieat Reformer. Translated 
from the German by Henry Stebbing. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xxvi, 519 ; vi, 456. Lon- 
don, 1849. (This is accepted as the standard life of Calvin. It is wholly inar- 
tistic, but the sources of information have been carefully examined.) 

Jo'rtin, John. The Life of Erasmus, with Remarks on his Works. 4to, 2 vols., pp. 630, 
750. London, 1758, 1760. (This is "the learned and judicious Jortin," as he was 
called by his contemporaries. The chief interest of this Life is to be found in the 
letters of Erasmus, which are never dull reading; otherwise it is a very moderate 
performance. The second volume contains specmiens of the handwriting of some 
of the leaders of the Reformation, among the rest Calvin and Zwingle.) 

Kostlin, Julius. Life of Luther, with Illustrations from Authentic Sources^. Translated 
from the German. 12mo, pp. x, 587. New York, 1891. (Mr. Froude says of tliis 
book that " it leaves little to be desired." Professor Kdstlin is also the author of 
a large work: Martin Luther, his Life and Writings, published in 1875 in 2 vols.) 

Ledderhose, Frederick. The Life of Philip Melancihon. Translated from the Ger- 
man by G. F. Krotel. 12mo, pp. xii, 364. Philadelphia, 1855. 

Rae, John. Martin Luther: Student, Monk, Reformer. With Six Illustrations. 
8vo, pp. xiii, 486. London, 1883. 

Sears, Barnas. The Life of Luther. With Special Reference to its Earlier Periods 
and the Opening Scenes of the Reformation. 8vo, pp. 528. Philadelphia, 1850. 
(American Sunday School Union.) 

Strauss, D. Ulrich Von Hutten : His Life and Times. Translated from the German. 
12mo, pp. iiv, 386. New York, 1874. 

Taylor, William M. John Knox. 12mo, pp. viii, 211. New York, 1886. (A brief 
sketch ; but "no material fact has been omitted, and nothing recorded for which 
ample authority could not be given." — Preface.) 

Tulloch, John. Luther and Other Leaders of the Reformation : Luther, Calvin, 
Latimer, Knox. Second edition. Pp. xi, 413. Edinburgh, 1860. 

Worsley, Henry. The Life of Martin Luther. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xvi, 396; viii, 419. 
London. (If this work only had an index it would be admirable, for it tells 
the story of Luther's life in a charming way.) 

There is a striking Essay on Luther in Carlyle's Heroes and Hero Worship ; also 
an Essay on Luther in Stephen's Essays in Ecclesiastical History. Fronde's 
Short Studies on Great Subjects also contain a study of Luther. 

(4) TJie Reformation According to Countries. 
Bohemia : 
Krasinski, V. Sketch of the Religious History of the Slavonic Nations. Bohemia. 
Svo, pp. 24-118. Edinburgh, 1851, 
33 



354 HISTORICxlL THEOLOGY. 

Pesclieck, C. A. Reformation and Anli-Refornnation in Bohemia, 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 
448, 442. London, 1825. (Volume I treats of the Reformation; Volume II of 
the anti- Reformation.) 

England: 

Blunt, J. H. The Reformation of the Church of England ; its History, Principles, 
and Results (A. D. 151.4-47). 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1878. (Argues for the 
continuity of the Churcli of England, and holds that the Reformation was a 
"readjustment.") 

Burke, S. H. Men and Women of the English Reformation, from the Days of Wolsey 
to the Death of Cranmer. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1871. 

Burnet, G-. Th'^ History of tiie Reformation of the Church of England. Revised and 
Corrected by Rev. E. Xares. Large 8vo, 4 vols. New edition, 7 vols. London, 
1865. (A celebrated history; one that has been sliarply attacked and strenu- 
ously defended.) 

Geikie, C. The English Reformation : How it Came About, and Why We Should 
Uphold It. 8vo, pp. 512. New York, 1879. (Affirms with much emphasis the 
anti-sacerdotal character of the Protestant Reformation.) 

Heylyn, P. Ecclesia Restaurata; or, The History of the Reformation of the Church 
of England, with the Life of the Author, by John Barnard. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 
302, 496. London, 1849. (Very strong against the Presbyterians and Puri- 
tans. Heylyn was a violent partisan.) 

Massingberd, E. C. History of the English Re'formation. 12mo, pp. 525. London, 
1866. 

Williams, J. Studies on the English Reformation. 12mo. New York, 1881. 

France : 

Agnew, D. C. A. Protestant Exiles from France in the Reign of Louis XTY ; or. The 
Huguenot Refugees and their Descendants in Great Britain and Ireland. 4to, 
3 vols. London, 1871. 

Baird, Charles W. History of the Huguenot Emigration to America. 8vo, 2 vols., 
pp. xix, 354 ; xi, 448. New York, 1885. (By the brother of Henry M. Baird. 
It opens to view a part of French-American history hitherto imperfectly under- 
stood.) 

Baird, Henry M. The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xxii, 
458; xvii, 525. New York, 1886. (Like tlie other great work of Professor 
Baird on the Huguenots, this is written in clear style, and with a careful study 
of the original sources.) 

Baird, H. M. History of the Rise of the Huguenots in France. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 
577, 681. New York, 1879. (A work of great value to the student.) 

Browning, W. S. A History of the Huguenots. 8vo, 3 vols. London and Philadel- 
phia, 1845. 

D'Auraale, M. Le Due. History of the Princes do Conde in the XVItli and XVIIth 
(Jcnturies. From the French, by Robert Brown Borthwick. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 
xiv, 411 ; xiii, 448. London, 1872. 

Delnias, Louis. The Huguenots of La Rochelle. A Translation of "The Reformed 
Church of La Rochelle." An Historical Sketch, 1870. Translated from the 
French by George L. Catlin. 12mo, pp. xiv, 295. New York, 1880. 

Felice, G. De. History of the Protestants of France. From the commencement of 
the Reformation to the Present Time. . Translated from the French. 8vo, 
2 vols., pp. xliv, 373; xii, 339. London, 1853. (The work of a divinity pro- 
fessor at Montauban.) 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 355 

Hanna, William. The Wars of the Huguenots. 12mo, pp. 34:4. New York, 1872. 

Hanna, W. WjclifEe and the Huguenois. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1860. 

Hanna, W. Wars of the Huguenots. 8vo. Edinburgii, 1871. 

Lee, Mrs. H. F. The H\iguenots in France and America. 8vo, 2 vols. Boston, 

1852. 
Martyn, W. C. A History of the Huguenots. 12rao, pp. 528. New York, 1866. 
Poole, Reginald Lane. The Huguenots of the Dispersion, at the Recall of the Edict. 

12iuo, pp. viii, 208. London, 1880. (This book is chiefly concerned with the 

migration of the Huguenots to various countries of Europe; their migration to 

America is noticed very briefly.) 
Quick, John. Synodioon in Gallia Reformata; or. The Acts. Decisions, Derrees, and 

Canons of the Seven Last National Synods of the Reformed Churches in France. 

Collected and composed out of the original Manuscript Acts of those Councils. 

Folio, 2 vols., pp. 523, 596. London, 1692. (The record begins with the year 

1.559. Of the importance of this work it is not necessary to speak.) 
Smedley, Edward. History of the Reformed Religion in France. 16n)(), 3 vols., pp. 

398, 366, 350. London, 1834. (Professor Smyth, in his lectures on Modern 

History, speaks highly of this work.) 
Smiles, Samuel. The Huguenots in France After the Revocation of the Edict of 

Nantes. With a Visit to the Country of the Yaudois. 8vo, pp. xii, 430. New 

York, 1874. 
S.miles, S. The Huguenots: Their Settlements, Churches, and Institutes in England 

and Ireland; with an Appendix Relative to the Huguenots in America. 8vo, 

pp. xii, 448. New York, 1868. 
Weiss, C. History of the French Protestant Refugees, from the Revocation of the 

Edict of Nantes to our Day. 2 vols. New York, 1854. 
White, H. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew. Preceded by a History of the Relig- 
ious Wars in the Reign of Charles IX. 8vo, pp. xv, 497. New York, 1868. 

(The author has gathered the materials of his history from original manuscript 

sources. His book is well written.) 

Germany. 

Hagenbach, K. R. History of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland. Chiefl.y. 
From the fourth German edition. Translated by Evelina Moore. 8vo, 2 vols., 
pp. vii, 422; xii, 436. Edinburgh, 1879. (Written in the calm, judicial spirit 
which characterizes Hagenbach. His statement of the relative merits of Luther 
and Zwingli is especially valuable.) 

Pennington, A. R. God in the History of the Reformation in Germany and England, 
and in the Preparations for It. 8vo. London, 1869. 

Sleidan, John. The General History of the Reformation of the Church from the 
Errors and Corruptions of Rome. Begun in Germany by Martin Luther, From 
the year 1517 to the year 1556. With a Continuation to the Council of Trent, 
1562. From the Latin. Folio, pp. 638, 100. London, 1689. (Sleidan is the 
authority most quoted by Robertson in his Life of Charles Y.) 

Wace, Henry, and Buchheim, C. A. The First Principles of the Reformation : or. 
The Ninety-five Theses and the Three Primary Works of Dr. Martin Luther. 
With Theological and Historical Introductions. 8vo. pp. Ixxxviii, 245. London. 
(The three primary works of Luther are : The Address to the German Nobility, 
Concerning Christian Liberty, and the Babylonian Captivity of tne Church. 
These documents are of the grea'^est value to the thorough student of the 
Reformation.) 



356 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

HoUaud : 

Brandt, Gerard. The History of the Reformation in and about the Low Countries: 
From the Beginning of the Eighth Century down to the Famous Synod of 
Dort, Indusive. FoUo, 4 vols., pp. 481, 590, 492, 553. London, 1720. (Brandt 
is the chief Arminian authority for the history of the struggle between the 
Arminians and the Calvinists of Holland. Volume I is occupied with the estab- 
Ushment of Protestantism in the Low Countries; the remaining three volumes 
treat of the Arminian Controversy.) 

Martyn, W. C. The Dutch Reformation: A History of the Struggle in the Nether- 
lands for Civil and Religious Liberty in the Sixteentli Century. 12mo, pp. 828. 
New York, 1868. 

Motley, J. L. The Rise of the Dutch Repubhc. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. 579, 582, 664. 
New York, 1879. (Motley tells the story of tlie deliverance of Holland from 
Spain with the enthusiasm of a lover of religious and civil liberty.) 

Motley, J. L. History of the United Netherlands, from the Death of William the 
Silent to the Twelve Years' Truce, 1609. 8vo, 4 vols., pp. 532, 563, 599, 632. 
New York, 1879. 

Motley, J. L. The Life and Death of John of Barneveld, Advocate of Holland. With 
a View of the Primary Causes and Movements of the Thirty Years' War. 8vo, 
2 vols., pp. 389, 475. New York, 1879. 

Italy : 

Comba, Emilio. History of the Waldenses of Italy from their Origin to the Reforma- 
tion. Translated from the Author's Revised Edition, by Teofilo E. Comba. 8vo, 
pp. 357. London, 1889. (This book contains much important information not 
otherwise accessible.) 

Dinwiddle, W. Times Before the Reformation, with an Account of Fra Girolamo 
Savonarola, the Friar of Florence. 8vo. New York, 1880. 

McCrie, T. Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Italy in the Sixteenth 
Century; with a Sketch of the Reformation in the Grisons. 8vo, pp. ix, 434. 
P]dinburgh and London, 1827; also Philadelphia, 1856. 

Monasiier, Antoine. A History of the Vaudois Church, from its Origin; and of the 
Vaudois of Piedmont, to the Present Day. 12mo, pp. xii, 432. London, 1848. 

Muston, Alexis. The Israel of the Alps, A Complete History of the Waldenses 
and their Colonies. Prepared for the Great Part from UnpubHshed Documents. 
8vo, 2 vols., pp. XXX, 478; xvi, 540. London, 1875. 

Stoughton, John. Footprints of Italian Reformers. 8vo, pp. vi, 395. London. 1881. 

Strack, C. Renata of Este, a Chapter from the History of the Reformation in France 
and Italy. Translated by Catherine E. Hurst. 12mo. Cincinnati, 1873. 

Todd, James Henthorne. The Waldensian Manuscripts Preserved in the Library of 
Trinity College, Dublin. With an Appendix. 8vo, pp. xiv, 242. Oxford and 
Cambridge, 1865. 

Young, M. The Life and Times of Aonio Paleario; or, A History of the Italian 
Reformers in the Sixteenth Century. Illustrated by Original Letters and Un- 
edited Documents. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xiv, 588; xi, 650. London, 1860. 

Scotland : 
Cook, G. History of the Reformation in Scotland. Second edition. 8vo, 3 vols., 

pp. xvi, 339; xii, 420; cii, 316. London, 1819. 
Hetherington, W. M. History of the Church of Scotland from the Introduction of 

Christianity to the Period of the Disruption, 1843. Seventh edition, 8vo, 2 vols., 

pp. viii, 502, 576. Edinburgh, 1852. 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 357 

Keith, R. History of Affairs in Church and State in Scotland from 1527 to 1568. 

8vo, 2 vols. London, 1844-50. (The first edition appeared in folio, Edinburgh, 

1734.) 
Knox, John. The History of the Reformation of Religion within the Realm of 

Scotland. Together with the Life of Jolin Knox, the Author. Taken from the 

Original Manuscripts in the University Library of Glasgow. Folio, pp. Ivi, 488. 

Edinburgh, 1732. (This is John Knox'S own account of the Reformation in 

Scotland. David Buchanan's Preface is also prefixed.) 
Lorimer, Peter. John Knox and the Church of England : His Work in her Pulpit, 

and liis Influence upon her Liturgy, Articles, and Parties. 8vo, pp. xii, 317. 

London, 1875. (This work is founded upon some important papers of Knox 

never before published.) 
Rogers, Charles. Social Life in Scotland. From Early to Recent Times. 8vo, 

3 vols.,' pp. 416, 418, 484. Edinburgh, 1884. (The bulk of Vol. 11 is devoted 

to the illustration of Scotch ecclesiastical affairs and Church discipline. On 

the period of the Reformation these chapters are full.) 
Scott, J. Moffiit. The Martyrs of Angus and Mearns. 12mo, pp. 296. London, 

1885. (An account of the sufferings of Stratoun, Wishart, andMyln.) 
Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Church of Scotland. 8vo, pp. xiv, 203. 

New York, 1872. 
Taylor, WiUiam M. John Knox. 12mo, pp. viii, 217. New York, 1886. (Chapter 

X treats of the reconstruction of the Scotch Church, in the sixteenth century — 

1560.) 
The Tercentenary Book. Commemorative of the Completion of the Life and "Work of 

John Knox, of the Hujiuenot Martyrs of France, and the Establishment of Pres- 
bytery m England. 4to. Philadelphia, 1873. 

Spain : 
Charles, E. Tlie Martyrs of Spain and the Liberators of Holland. 12mo. London, 

1861. 
De Castro, Senor Don Adolfo. The Spanish Protestants and their Persecution by 

Philip IL A Historical Work. Translated from the Original Spanish by 

Thomas Parker. 12mo, pp. Ixiv, 386. London, 1851. 
McCrie, T. History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain in 

the Sixteenth Century. 8vo, pp. viii, 424. Edinburgh, 1829. (This is intended 

by the author as a sequel to his history of the Progress and Suppression of the 

Reformation in Ital3\) 
Prescott, W. H. History of the Reign of Philip II. 3 vols., pp. 618, 610, 476. 

Boston, 1855. 

Sweden : 

Anjou, L. A. The History of the Reformation in Sweden. From the Swedish by 
Henry M. Mason. 12mo, pp. x, 668. New York. 1859. (The period embraced 
by this history extends to the Council of Upsala, A. D. 1593.) 

Butler, C. M. Tlie Reformation in Sweden: Its Rise, Progress, and Crisis, and its 
Triumph under Charles IX. 12mo, pp.iv, 259. New York, 1883. 

Switzerland : 
Blackburn, William M. William Farel and tlie Story of the Swiss Reformation. 
12mo, pp. 360. Edinburgh, 1867. (A book by an American author, reprinted. 
See Leaders of the Reformation.) 



358 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Cliristoffel, R. Zwingli ; or, The Rise of the Reformation in Switzerland. A Life of 
tlie Reformer, with Notices of ]iis Times and Contemporaries. 8vo, pp. vii, 
462. Edinburgh, 1860. 

The Slavs: 

Krasinski, Count Valerian. Sketch of the History of the Slavonic Nations. 8vo, 
pp. viii, 332. Edinburgh, 1851. 

(5) Tlie Counter-Reformation. 

Beard, Charles. Port Royal: A Contribution to the History of Religion and Litera- 
ture in France. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1873. 

Bossuet, J. B. The History of the Variations of tlie Protestant Churches. Trans- 
lated from the last French edition. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 432, 424. Dublin, 1829. 

Buckley, Theodore A. The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent. Literally 
translated into English. 12mo, pp. xxiii, 399. London, 1851. 

Buckley, Theodore A. A History of the Council of Trent, Compiled from a Compar- 
ison of Various Writers; with a Chronological Summary. 12mo, pp. xxxi, 549. 
London, 1852. 

Bungener, L. F, History of the Council of Trent. From the French. Edited by 
John McClintock. 12mo, pp. xlii, 546. New York, 1855. 

Campbell, Arabella. The Life of Fra Paolo Sarpi, Theologian and Counselor of 
State to the Most Serene Republic of Venice, and Author of the History of the 
Council of Trent. From original MSS. 8vo, pp. vii, 253. London, 1869. 

Carlyle, Thomas. Essny on Jesuitism in '• Latter-day Pamphlets." 8vo. London. 

Coxe, Wm. History of the House of Austria from the Foundation of tlie Monarchy by 
Rudolph of Hapsburgh to the Death of Leopold II., 1218-1792. Fourth edition. 
12mo, 3 vols., pp. xvi, 528; xii, 522; viii, 592. London, 1889. Also Vol. IV. 
From the Accession of Francis I. to the Revolution of 1848. Translated from 
the German. 12rao, pp. cxxvii, 468. London, 1889. 

Daurignac, J. M. History of the Society of Jesus fron its Foundation to the 
Present Time. Translated by James Clements. 8vo, two volumes in one, pp. 
xvii, 421, 399. Baltimore, 1878. (On the Roman Catholic side. The history 
is brought down to the generalship of Father Beckx (1853-1860). An appendix 
gives some account of the work of the Jesuits in the United States.) 

Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648. 16mo. New York, 
1874. (Valuable for its account of the results of the war.) 

Gindely, Anton. History of the Thirty Years' War. Translated by Andrew Ten 
Brook. 8vo, 2 vols. New York, 1884. (Dr. C. K. Adams considers this the 
best history of war that we have.) 

Hughes, Thomas. Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits. 12mo, pp. 
ix, 302. New York, 1892. (A very thorough treatment.) 

Macaulay, Thomas Babington. Jesuitism. Essay on Ranke's Hisrory of the Popes, 
in his Collected Essays. 

Michelet, M. J., and Quinet, M. E. Jesuits and Jesuitism. Translated by G. II. 
Smith. 8vo, pp. 55, in double columns. London, 1846. (These lectures were 
delivered in 1843, when Michelet and Quinet were professors in the College de 
France. Their delivery excited a hot controversy, during which many publi- 
cations appeared on either side.) 

Neale, J. M. History of the So-called Jansenist Cliurch of Holland, with a Sketch 
of its Earlier Annals, and some Account of the Brothers of the Common Life. 
8vo, pp. X, 411. Oxford, 1858. 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH PHSTORY. 359 

Parkman, Francis. The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century. 
Twenty-ninth edition. 12mo, pp. Ixxxix, 46:?. Boston, 1891. 

Polano, Pietro Soave (Father Paul Sarpi). The History of the Council of Trent. 
Translated by Nathaniel Brent. 4to, pp. 889. London, 1676. (Of great value 
as an original authority.) 

Ranke, Leopold. The Historj-- of the Popes. Their Church and State in the Six- 
teenth and Seventeenth Centuries Translated by Walter Keating Kelly. 8vo, 
pp. 519, double columns. New York, 1845. (Ranke says in his preface, the 
" period of reconstruction of a mixed spiritual and tempora,! power, its renova- 
tion and internal reform, its progress and decline, it is my purpose to portraj', 
Jit least in outline." Fur the histor}' of the Counter-Reformation this is one of 
the indispensuble books.) 

Schiller, J. F. The History of the Thirty Years' War. Translated by A. J. W. 
Morrison. 12 mo. New York, 1846. 

Steinmetz, Andrew. History of the Jesuits. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. xii, 510, 514, 636. 
London, 1848. 

Stephen, Sir James. Loyola. See essay on, in Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. 
8vo, pp. 663. London, 1875. 

Taylor, Isaac. Loyola and Jesuitism in its Rudiments. 8vo. London, 1849, 1850, 
1863. 12mo, pp. iv, 416. N«w York, 1852. 

Tregelles, S. P. The Jansenists : Their Rise, Persecutions by the Jesuits, and Exist- 
ing Remnant. 12mo, pp. 98. London, 185 ' . (The story of the struggle between 
the Jansenists and the Jesuits is a part of the record of the Counter-Reformation.) 

Trench, Richard C. Gustavus Adolphus, and Otiier Lectures on the Thirty Years' 
War. 8vo, pp. 114. London, 1865. 

Ward, A. W. The House of Austria in the Thirty Years' War. Two lectures, 
with notes and illustrations. 8vo. London, 1869. 

Waterworth, J. The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and (Ecumenical Council of 
Trent, Celebrated under the Sovereign Pontiffs Paul IIL, Julius III., and Pius 
lY. 8vo, pp. ccxiii, 326. London, 1848. (The text of the canons and 
decrees is preceded by valuable essays on the history of the Council.) 

4. Protestantism in the Seventeenth Century. 

Adair, Patrick. A True Narrative of the Rise and Progress of the Presbyterian 
Church in Ireland, 1623-1670. Introduction and notes by W. D. Killen. 
12mo, pp. xxxvi, 334. Belfast, 1866. 

Adams, Charles Francis. Three Episodes of Massachusetts History. The Settle- 
ment of Boston Bay. The Antinomian Controversy. A Study of Church and 
Town Government. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. vi, iv, 1067. Boston, 1893. (The his- 
tory of the movement under Anne Hutchinson is discussed at some length.) 

Bacon, Leonard. The Genesis of the New England Churches. 12 mo, pp. xiv, 485. 
New York, 1874. 

Bangs, Nathan. Tlie Life of James Arminius. Copied from his life and writings, 
as published by Mr. James Nichols. 18mo, pp. ix, 288. New York, 1843. 

Brandt, Casper. The Life of James Arminius, D.D. Translated from the Latin b}'' 
John Guthrie, With an Introduction by Thomas 0. Summers. 12mo, pp. 
xxviii, 405. Nashville, Tenn., 1857. (Another translation of Brandt appears 
in the first volume of the English edition of his works published at London in 
1825. This does not appear in tlie American editions of Arminius.) 

Brown, John. John Bunyan : His Life, Times, and Work. 8vo. London, 1885; 
also 1888. (The most complete life of Bunyan.) 
34 



360 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Biirrage, H. S. The Anabaptists of Switzerland. 16mo, Pliiladelpliia, 1882. 

Calder, Frederick. Memoirs of Episcopius, the Celebrated Pupil of Arminius, to which 
is added a brief account of the Synod of Dort. 12mo, pp. 478. New York, 1837. 

Craigliead, J. G. Scotch and Irish Seeds iu American Soil. The Early History of 
the Scotch and Irish Ci lurches, and their Relation to the Presbyterian Church 
of America. 12mo, pp. 348. Philadelpliia, 1878. 

Dexter. Henry Marty n. The Congregaiioiialism of tlie Last Three Hundred Years 
as Seen in its Literature. In Twelve Lectures. With a Bibliograpliical Ap- 
pendix. 8vo, pp. xxviii, 716, 326. New York, 1880. (The first seven lectures 
give the history of the earlier Congrej,ationalism in the sixteenth and seven- 
teenth centuries.) 

Ellis, George E. The Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of the Massachnsetts 
Bay, 1629-1685. 8vo, pp. xix, 576. Boston, 1888. 

Goodwin, John A. The Pilgrim Republic : An Historical Review of the Colony of 
New Plymouth. 8vo, pp. xli, 662. Boston, 1888. 

Gough, John. A History of the People Called Quakers. From their First Rise to 
the Present Time. 12mo, 4 vols., pp. x, 546, 557, 526, 573. London, 1789-90. 

Grey, Zachary. An Impartial E.xamination of the Second Volume of Mr. Daniel 
Neal's History of the Puritans. 8vo, pp. 434. London, 1736. 

Grey, Zachary. An Impartial Examination of the Third Volume of Mr. Daniel Neal's 
History of the Puritans. 8vo, pp. 404, 143. London, 1737. 

Grey, Zachary. An Impartial Examination of the Fourth Volume of Mr. Daniel 
Neal's History of the Puritans. 8vo, pp. 427, 176. London, 1739. 

Hall, Edwin. The Puritans and Their Principles. Third ed. 8vo, pp. xiii, 440. New 
York, 1847. 

Hetherington, Wm. Historj' of the Westminster Assembly of Divines. 12mo, pp. 
xii, 311. New York, 1843. 

Hunt, John. Religious Thought in England. From the Reformation to the End 
of the Last Century. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. xxxi, 471 ; xxix, 468 ; xxv^ 445.' London, 
1873. (The progress of English religious thought in the seventeenth century 
will be found in the first volume and the first half of the second. This work is 
important for the student of English theology.) 

Ivimey, Joseph. A History of the English Baptists: Including an Investigation of 
the History of Baptism in England from the Earliest Period to which it caii be 
Traced to the Close of the Seventeenth Centur3^ 8vo, 4 vols., pp. viii, 572 ; xii, 
620,614; viii, 623. London, 1830. 

Lathbury, Thomas. A History of the Non-Jurors. Their Controversies and Their 
Writings. 8vo, pp. x, 530. London, 1845. (This history covers the period 
from 1688 to 1788.) 

Maddox, Isaac. A Vindication of the Government, Doctrine, and Worship of tlie 
Church of England. Established in the reign of Queen Elizabeth; against the 
injurious reflections of Mr. Neal, in his late History of the Puritans. Together 
with a detection of many false quotations and mistakes in that performance. 
Svo, pp. 362. London, 1733. 

Mant, Richard. History of the Cliurch of Ireland, from the Reformation to the 
Revolution, with a Preliminary Survey from the Papal Usurpation in the 
Twelfth Century to its Legal Abohtion in tlie Sixteenth. Large 8vo, 2 vols., 
pp. 809, 844. London, 1845. 

Mather, Cotton. Magnalia Christi Americana ; or, Ecclesiastical History of New 
England from 1620 to 1698. With notes and translations by Robins and Robin- 
son. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 626, 682. Hartford, 1853. 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 361 

Mitchell, Alexander F. The Westminster Assembly, its History and Standards, 
being the Baird Lecture for 1882. 12mo, pp. xxiii, 519. London, 1883. 

Neal, Daniel. The History of the Puritans or Protestant Non-Conformists from the 
Reformation to the Death of Queen Elizabeth. A new edition, revised by 
Josliua Toulmin. 8vo, 5 vols., pp. 572 ; xxv, 600; xiv, 560 ; xxiii, 552; xiii, 488, 
Boston, 1817. (Vol. V brings the narrative down to 1688.) Also 8vo, 3 vols. 
London, 1837. And with notes by J. 0. Choules. 8vo, 2 vols. New York, 
1863. 

Overton, J. H. Life in the English Church, 1660-1714. 8 vo, pp. xiv, 376. London, 
1885. 

Stoughton, John. History of Religion in England. From the Opening of the Long 

Parliament to the End of the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. 528, 497, 504, 

454, 464, 475. New York, 1882. (The seventeenth century history closes with 

Volume V, on the Church of the Revolution. Volume VI treats of the eight- 

' eenth century.) 

Sydney, Wm. Connor. Social Life in England from the Restoration to the Revolu- 
tion, 1660-1690. 12mo, pp. 463. New York, 1892. 

Tulloch, John. Rational Theology and Chri-tian Philosophy in the Seventeenth 
Century. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xiii, 463, 500. Edinburgh and London, 1872. (This 
book is an effort to describe tho theology of the moderate men during the time 
of the struggle between the English Church and the Puritans. The first volume 
is devoted to Falkland, Hales of Eton, Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, and Stihing- 
fleet; the second volume to the Cambridge Platonists. (The position of Dr, 
Tulloch is indicated by a single sentence of his preface : " The days of Augus-r 
tinian dominance are forever ended.") 

Uhden, H. F. The New England Theocracy: A History of the Congregationalists in. 
New England to the Revival of 1740. Translated from the German by H. C; 
Conant. r2mo, pp. 303. Boston, 1858. 

Wagstaff, Wm. R. A History of the Society of Friends : Compiled from its Stand-, 
ard Records and other Sources. 8vo, pp. Ivi, 400. New York, 1845. 

Wakeman, Henry Offley. The Church and the Puritans, 1570-1660. 12mo, pp. x, 
208. New York, 1886. (Epochs of Church History Series.) 

Warren, William F. In the Footsteps of Arminius. A Delightsome Pilgrimage. 
12mo, pp. 52. New York, 1888. 

Young, Alexander, Clironiclos of the Pilgrim Fathers of the Colony of Plymouth 
from 1620 to 1628. 12mo. Boston, 1841. 

5. Tlie Evangelical Revival of the Eighteenth Century. 

The connexion between the Evangelical Revival of the last century and German 
Pietism is important for the student of modern Cliurch history. As far as we are 
aware there is no biography in English of Spener, but there are English biogra- 
phies of Zinzendorf. It is well known that in his early years Zinzendorf was under 
the training of his grandmother, the Baroness von Gersdorf, a friend of Spener, and 
her daughter. By them his Christian character was formed and a pietistic direction 
given to his life. Through the renewed Moravian Church and its representatives 
John Wesley was led to tlie adoption of the views which he spent long years in 
propagating. There is a Life of Peter Bohler, John Wesley's instructor, by Rev. J. 
P. Lockwood, London, 1868; also of Bishop Spangenberg, whom Wesley met in 
Georgia, by Charles T. Ledderhose, Loudon, 1855 ; and a Life of Zinzendorf by 
Spangenberg, London, 1838, 



363 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

(1) General Works. 

Abbey, Charles J., and Overton, John H. Tlie EngHsh Church in the Eighteenth 
Century. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xix, 621 ; xiv, 551. London, 1878. 

Hunt, John. Religious Thought in England from the Reformation to the End of the 
Last Century. A Contribution to the History of Theology. Svo, 3 vols., pp. 
xxxi, 471; xxix, 468; xxv, 445. London, 1873. (For the Evangelical Revival, 
see Vol. HI.) 

Leckey, "Wm. E. H. A History of England in the Eighteenth Century. 8vo. 4 vols., 
^ pp. xix, 626; xvi, 699; xii, 591; xv, 606. New York, 1878-88. (Vol. H, 
Chapter IX, devotes special attention to the evangelical revival, while the whole 
work gives the setting of the movement.) 

Overton, J. H. The Evangelical Revival in the Eighteenth Century. 1 2mo, pp. xi, 
208. New York. No date. (Epochs of Cluirch History Series.) 

Ryle, J. C. Christian Leaders of the Last C ntury; or, England a Hundred Years 
Ago. 8vo. London, 1868. 

Stephen, Leslie. History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century. Second edition. 
8vo, 2 vols., pp. XV, 466 ; xi, 469. New York, 1881. (See Vol. II, Chapter XII.) 

Stevens, Abel. A History of the Religious Movement called Methodism, considered 
in its Different Denominational Eorms, and its Relations to British and Amer- 
ican Protestantism. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. 480, 520, 524. New York, 1858-61. 
Also abridged in one volume, 8vo. New York. 

Tyerman, Luke. The Oxford Methodists : Memoirs of the Rev. Messrs. Cla3''ton, 
Ingham, Oambold. Hervey, and Broughton, with Biographical Notices of 
Others. 8vo, pp. viii, 416. London and New York, 1873. 

(2) The Wesleys. 
A Short Account of the Late Rev. J. Weslej-, A.M., During the Last Two Weeks 

of His Life, Collected from tlie Persons who Attended Him During that Time. 

To which is added a short sketch of his character. Extracted from the public 

papers. 18mo, pp. 24 London, 1791. 
Clarke, Adam. Memoirs of the Wesley Family, Collected Principally from Original 

Documents. Fourth edition. 1 2mo, pp. 659. New York. No date. And 

various editions. 
Clarke, Eliza. Susanna Wesley. (Famous Women Series.) 16mo, pp. vii, 301. 

Boston, 1891. 
Dobbin, 0. T. Wesley the Worthy, and Wesley the Catholic. With an introduction 

by Rev. Wm. Arthur, M.A. 18mo, pp. xii, 129. London, 1850. 
Dodd, Tliomas J. John Wesley. A Study for the Times. 12mo, pp. 152. Cincin- 
nati, 1891. 
Dove, John. A Biographical History of the Wesley Family, and More Particul^irlr 

its Earlier Branches. 12mo, pp. iv, 299. London, 1833. 
Ellis, James J. John Wesley. (In Lives that Speak Series.) 12mo, pp. xv, 228. 

New York, 1890. 
Hampson, John. Memoirs of the Late Rev. John Wesley, A.M., with a Review of His 

Life and Writings, and a History of Methodism from its Commencement in 1729 

to the Present Time. 18rao, 3 vols., pp. viii, 221, 216, 235. Snnderland, 1791. 
Jackson, Thomas. The Life of the Rev. Charles Wesley, M.A., Comprising a Re- 

view of His Poetry; Sketches of the Rise and Progress of Methodism, with 

Notices of Contemporary Events and Characters. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xvi, 591; 

viii, 578. London, 1841. Abridged in one volume, 12mo, pp. xv, 500. 

London, 1862. 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 363 

Janes, Edward L. "Wesley His Own Historian. Illustrations of His Character, 
Labors, and Achievements. From his own diaries, 12mo, pp. 479. Xew 
York, 1870. 

Journal of the Rev. John Weslej^ M.A. 8vo, 4 vols., pp. 546, 480, 491, 565. 
London, 1 827. (There are several American and English editions other than this.) 

Journal of the Rev. Charles Wesley, M.A., to which are Appended Selections from 
His Correspondence and Poetry. With an Introduction and Occasional Notes 
by Thomas Jackson. 12rao, 2 vols., pp. xlvi, 466 ; vi, 494. London, 1849. 

Kirk, Rev. John. The Mother of the Wesley s. A Biography. 12mo, pp. 398. 
Cincinnati, 1867, Also London, 1864, pp. xx, 351. (A work of much merit.) 

Lelievre, Matthew. John Wesley sa vie et son (Euvre. 12mo, pp. xiv, 304. Paris, 
1868. Translated by Rev, A, J, French, with the title : John Wesley. His 
Life and His Work. Pp. xii, 274. London, 1871. (This is one of the best 
short biographies.) 

Moore, Henry. The Life of the Rev. Jolm Wesley, A.M., in which are Included 
the Life of His Brother, and Memoirs of Tlieir Family, etc. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 
xxiii, 467, 482. New York, 1825. (Thomas Coke, Henry Moore, and Dr. 
Wiiitehead were appointed by Mr. Wesley his literary executors. Moore and 
Whitehead failed to agree, and published separate lives of the founder of 
Methodism.) 

Priestle}', Joseph. Original Letters by Rev. Jolm Wesley and His Friends, Illus- 
trative of His Early History, with Other Curious Papers Communicated by the 
Late Rev. S. Babcock, to which is Prefixed an Address to the Methodists. 
8vo, pp. XV, 170. Birmingham, 1791. 

Rigg, James H. The Living Wesley, As He Was in His Youth and in His Prime. 
With an introduction by John F. Hurst. 12mo, pp. 269. New York, 1874. 
(A work of much merit.) 

Rigg, James H. The Churchmanship of John Wesley, and the Relations of Wesleyan 
Methodism to the Church of England. 12mo, pp. 120. London. No date. 

Southey, Robert. The Life of Wesley, and the Rise and Progress of Methodism. 
8vo, 2 vols., pp. xxxi, 512, 622. London, 1820. A new edition. 12mo, pp. 631. 
London, 1864. Also a new edition with notes by the late Samuel T. Coleridge, 
and remarks on the life and character of John Wesley by the late Alexander 
Knox. Edited by Rev. Charles Cuihbert Southey. 12mo, pp. xxxi, 367, 394. 
London, 1864. A new edition edited by John Atkinson was published in Lon- 
don in 1889. (This is the best written life of Wesley, and the one best known 
to the world.) 

Stevenson, George J. Memorials of the Wesley Family, Including Biographical 
and Historical Sketches of All the Members of tlie Family for Two Hundred 
and Fifty Years, together with a Genealogical Table of the Wesleys. 8vo, pp. 
xxiii, 562. London, 1876. 

Taylor, Isaac. Wesley and Methodism. 12mo, pp. vi, 866, London, 1851. 

Telford, John, The Life of John Wesley, ]2mo, pp. xvi, 363. New York, 1890. 
(This work is the best for the early life of Wesley.) 

Tyerman, Luke. The Life and Times of Rev. John Wesley, M.A., Founder of the 
Methodists. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. xii. 564; xi, 618; vii, 675. London, 1871. Also 
New York, 1872, with an Appendix of 23 pages, by Abel Stevens, (This is the 
most exhaustive life of Wesley.) 

Tyerman, Luke, The Life and Times of Rev. Samuel Wesley, M. A., Rector of 
Epworth and Father of the Revs. John and Charles Wesley, the Founders of 
the Methodists. 8vo, pp. xvi, 472. London, 1866. 



UG4 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Urlin, R. Denny. John Wesley's Place In Church History Determined With the 
Aid of Facts and Documents Unknown to or Unnoticed by His Biographers. 
12mo, pp. xiv, 212. London, 1870. 

Watson, Richard. The Life of the Rev. John Wesley, A.M., Sometime Fellow of 
Lincoln College, Oxford, and Founder of the Methodist Societies. Eighth edition. 
12mo, pp. viii, 485. London, 1851. 

Wedgewood, Julia. John Wesley and the Evangelical Reaction of tiie Eighteenth 
Century. 12mo, pp. viii, 412. London, 1870. (An impartial history, and of 
much value.) 

Wesley His Own Biographer. Selections from the Journals of the Rev. John 
Wesley, A.M., Sometime Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. With the Origi- 
nal Account of his Death. 8vo, pp. 640. London, 1891. 

Whitehead, John. The Life of the Rev. John Wesley, M.A. Selected from his 
private papers and printed works ; and written at the request of his executors. 
To whicli is prefixed some account of his ancestors and relations ; with the 
life of the Rev. Charles Wesley, M.A. Collected from his private journal, and 
never before published. The whole forming a history of Methodism, in which 
the principles and economy of the Methodists are unfolded. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 
xvi, 500, 507. London, 1793-96. Also Boston, 1844, and Auburn, 1854. 

(3) Whitefield and His Followers. 

Belcher, Joseph. George Whitefield. A Biography with Special Reference to His 
Labors in America. 12mo, pp. 514. New York. No date. 

Gillies, John. Memoirs of the Life of the Rev. George Whitefield, Late Chaplain to 
the Right Hon. the Countess of Huntingdon. 8vo, pp. xvi, 357. London, 1772. 

Gledstone, James Paterson. The Life and Travels of George Whitefield, M.A. 8vo, 
pp. xii, 533. London, 1871. 

Hay, David. George Whitefield, or Consecrated Eloquence. 18mo, pp. vii, 71. 
London, 1867. 

Life and Times of Selina, Countess of Huntingdon. By a Member of the Houses of 
Shirley and Hastings. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xxxii, 488; xxiv, 544. London, 1844. 

Philip, Robert. The Life and Times of the Rev. George Whitefield, M.A. Svo, pp. 
ix, 554. New York, 1838. 

The First Two Parts of His Life^ with His Journals, Revised, Corrected, and Abridged 
by George Whitefield, B.A., Chaplain to the Right Hon. the Countess of Hunt- 
ingdon. 18mo, pp. 446. London, 1756. 

Tyerman, Luke. The Life of the Rev. George Whitefield, of Pembroke College, Ox- 
ford. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. X, 561 ; viii, 645. London, 1877. (This is the best life of 
Whitefield.) 

(4) OiJier Leaders of the Evangelical Revival. 

Benson, Joseph. The Life of the Rev. John W. De La Flechiere. Compiled from the 
Narrative of the Rev. Mr. Wesley, the Biographical Notes of the Rev. Mr 
Gilpin, from His Own Letters, and Other Authentic Documents, Many of Which 
Were Never Before Published. 12mo, pp. 357. New York. No date. Also 
London, 1804. 

Blanshard, Thomas W. The Life of Samuel Bradburii, the Methodist Demosthenes. 
12mo, pp. xi, 292. London, 1870. 

Bradburn, Eliza Weaver. Memoirs of the Late Rev. Samuel Bradburn. Consisting 
principally of a narrative of his early life written by himself, and extracts from 
a journal whicli he kept upward of forty years. To which is added a selection 
from his manuscripts. 12mo, pp. xi, 23Y. London, 1816. 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 363 

Clarke, J. B. B. (Editor). An Account of ihe Infancy, Religious and Literary LiTe 
of Adam Clarke, LL.D., F. A.S., etc. Writ\cn by one who was iutimately 
acquainted with him from his boyliood to ihe sixtieth year of his age. 8v(>, 
3 vols., pp. xxxviii, 327; xxiv, 414; xxvii, 482. Loudon, 1833. Also in one 
vol., 8vo. New York, 1833. 

Coke, Thomas. Extracts of the Journals of the Rev. Dr. Coke's Three Visits to 
America. 12mo, pp. vi, 120. London, 1790. 

Drew, Samuel, The Life of the Rev. Thomas Coke, LL.D., Including in Detail Hs 
Various Travels and Extraordinary Missionary Exertions in England, Ireland, 
America, and the West Indies; with an Account of His Death on the 3d of 
May, 1814, While on a Missionary Voyage to the Island of Ceylon in the East 
Indies. 8vo, pp. xix, 391. New York, 1818. First edition, London, 1817. 

Etheridge, J. W. The Life of the Rev. Thomas Coke, D.C.L. 12mo, pp. viii, 450. 
London, 1860. 

Everett, James. Adam Clarke Portrayed. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. xiv, 348; iv, 344; 
iv, 503. London, 1843-49. 

Macdonald, Frederick W. .John W. Fletcher, of Madeley. 12mo, viii, 196. New 
York, 1886. (In Heroes of Chrietian History Series.) 

Treffry, Richard. Memoirs of the Rev. Joseph Benson. 12mo, pp. viii, 363. Lon- 
don, 1840. 

Tyerman, Luke. "Wesley's Designated Successor; the Life, Letters, and Literary 
Labors of the Rev. Jolm William Fletcher, Vicar of Madeley, Shropshire. 8vo, 
pp. xvi, 581. New York, 1883. 

(5) Leaders of the Evangelical Revival in the English Church. 

Aveling, Thomas W. Memorials of the Clayton Family, with Unpublished Corre- 
spondence of the Countess of Huntingdon, Lady Glenorchy, Rev. John Newton, 
A. Toplady, etc. 8vo, pp. xii, 516. London, 1867. 

Cadogan, William Bromley. Life of the Rev. William Romaine, M.A. In Vol. I of 
Romaine's Works. Svo, pp. ciii. London, 1813. 

Cecil, Richard. Memoirs of the Rev. John Newton, Late Rector of the United Par- 
ishes of St. Mary, Woolnooth, and St. Mary, Woolchurch Haw, Lombard Street, 
with General Remarks on His Life's Connexions and Character. Third edition. 
12mo, pp. 322. London, 1808. 

Hardy, R. Spence. William Grimshaw, Incumbent of Haworth, 1742-1763. 12ni0, 
pp. vii, 286. London, 1860. 

Milner, Mary. The Life of Isaac Milner, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of Carlisle, President of 
Queen's College, and Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. 
8vo. London, 1842. 

Myles, Wra. Life and Writings of Wm. Grimshaw, B.A., Minister of Haworth in 
the West Riding of the County of York. 18mo, pp. v, 199. Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne, 1806. 

Newton, John. The Letters of the Rev. John Newton, to wliich are Prefixed 
Memoirs of His Life by Rev. Richard Cecil. Svo, pp. vi, 380. New York, 
1845. 

Newton, John. Memoirs of the LiTe of the Late Rev. William Grimshaw, A.B., 
Minister of Haworth in the West Riding of the County of York. With Occa- 
sional Reflections in Six Letters to the Rev. Henry Foster. 18mo, pp. 159. 
London, 1814. 

Pratt, Josiah. Memoir of Richard Cecil, Prefixed to His Works. Svo, 4 vols. 
London, 1811. 



360 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Roberts, Win. Memoirs of the Life and Correspondence of Mrs. Hannah More. 
12ino, 2 vols., pp. iv, 484, 479. New York, 1835. 

Scott, Thomas. Letters and Papers of the Late Rev. Thomas Scott, never before 
pubHshed. With Occasional Observations. 12mo, pp. xii, 324. Boston, 1825. 

Smitli, Goldwin. Cowper. lu English Men of Letters. 12rao, pp. 128. New 
York, 1886. 

Stephen, Sir James. The Evangelical Succession; The Clapham Sect. Two Papgrs 
in Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. London, 1875. 

Temple, Richard. Memoirs of the Rt. Hon. John Lord Teignmouth, Governor- 
General of India, and First President of the British and Foreign Bible Society. 
12mo, pp. vi, 348. New York, 1859. 

Venn, Henry. Life, and a Selection from the Letters, of the Late Rev. Henry Venn, 
M.A., Successively Vicar of Hudderstield, Yorkshire, and Rector of Yelling, 
Huntingdonshire. The Memoir of His Life Drawn Up by the Late Rev. John 
Venn, M.A., Rector of Clapham, Surrey. Fourth edition. 8vo, pp. xvi, 594- 
London, 1836. 

Wilberforce, Robert, Isaac, and Samuel. The Life of William Wilberforce. 8vo, 
4 vols. London, 1838. Also 12mo, 5 vols., pp. x, 396, 464, 568, 397, 412. Lon- 
don, 1839. (The authors were the sons of William Wilberforce.) 

6. Tlie Anglo- Catholic Bevival of the Nineteenth Century. 

Abbott, Edwin A. The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. x, 
415; xii, 480. London, 1892. 

Bowden, John Edward. The Life and Letters of Frederick William Faber, Priest 
of the Oratory of St. Phihp. 12rao. London, 1869. New edition, 1888. 

Bricknell, W. Simcox. The Judgment of the Bishops upon the Tractarian Theology. 
A Complete Analytical Arrangement of the Charges Delivered by the Prelates 
of the Anglican Church from 1837 to 1842 inclusive, so far as they relate to 
the Tractarian Movement. 8vo, pp. viii, 753. Oxford, 1845. 

Browne, Edward George Kirwan. Annals of the Tractarian Movement from 1842 to 
1860. Third edition. 8vo, pp. 682. London, 1861. 

Candlish, R. S. Progress of Oxford Tractarianism, in the North British Review, 
vol. iii, p. 165. 

Church, R.W. The Oxford Movement, 1833-1845. ]2mo, pp. xii, 416. London, 
1892. (A very candid narrative. The Dean says that the Oxford Movement 
was a reaction against the Reform bill of 1832.) 

Churton, Edward. Memoir of Joshua Watson. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1861. (Has 
a reference to R. H. Fronde in Vol. II.) 

Coleridge, Sir J. T. A Memoir of the Rev. John Keble. Second edition. 12mo, 
2 vols., pp. xvi, 278; iv, 279-620. 

Collette, Charles Hastings. Dr. Newman and his Religious Opinions. 8vo, pp. xvi, 
200. London, 1866. 

EUicott, C. J. The Anglo- Catholic Movement, Past and Future, in the Princeton 
Review, 1878, p. 612. 

Faber, Francis A. A Brief Sketch of the Early Life of Rev. Frederick William Fa- 
ber. 8vo. London, 1869. 

Hampden, Henrietta. Some Memorials of Renn Dickson Hampden, Bishop of Here- 
ford. 8vo, pp. xiii, 284. London, 1871. 

Hare, Julius Charles. The Contest with Rome : A Charge to the Clergy of the 
Archdeaconry of Lewes, Delivered at the Ordinary Visitation in 1851. With 



LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 367 

notes especially in answer to Dr. Newman's Recent Lectures. 8vo, pp. vi, 346. 

London, 1852. (Notes C and D deal with tlie changes in Dr. Newman's view of 

Romanism.) 
Hewit, A. F. The Oxford Tractarian School, in the Catholic World, vol. xii, 

pp. 134. 
Button, Arthur "Wollastou, Cardinal Manning. 12mo, pp. vii, 260. Boston, 1892. 
Jennings, Henry J. Story of Cardinal Manning's Life. 8vo, pp. 150. London, 1882. 

(Of little value.) 
Letters and Correspondence of John Henry Newman, During his Life in the English 

Church. Edited by Anne Mozley. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 496,513. London, 1891. 

(In these volumes Newman acknowledges his obligations to the Evangelicals, 

in association with whom his active life began. He pays a high tribute to the 

character of Thomas Scott, the Evangelical commentator) 
Lilly, "W. S. Characteristics of Newman. 8vo, pp. 353. New York, 1875. 
Lilly, W. S. Cardinal Manning's Characteristics, Political, Philosophical, and Re- 
ligious. 8vo. New York, 1885. 
Lock, Walter. John Keble, a Biography. 12mo, pp. 245. Boston, 1893. 
Meynell, Wilfred. John Henry Newman, the Founder of Modern Anglicanism and 

a Cardinal of the Roman Church. 8vo. London and New York, 1890. 
Moor, John Frewen, Memorials of Rev. John Keble. Second edition. London, 

1867. 
Mozley, J. B. Remains of Richard Hurrell Fronde. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1837. 
Mozley, Thomas. Reminiscences Chiefly of Oriel College and tiie Oxibrd Movement. 

16mo, 2 vols. Boston, 1882. 
Newman, Francis W, Contributions Chiefly to the Early History of the Late Car- 
dinal Newman, with Comments. 12 mo. London and New York, 1892, 
Newman, John Ht^nry. Apologia Pro Yita Sua: Being a History of his Religious 

Opinions. 12mo, pp. 395. London, 1883; also New York, 1869. 
Palmer, William. A Narrative of Events Connected with the Publication of the 

Tracts for the Times, etc. Second edition. 8vo, pp. x, 115. London, 1843. 

(Reviewed by Henry Rogers in the Edinburgli Review, October, 1844, p. 309.) 
Palmer, William. The Oxford Movement of 1833, in the Contemporary Review, 

vol. xliii, p. 636, sq. 
Pattison, Mark. The Oxford Movement and Oriel College, in Tlie Academy, vol. 

xxii, p. 1. 
Pattison, Mark. Memoirs. 12mo, pp. vi, 334, London, 1885. 
Paul, Charles K. Biographical Sketches. 8vo. London, 1883. (See for Life of 

Newman.) 
Rogers, Henry. Tlie Oxford Tractarian School, in the Edinburgh Review, vol. Ixx, 

pp. 501. 
Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn. The Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold. 8vo, 

2 vols, in one, pp. xxv, 400. New York, 1877. (Arnold is strongly polemic 

against the Tractarians.) 
Tracts for the Times. By Members of tlie University of Oxford. New edition. 

8vo, 5 vols. London, 1839-40. 
(Various replies to the Tracts were published on their appearance, which in turn 

called forth rejoinders. Some of the replies were written hy John Bird Sumner, 

Bishop of Chester; Tliomas Arnold, of Rugby; W. Gresley, Prebendary of 

Lichfield; Daniel Wilson, Yicar of Islington; Christopher Benson, Master 

of the Temple; p]. C. Harrington, Prebendary of Exeter; James Garbett, Rector 

of Clayton, Sussex; William Goode, Rector of All Hallowes, London; the 



368 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Bishop of Exeter ; Godfrey Faussett Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity in 
Magdalen College; Charles Goddard, Archdeacon of Lincoln, and others of less 
note. Newman, Pusey, and W. F. Hook made rejoinders to some of these 
writers. It is almost impossible to find a collection of these invaluable replies. 
Such a collection bound in nine octavo volumes is at present, liowever, in the 
library of Drew Theological Seuiinary.) 

Tulloch, John. Movements of Religious Thought in Great Britain During the Nine- 
teenth Century. St. Giles Lectures. 12mo, pp. xi, 338. (Chapters II and III 
treat of the Oxford Movement.) 

Ward, Wilfred. William George Ward and the Oxford Movement. 8vo, pp. xxxi, 
481. London, 1890. 

Ward, Wilfred. William George Ward and the Catholic Revival. 8vo, pp. xlvi, 468. 
London and New York, 1893. 

White, J. W. Genesis of the Oxford Movement, in the Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. xlvi, 
p. 654; also vol. xlvii, p. 4. 

Williams, Isaac, The Autobiography of. Edited by the Yen. Sir George Prevost. 
As throwing further light on the history of tlie Oxford movement. 12mo, pp. 
vi, 186. London, 1892. (A beautiful picture of a saintly life. Williams is most 
candid in all his statements.) 

Wiseman, N. PJssays. 3 vols. London, 1853. (Yolume II has several references 
to the Tractarian Movement.) 

7. TIlc Modern Church Ptriud. 

Alexander, Archibald. Biographical Sketches of the Founder and Principal Alumni 
of the Log College. 12 mo, pp. 279. Pliiladelphia, no date. (A valuable con- 
tribution to the history of religion and education intiie middle United States.) 

Amherst, W. J. The History of Catholic Emancipation and the Progress of the 
Catholic Church, in the British Isles, from 17T1-1820. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 331, 
355. London, 1886. (Not an impartial account.) 

Arthur, WiUiam. Italy in Transition: Public Scenes and Private Opinions in the 
Spring of 1860. Illustrated by Official Documents from the Papal Archives of 
the Revolted Legations. 12mo, pp. vi, 429. New York, 1860. (An account 
of the overthrow of the temporal power of the Pope, and also of the character 
of the papal government in the Romagna in the period immediately preceding 
annexation to Italy.) 

Arthur, William. Tiie Pope, the Kings, and the People. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xl, 424; 
viii, 526. London, 1877. (This is the best account we have, by an English writer, 
of the proceedings of the Yatican Council of 1870. The papal syllabus of 1864 
is given in the Appendix, with the counter propositions of Schrader.) 

Blunt, John H. A Key to the Knowledge of Church History Ancient and Modern. 
8vo. London, 1872. 

Brown, Thomas. Annals of the Disruption, With Extracts from the Narratives of 
Ministers who left the Scottish Establishment in 1843. 8vo, pp. xviii, 841. 
Edinburgh. 1884. 

Buell, Samuel, Translator. Report of the Union Conferences, held from August 10 
to 16, 1875, at Bonn, under the Presidency of Dr. Yon DoUinger. Indited by 
Dr. Fr. Heinrich Reusch. 12mo, pp. 200. New York, 1875. (The object of 
this Conference was to settle upon terms of agreement between the Anglicans, 
the Orthodox Greeks, and the dissenters from the Roman Catholic Yatican Coun- 
cil of 1870.) 



AUXILIARIES OF CHURCH HISTORIES. 369 

Carroll, H. K. The Religious Forces of the United States : Enumerated, Classified, 
and Described on the Basis of the Governraent Census of 1890, 8vo, pp. 449. 
New York, 1893. (The author was placed by the United States Government in 
charge of the division of churches, in the Eleventh Census. This is the first 
volume of the American Church History Series:) 

Chustel, Etienne. Christianity in the Nineteenth Century. A Religious and Philo- 
sophic Survey of the Immediate Past, according to the Spirit of Jesus. Trans- 
lated by J. R. Beard. London, 1874. 

DAlviella, Count Goblet, The Contemporary Evolution of Religious Thought in 
England, America, and India. Translated by J. Moder. Svo, pp. xv, 344. New 
York, 1886. 

DAubigne, J. H. Merle. History of the Protestant Clnirch in Hungary to 1850. 
Translated by the Rev. J, Craig, D.D,, with an Introduction by J. 11. Merle 
DAubigne, D.D. Svo, pp. xxviii, 464. London, 1844. 

Dorchester, Daniel. Christianity in the United States. From the first settlement 
down to the present time. 4to, pp. 795. New York, 1888. 

Hagenbach, Karl Rudolph. History of the Church in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth 
Centuries. Translated by John F. Hurst. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xii, 504; vi, 487. 
New York, 1869. 

Lloyd, Julius. Sketches of Church History in Germany. 12mo. London, 1882. 

Rogers, J. Guinness. The Church Systems of England in the Nineteenth Century. 
The Sixth Congregational Lecture. Svo, London, 1881. (An estimate of the 
various branches of Protestantism from a Nonconformist standpoint.) 

SECTION XTIL 
AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 

The auxiliaries to Church History are : 
I. Material 

1. A knowledge of the general history of the world, more par- 
ticularly as connected with the general histor}^ of religion ; of phi- 
losophy and the sciences ; and of art, especially Christian art. 

2. The Geography of the Church. 

3. The Chronology of the Church. 
II. Instrumental. 

1. Acquaintance with the languages necessary for the study of 
sources. This is Ecclesiastical Philology. 

2. The antiquarian skill needed for judging of the value of 
sources, monuments, and documents. This we call Church Diplo- 
matics. 

GENERAL HISTORY. 

I. 1. The importance of familiarity with the general history of the 
world will be apparent without discussion. Not only does church 
history, as an integral part of the history of the world intimate reia- 
and the human race, assume the latter, but the two *\°°^ °^ ^5°^^^ 

' ' al and church 

often pass over into each other to some extent, as, for history. 

instance, in the Middle Ages. Hence, in this special field, non-the- 



370 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

ological and theological writers find a common ground.' Nor may 
we forget that the history of Christianity, which certaiidy should 
not be lost sight of in the history of the Church, covers a larger 
surface than church history itself. To oppose the history of the 
world to the latter, as being merely profane history, would be to 
commit serious error. "This is a mode of judging," says Rothe, 
" in connexion with which the Christian element in liistory will in- 
evitably appear to become more and more exhausted as time goes 
on, and the history of the Christian world become the history of 
the self-efiected dissolution of Christianity, according to a view 
that has now become popular." ^ 

Nor may the ecclesiastical historian disregard the history of other 
religions, among which the history of the Israelites is most nearly 
related to Christianity, so that Old Testament history becomes at 
this point an auxiliary to church history. Not only did the arrange- 
ments of the early Church grow out of the later organization of the 
Jewish synagogues, but the whole of the Middle Ages presents to 
view, in certain aspects, a repetition of Israelitish history, such as ' 
the hierarchy, the temple service, the Levitical institution, the uni- 
fying of Church and State, intolerance, and the parallel between 
Mohammedan- D^vid and Charlemagne. The history of Mohamme- 
ism. danism is important for a proper conception of the 

Spanish, and also of the Greek and later Oriental, churches, as well 
as for the Crusades. But Hellenism and Paganism should also 
arrest the attention of the church historian. For the peculiarities 
of Christianity, whose historical development he is to describe, can 
only be recognized by contrast with non-Christian institutions. 
Need of knowi- The significance of Christianity in universal history 
edge of the an- cannot be scientifically understood without acquaintance 

cient world , ^ ... 

and its faiths, with the ancient world and its religions. Nor does the 
fact that the delineation of church history in general will connect 
itself with descriptions of the religious state of the ancient world 
constitute the oidy important feature. For the missionary history 
of every country will always embrace the two leading elements of a 
description of what previously existed, and a statement of what 
subsequently took its place. The material for religious history will, 

^ We cite, in illustration, Raumer's Gesch. d. Hohenstaufen, and similar works. 
An acquaintance with the literature of general history is taken for granted. Comp. 
Gieseler, Church History, vol. i, p. 19, notes. 

2 Rothe, Debatte iiber d. Prot. Verein, in Sclienkel's Zeitschr, vol, v, p. 302. 
Whether church history is to pass over into tiie history of the world, " since the 
stream of Christianity has formed a new bed, namely, the civil and moral, into 
which it now courses from its temporary channel, the ecclesiastical," is a diflEerent 
question, which we leave untouched for the present. 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 371 

consequently, increase in quantity in proportion as the continued 
expansion of Christianity provides a constant supply of new mate- 
rial for church history. 



HISTORY OF RELIGIONS. 
English and American Literature. 

I. GENERAL. 

Baring- Gould, S. Origin and Development of Religious Belief. 2 vols,, pp. 810. 
New York, 1878. (Written from a philosophic point of view; not even the ex- 
istence of a God is assumed.) 

Barth, A. The Rehgions of India. Authorized Translation by Rev. J. "Wood. Sec- 
ond edition. 8vo. pp. xxiv, 309. London, 1889. 

Chambers, John David. The Theological and Pliilosophical "Works of Hermes Tris- 
megistus, Christian Neo-Platonist, translated from the Original Greek with 
Preface, Notes, and Indices. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1882, and also Cincinnati. 

Chambers, John David. Sacred Books of the East. Vol. X. Part I. The Dham- 

mapada, translated from Pali by F. M;ix Miiller, pp. Iv, 99. Part II. The 

Sutta-Nipata, translated from Pali by V. Fausboll, pp. xvi, 224. Oxford, 1881. 

Yol. xi, Buddhist Suttas, translated from Pali by T. W. Rhys Davids, pp. xlviii, 

320. Oxford. 1881. 

Clarke, J. R. Ten Great Religions : an Essay in Comparative Theology. Svo, 
2 vols., pp. 528. Boston, 1871. 

Cobbe, F. P. Prehistoric Religion. Religions of the World, etc. (In Darwinism, 
Morals, and other ]<]ssays.) 8vo, pp. 400. London, 1872. 

Cocker, B. F. Christianity and Greek Philosopliy. 8vo, pp. x, 531. New York. 
1875. ■ 

Conway, M. D. Sacred Antliology : Book of Ethnical Scriptures. 8vo. New York, 
1875. 

Davids, T. W. Rhys. The Hibbert Lectures, 1881. Lectures on the Origin and 
Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Some Points in the Histor}' of Indian Bud- 
dhism. 8vo, pp. vii, 262. New York, 1882. (Six' lectures on different phases 
of Buddliism, with which other fo'-ms of faith may be easily compared.) 

Edkins, Joseph. Religion in China. 8vo, pp. 276. London, 1888. 

Faber, G. W. Origin of Pagan Idolatry. 8vo, 3 vols. London; 1816. 

Ffoulkes, E. S. F. Christendom's Divisions. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xxv, 258; xii, 601. 
London, 18G5-67. 

Gardner, J. The Faiths of the World. 8vo., 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1858-60. 

Goodsir, J. T. Seven Homilies on Ethnic Inspiration. Svo. London, 1871. 

Hard wick, C. Christ and Other Masters, London, 1863. Second edition, Svo, 
2 vols., pp. xvi, 3S3; vii, 461. Third edition, Svo, 1 vol., pp. xviii, 592. Lon- 
don, 1874. 

Jacob, G. A. A Manual of Hindu Pantheism. A Translation with copious annota- 
tions of the Yedantasara, pp. x, 129. London, 1881. (The wo k is an epitome 
of Indian philosophy, furnishing accurate information to all whu have not time 
for original research. 

Johnson, S. Oriental Religions and their Relation to Universal Religion. Svo, pp. 
viii, 802. Boston, 1872. 



373 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Kellogg, S. H. A Review of Professor Max Miiller's " Origin and Growth of Relig- 
ion." Pp.26. Bibliotheca Sacra, 1884, p. 132. (The object of Professor Miil- 
ler's lectures is to show how man rose in India by a natural method from a state 
of no religion to monotheism.) 

Kuenen, A. National Religions and Universal Religions. The Hibbert Lectures, 
1882. 12mo, pp. xii, 365. New York, 1882. (Aims to account tor the religions 
of the world by means of a Theory of Development, not formulated, butcleaily 
seen in the plan of the work.) 

Lang, Andrew. Custom and Myth. 12mo, pp. 312, New York, 1885. 

Legge, James. The Religions of China. Confucianism and Taoism Described and 
Compared with Christianity. 12mo. New York, 1880. 

Lenormant, F. Chaldean Magic: Its Origin and Development. Translated from the 
French, with Considerable Additions, by tlie Author, and Notes by the Editor. 
London, 187Y. 

Macdonald, K. S. The Vedic Religion ; or, The Creed and Practice of the Indo- 
Aryans Three Thousand Years Ago. 12mo. London, 1881. 

Macka}', R. W. Progress of the Intellect, as Exemplified in the Religious Develop- 
ment of the Greeks and Hebrews. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1850. 

Maurice, F. D. The Religions of the World and their Relations to Christianity. Svo. 
London, 1876. 

Moffat, J. C. A. Comparative History of Religions. 12mo, 2 vols. New York, 1874, 

Miiller, Max. Lectures on the Science of Religion, with a Paper on Buddhist 
Nihilism, and a Translation of the Dliammapada, or "Patli of Virtue." 12mo, 
pp. iv, 300. New York, 1877. 

Miiller, Max. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by 
the Rehgions of India. (Hibbert Lectures.) Svo, pp. xvi, 382. New York, 
1879. 

Nanj'io, B. A Short History of the Twelve Japanese Buddhist Sects. Translated 
from the Original Japanese. 12mo, pp. 172. Tokyo, 1886. 

Parks, Leighton, His Star in the East. A Study in the Early Aryan Religions, 
12mo, pp. 292. Boston, 1887, 

Pressense, E. de. The Religions Before Christ. Being an Introduction to the His- 
tory of the First Three Centuries of the Church. Translated by L. Corkran. 
Svo, pp. 268. Edinburgh, 1S62, 

Rawlinson, George. Egypt and Babylon. From Sacred and Profane Sources. 
Svo. London, 1884; also New York. 

Rawlinson, George. Tlie Religions of the Ancient "World; including Egypt, Assyria 
and Babylonia, Persia, India, Phoenicia, Etruria, Greece, and Rome. 12mo, pp. 
249. New York, 1883. 

Rawlinson, George. The Contrasts of C ristianity with Heathen and Jewish Sj's- 
tems. Svo. London, 1861. 

Rawlinson, George, The Origin of Nations, 12mo, pp. xiv, 283. New York, 1881. 

Reid, J, M., Editor, Doomed Religions. A Series of Essays on Great Religions oftlu^ 
World; with a Preliminary Essay on Primordial Religion. 12mo, pp. 455. 
New York, 1 884. (Mohammedanism, Brahnianism. Parseeism, Buddhism, Taoism, 
Shintoism, Confucianism are all treated. Plas a List of Books on the subjects.) 

Reville, Albert. The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru. Translated by P. II. 
Wicksteed, (The Hibbert Lectures of 1884.) 12mo, pp. 212, New York, 
1884. (A thorough discussion in small compass.) 

Rhys, D, T. W. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion. Svo, pp. vii, 262. 
London, 1882. 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 373 

The Faiths of the World. St. Giles Lectures. 12mo, pp. vi, 364. New York, 1882. 
(A condensed account of ihe beliefs of the world Iro'n extensive studies by well- 
known scholars.) 

Thiele, C. P. History of the Eiryptian Religion. Translated by James Ballingal. 
8vo. London, 1878. (The Paris edition of 1885 contains a bibliography of the 
subject.) 

Tyler, W. S. The Theology of the Greek Poets. Andover, 1870. 

Tylor, Fj. B. Primitive Culture : Kesearches into the Development of Mytliology, 
Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xii, 502 ; 
viii, 470. New York, 1877. 

Vinet, A. Vital Christianity : Essays and Discourses on the Religions of Man and 
the Religion of God. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1851. 

Whitney, W. D. Orienial and Linguistic Studies. The Veda ; The Avesta ; The 
Science of Language. 12mo, pp. vii, 416. New York, 1873. 

Whitney, W. D. Oriental and Linguistic Studies. Second Series. The East and 
West; Religion and Mythology; Orthogrnphy and Phonology ; Hindu Astron- 
omy. 12mo, pp. ix, 431, New York, 1874. 

II. MOHAMMEDANISM. 

Arnold, J. M. The Koran and the Bible; or, Islam and Christianity. 8vo. London, 
1866. 

Bose, Ram Chandra. Mohammedanism, an Essay in "Doomed Religions," pp. 34-1 1 5. 

De Lamartine, A. History of Turkey. Translated. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. 403, 394, 
431. New York, 1855. (Book I is a discussion and history of Mahomet.) 

Deutsch, E. Islam. Literary Remains, pp. 59-134. 8vo. London, 1874. (There 
is in this essay a fine description of the personal appearance and manners of 
Mahomet.) 

Fiske, E. F. The Respective Peculiarities in Creeds of the Mohammedan and the 
Hindoo, wh'ch Stand in the Way of Conversion to the Christian Faith. Cam- 
bridge, 1850. 

Freeman, Edward A. The History and Conquest of the Saracens. Six Lectures. 
12mo, pp. XXX, 203. London, 1877. 

Freeman, ?"dward A. The Ottoman Power in Europe : Its Nature, its Growth, and 
its Decline. 12mo, pp. xxii, 315. London, 1877. (The last chapter, on ''The 
Practical Question," is a strong appeal. for the expulsion of the Turks from 
Europe.) 

Hughes, Thomas Patrick. A Dictionary of Islam, being a Cyclopaedia of the Doc- 
trines, Rites. Ceremonies, and Customs, together with the Technical and Theolog- 
ical Terms, of the Mohammedan Religion. 4to, pp. vii, 750. London, 1885. 

Lees, James C. Moliammedanism in " The Faiths of the World." St. Giles Lec- 
tures. 12mo, pp. 364. New York, 1882. 

Macbride, J. B. Mohammedan Religion Explained. 12mo. London, 1857. 

Muir, William. Annnls of the E.irly Caliphate. 8vo, pp. xix, 470. London, 1883. 
With a Map. (A Review of the beginnings of Mohammedanism.) 

Muir, Sir William. The Life of Mahomet from Original Sources. New edition. 8vo, 
pp. xi, 613. London, 1877. (Abridged from the first edition in four volumes. 
The Standard Life of Mahomet.) 

Muir, Sir William. The Caliphate : Its Rise, Decline, and Fall. From Original 
Sources. Second edition. 8vo, pp. xv, 612. London, 1892. 

Neale, F. A. Islamism: Its Rise and Progress; or, The Present and Past Condition 
of the Turks. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 365, 315. London, 1854. 



374 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Osborn, Robert D. Islam Under the Khalifs of Baghdad. 8vo, pp. xii, 406. Lon- 
don, 1878. 

Palgrave, W. G. Essays on Eastern Questions. 8vo. London, 1872. 

Smith, R, B. Mohammed and Mohammedanism. 12mo, pp. xvii, 388. London, 1874. 

Southgate, Horatio. Narrative of a Tour Through Armenia, Kurdistan, Persia, and 
Mesopotamia. 12mo, 2 vols,, pp. 324, 356. New York, 1840. (The Introductory 
Chapter of 54 pages discusses the "groundwork of Mohammedanism.") 

Stobart, J. H. W. Islam and Its Founder. 12mo, pp. 254. London, 1876. 

Taylor, W. C. History of Mohammedanism and its Sects. 12mo. London, 1851. 

Wherry, E. M. A Comprehensive Commentary on the Quran ; comprising Salu's 
Translation and Preliminary Discourse, with Additional Notes and Emendations. 
Together with a Complete Index to the Preliminary Discourse and Notes. Vol. 
L 12mo, pp. 391. Boston and New York, 1882. 

Williams, W. R. Eras and Characters of History. 12mo, pp.286. New York, 
1882. (Chapter vii discusses " Maliometanism.") 

PHILOSOPHY. 

Christianity came into relation with the ancient systemi of 
philosophy as with the ancient religions. It brought witli it no new 
philosophy, indeed, though many philosophically cultured Chris- 
tians, such as Justin Martyr, believed it did ; but its contents 
presented themselves at once to philosophic thought as an object of 
speculation. Hence arose the influence of Platonism and Aristote- 
lianism. As, during the Middle Ages, the external history of the 
Church coincides with that of the world and of nations, so the theol- 
ogy of the Church and the philosophy of individual thinkers inter- 
penetrate each other in scholasticism. The most recent phenomena 
in tlie territory of the theological world, moreover, are utterly in- 
comprehensible without a familiar acquaintance with the immense 
revolution in philosophical ideas that has taken place since the be- 
ginning of the last century. No person will, accordingly, be likely 
to question the importance of a knowledge of the history of philoso- 
phy in this connexion. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF THE HISTORY OF PHI- 

LOSOPHY. 

Cousin, Victor. Course of the History of Modern Philosophy. Translated b}- 0. 

W. Wight. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. viii, 452, 439. New York, 1852. (Much space is 

given by Cousin to the Consideration of the Philosophy of Locke.) 
Henry, D. S., Translator. An Epitome of the History of Piiilosophy. From the 

French, with Additions. 16mo, 2 vols., pp. vi, 276 ; xii, 311. New York, 1841. 

(A compact manual. The original was adopted as a text-book for colleges {\nd 

schools by the University of France.) 
Lewes, George Henry. From Thales to Comte. Svo, 2 vols., pp. Ixi, 407 ; x, 663. 

London, 1867. (Written in the interest of Positivism. The contention is that 

all systems prior to that of Comte have utterl}" failed to satisfy the demands of 

the human mind.) 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 375 

Mackinto?h, Sir James. Dissertation on the Progress of Etliical Philosophy Chiefly 
During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. With a Preface by Williani 
Whewell. 8vo, pp. 299. Philadelphia, 1845. (The history of Modern Ethics 
is confined to English and Scotch writers.) 

Masson, David. Recent British Philosopliy: A Review with Criticisms. 12mo, pp. 
335. New York, 1866. (On pages 23-29 there is a list of British writers on 
Speculative Philosophy from the early part of the century to 1865.) 

Morrell, J. D. An Historical and Criticil View of the Speculative Philosophy of 
Europe in the Nineteenth Century. 8vo, pp. xviii, V52. New York, 1851. 
(This is perhaps the most comprehensive account in English of Nineteenth 
Century Philosophy.) 

Tenneman, W. G. Manual of the History of Philosophy. Translated by A. Johnson. 
12tno, pp. xii, 532. Oxtbrd, 1833. Also Revised, Enlarged, and Corrected by J. R. 
Morrell. London, 1852. 

Ueberweg, Fre'drich. A History of Philosophy from Thales to the Present Time. 
Translated by George S. Morris. With additions by Noah Porter. 8vo, 2 vols., 
pp. XV, 487 ; viii, 561. New York, 1874. (Vol. I contains the History of An- 
cient and Mediaeval Philosophy. Vol. IT, Modern Philosophy. Appendix I 
furnishes a valuable sketch of Philosophy in Great Britain and America, by Dr. 
Noah Porter, and Appendix II a Sketch of Modern Philosophy" in Italy, by 
Vincenzo Botta ) 

The history of other sciences, with the whole of the history of 
literature and culture, also belongs within the Church historian's 
circle of knowledge, and should not be disregarded by him. 
Church history often derives assistance from the history of juris- 
prudence, of commerce, of war, and of medicine. A specially im- 
portant aid, however, is found in the history of Christian art as 
connected with the history of the progress of culture. Compare 
Archaeoloo^v and Liturofics. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
1. CULTUKE AND LITERATURE. 

•Buckle, II. T. History of Civilization in England, France, Spain, and Scotland. 
Xew edition. 8vo, 3 vols. London, 1S78. 

Draper, J. W. A History of the Intellectual Development of Europe. Revised edi- 
tion. 8vo, 2vols. New York, 1876. 

Gu'zot, F. The History of Civilization from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the 
French Revolution. Translated by Wm. Hazlitt. 12mo, 4 vols. New York, 
1859. 

Mackinnon, AV. A. History of Civilization. 12mo, 2 vols. London, 1846. 

2. ARCHITECTURE AND ART. 

Audsley, W. and G. Handbook of Christian Symbolism. 8vo, pp. 145. London, 
1865. (The symbols and monograms used by the early Church.) 

Bowler, George. Chapel and Churcii Architecture, with Designs for Parsonages. 
Folio. Boston, 1856. (Mainly a book of plates.) 

Caveler, William. Select Specimens of Gothic Architecture. 4to, plates -77. Lon- 
don, 1839. 
2.J 



376 PIISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Clement, C. E. A Handbook of Legendary and Mythological Art. 8vo. Thirteenth 

edition. Boston, 1881. New York, 1872. 
Clement, C. B. Painters, Sculptors, Architects, Engravers, and their Works. Sixth 

edition. 8vo. New York, 1881. 
Close, T. Church Architecture, Scripturally Considered from the Earliest Ages to 

the Present Time. I'imo, pp. 112. London, 1844. 
Hopkins, John H. Essay on Gothic Architecture, with various plans and drawings 

for churches. 4to, pp.46, plates 13. Burlington, Yt., 1836. 
Jameson, Mrs. A. The History of our Lord as Exemplified in Works of Art ; with 

that of His Types: St. John the Baptist, and other Persons of the Old and New 

Testaments. New edition. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1872. 
Jameson, Mrs. A. Legends of the Madonna. New edition. 8vo. London, 1879. 
Jameson, Mrs. A. Sacred and Legendary Art. New edition. 8vo, 2 vols. Lon- 
don, 1879. 
Jobson, P. J. Chapel and School Architecture as Appropriate to the Buildings of 

Nonconformists. 8 vo, pp. 191. London, 1850. 
Norton, C. E. Historical Studies of Church Building in the Middle Ages. Yenice, 

Siena, Florence. 8vo, pp. vi, 331. New York, 1880. 
Parker, John Henry. A Concise Glossary of Terms used in Grecian, Romnn, Italian, 

and Gothic Architecture. 1 6m o, pp. 335. Second edition. London, 1888. (An 

excellent book for the beginner in these studies.) 
Pocock, W. P. Designs for Churches and Chapels. 4to, pp. 28, plates 44. London, 

1824. 
Poole, G. A. History of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England, 8vo. London, 1848. 
Pugin, A. and A. W. Examples of Gothic Architecture. 4to, 3 a'-oIs. With many 

plates. London, 1850. 
Pugin, A. W. The True Principles of Pointed or Cliristian Architecture: 4to, pp. 

51. London, 1853. 
Pugin, A. W. The Present State of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England. 8vo, 

pp. 158. With numerous plates. London, 1843. 
:Scott, G. G. An Essay on the History of English Church Arcliitecture Prior to the 

Separation of England from the Roman Obedience. Folio. London, 1881. 
:Scott, G. G. Lectures on the Rise and Development of Mediaeval Architecture. 

Illustrated. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1879. 
.Sharpe, E. Seven Periods of English Architecture. 8vo. London, 1871. 
:Smith, T. Roger. Architecture, Gothic and Renaissance. 12mo, pp. xxxix, 236. 

London, 1884. (One of the Handbooks on Art Education, edited by Edward 

J. Poynter and Professor Roger Smith.) 
Street, G. E. Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain. 8vo, pp. 527. Lon- 
don*, 1865. 
Tyrwhitt, R. St. John. The Art Teaching of the Primitive Church. 12rao, pp. x, 

382. London, no date. 
Wills, Frank. Ancient English Ecclesiastical Architecture and its Principles Applied 

to the Wants of the Church at the Present Day. 4to, pp. 120. With plates. 

New York, 1850. 

2. Ecclesiastical geography differs from political in the fact that 
countries are divided up according to their ecclesiastical relations. 
The Christian countries are separated from the non-Christian ; and, 
within the limits of the former, tlie denominational are distinguished 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 377 

from the iinconfessional by boundaries, while the territory era- 
braced within the limits of a single ecclesiastical organization is 
further subdivided into the politico-ecclesiastical sections covered by 
patriarchates, dioceses, parishes, and other subdivisions. The 
places are topographically distinguished — with all of which the re- 
markable facts in Church history stand connected. In studies we 
must connect geographical charts with historical tables. It is also 
proper to adduce ecclesiastical statistics in connexion with the geog- 
raphy. But the former, considered as the science of ecclesiastical 
conditions, is rather a product of Church history than an auxiliary 
science.^ The aggregate resulting from the past is represented in the 
present. We may name the following as important works : 

Droysen, G. Allgeme'ner historischer Handatlas : in Sechsundneunzig Karten mit 

Erlaiiterndem Text, Folio, pp. 92. Leipsic, 1886. 
Freeman, Edward A, The Historical Geography of Europe. Second edition. 8vo, 

2 vols., pp. xlviii, 629. Vol. II, Ixv plates. London, 1882. 
Labberton, Robert H. Historical Atlas, containing a Chronological Series of One 

Hundred Colored Maps, Illustrating Successive Periods from the Dawn of History 

to the Present Day. 8vo, pp. xl. Philadelphia, 1872. New edition. &vo, pp. 

213. New York. 1886. 
Piitz, Wilhelm. Handbook of Mediaeval Geography and History. Translated from 

the German by Rev. R. B. Paul, M.A. 12mo, pp. 223. New York, 1850. 
"Wiltsch, J. E. T. Atlas sacer s. ecclesiasticus. Gotha, 1843 sq. Englisli edition, 

translated by John Leitch. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1859. ^ 

3. Ecclesiastical chronology is identified with chrono^logy in gen- 
eral. The different eras are of special importance. The following 
are the best works in this department : 

Jarvis, S. F. A Chronological Introduction to the History of the Church. 8vo, pp. 

634. New York, 1845. 
Riddle, J. E. Ecclesiastical Chronology; or, Annals of the Christian Church, from 

its Foundation to the Present Time. 8vo, pp. 510. London, 1848. 
Smith, Henry B. History of the Church of Christ in Chronological Tables. Folio, 

pp. 93. Revised edition. Xew York, 1875. (A valuable text accompanies the 

tables, and there is a copious index.) 

II. 1. Ecclesiastical j^hilology. This is generally understood to 
designate the knowledge of ecclesiastical Greek and Latin, and it is 
upon this soil that the language of the Church has actually secured 
its chief development in the accumulation of ecclesiastical ideas. 
But, in reality, the language of every people to whom the Gospel 
has forced its way — and it is destined to be proclaimed in all the 

' Older works by Clericup, Spanlieim, Bingham, and others; see Gieseler (Amer. 
edition), vol. i, pp. 16, 17. The works of Staudlin, Wiggers, and Wiicsch: see 
under Statistics. 



378 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

tongues of the earth — is within the range of ecclesiastical philology. 
This applies to the different Oriental languages, the speech of the 
Occident during the Middle Ages, and the modern tongues of 
Europe and other lands. To trace the ecclesiastical language of 
Germany through its development by the mystics, Luther, the piet- 
ists, and the influence of modern philosophy, would prove a serious 
task. Much remains to be done with reference to the etymology 
of^German ecclesiastical terms. The best authorities are : 

Adelung, J. C. Glossariura manuale ad scriptores mediae et infimae Latinitatis. 

Halle, 1772-84. 6 vols. 
Carpentier, P. Glossarium novum ad scriptores raediiaevi cum latinos turn gallicos, 

Par., 1766. 4 vols., 4. 
Diez, F. C. Etymolog.Worterb. derroman. Sprachen. Bonn, 1855. Third edition, 1874. 
iDu Cange, C. Glossariura ad scriptores mediae et infimae Latinitatis (1678) ; ed. 

nova, opere et stud. Monachor. ord. S. Benedicti. Par., 1733-36. 6 vols., f. 

New edition, by G. Henscliel. Par., 1840 ff. 7 vols., 4. 
Hoffmaim, G. Gesch. des Kirchenlateins. 1st vol., 1st part. Bresl., 1879. 
Ronscli, H. Itala und Vulgata. Das Sprachidiom der urchristliclien Itala und der 

katholisclien Yulgata unter Beriicksichtigungder romischen Volkssprache durch 

Beispiele erlautert. Marb. (Lpz.), 1869. Second edition, 1875. 
Suicer, J. Cp. Thesaurus ecclesiasticus e Patribus graecis (1682). Second edition, 

Arnstel , 1728. 2 vols., f. 

2. Diplomatics is the science of diplomas, i. e., of original docu- 
ments (bulls, briefs, letters of institution or foundation, patents, 
etc.), with which numismatics, heraldry, and sphragistics are to be 
combined. 

SECTION XIY. 

SEPARATE BRANCHES OF HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

It is possible to separate special divisions of the life of the 
Church from the whole Held included within the range of Church 
history, and consider them in their separate development. In this 
regard the history of the system of Christian teaching comes most 
prominently into notice under the name of the History of Doctrines, 
and as endowed with a measure of independence. The next place i-; 
held by Patristics and Ecclesiastical Symbolics, and upon these fol- 
lows the history of iv^orship and of the constitution of the Church, 
under the name of Archaeology. The latter constitutes the histor- 
ical basis of practical theology, the others of dogmatic. 

The possibility of according a special treatment to precisely these 
branches is not the result of accident. Dogma, constitution, and 
worship are the principal elements in the life of the Church. The 
territorial expansion of Christianity and its i:>ersecutioiis constitutes 
the trunk fi'om which these branches rise. It is, of course, j^ossi- 



SEPARATE BRANCHES OF HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 379 

ble to consider the trunk itself alone. But it would result in fur- 
nishing but a barren picture so long as we look only to territorial 
extension and limitations. The History of Missions has, likewise, 
received separate treatment. But this will, whenever it is treated 
forcibly, itself expand into Church history in its earliest periods, 
inasmuch as the object must be to show how Chris- History of Mis- 
tianity was extended, what doctrines it taught, what sio^s. 
customs and manners it introduced, and what fruits it has pro- 
duced.* Or, it may be compressed into a monograph on the life of 
some distinguished herald of the faith. ^ It is only to recent His- 
tories of Missions that the name can be applied with propriety, and 
here, if regard be had chiefly to the impulse of missionary effort, 
it coincides with the history of Christian life and work, such as the 
founding of missionary societies, or, where the attention is directed 
principally to results, it leads immediately into statistics. 

The History of Missions has the same bearing upon the work of 
the future missionary that is exercised by the study of the history 
of the home Church upon him who designs to labour within its limits. 
Its special treatment should be appropriate for his needs. In pro- 
portion as the Church itself enlarges its share in missionary effort 
will every theologian be obliged to pursue this branch of Church 
history, to the extent necessary for acquaintance with the whole 
history of the Church, and for imparting animation to the picture 
in which that whole is described. It is otherwise, however with 
respect to the branches mentioned above, which, bending outward 
from the trunk of the history, became immediately interwoven with 
the growth of other branches, such as the dogmatic and the practi- 
cal. In this instance, we obtain, on the one hand, the History of 
Doctrines, and, on the other. Archaeology, with this solitary distinc- 
tion — that the history of doctrines has assumed more of the form 
of a distinct science than is the case with archaeology. This we 
shall show hereafter. 

In addition to dogma, constitution, and worship. Christian ethics 
might receive attention.; and, in point of fact, both the christian Eth- 
History of Christian Morality itself and that of Chris- if's. 
tian Ethics, as a science, have received separate treatment. Prop- 
erly considered, the latter should constitute the parallel to the 
History of Doctrines, or, rather, should grow out of a living treat- 
ment of this branch. The former appears to the best advantage as 

' This is tlie casein Blumhardt's Missionsgeschichte and Tzschirner's Fall des Hei- 
dentliums. 

2 The " Lives " of Coliimba, Gallus, Boniface, Ansgar, Otto v. Bamberg. Comp. 
the literature in text-books of Church history. 



380 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

the blossom of Church history itself, and it is still a serious ques- 
tion whether it be advisable to separate it from the parent stem. 
The most vital view of Christian morality is obtained from the 
study of monographs and of archaeology, especially when the 
latter is made to embrace a somewhat extended field. On the 
relation of Patristics and Symbolics to the History of Doctrines, 
see below. 

Still other branches might be separated, but they would possess 
value only for the professional historian. This is true, especially, of 
the careful tracing of such features " as must be included in the 
historical presentation for the sake of continuity alone, and which 
are not to be regarded as properly historical elements." ^ A com- 
plete history of the popes, for instance, carried through from be- 
ginning to end, or a similar history of Church councils — in short, 
every thing in connexion with which completeness requires that, 
in addition to matters exerting an influence upon the history, 
special attention be given to names and figures, and the like — can 
only claim the attention of such persons as are called to cultivate 
historical science for its own sake. For " notliing is more un- 
fruitful than the heaping up of historical knowledge which neither 
serves any practical ends nor imparts itself to others through the 
representation." ^ 

English and American Literature of Christian Missions. 
(1) Missions in General. 

Aikraan, J. L. A Cyclopaedia of Christian Missions. 8vo. London, 1859. 

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Memorial Volume of First 
Fifty Years. Svo, pp. xix, 462. Boston, 1861. 

Anderson, R. Foreign Missions: Their Relations and Claims. 12mo, pp. 46.3. New 
York, 1869. 

Anderson, R. History of the Missions of the American Board. 12mo, 4 vols. 
Boston, 1810-^4. 

Badley, B. H. Indian Missionary Directory and Memorial Volume. 8vo, pp. Te. 
Lucknow, 1876. 

Bliss, Edward M. The Encyclopaedia of Missions, Descriptive, Historical, Biograph- 
ical, Statistical. Witli a Full Assortment of Maps, a Complete Bibliography, and 
lists of Bible Versions, Missionary Societies, Mission Stations, and a General In- 
dex. Royal 8vo, 2 vols., pp. viii, 661, 6T9. New York, 1891. (A vast treasury 
of information.) 

Bonar, A. R. Incidents of Missionary Enterprise. 16mo, pp. xv, 342. Edinburgli, 
1842. 

Boyce, W. B. Statistics of Protestant Missionary Societies, 187 1-73. 8vo, pp. 
xxviii, 184. London, 1874. 

Brightwell, Miss C. L. Romance of Modern Missions. Svo. London. 1870. 

1 Schleiermacher, § 154, » Ibid., 191 Anm. 



LITERATURE OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. 381 

Brown, Wm, History of the Propagation of Christianity Among the Heathen Since 
the Keformation. 8vo, 2 vols, pp. 547, 535. London, 1854. 

Carroll, H. K. The World of Missions: Tiie Societies, Fields, Agencies, and Successes 
of Protestant Missions. 24tno, pp. 69. New York, 188L 

Clioules, J. 0. The Origin and History of Missions. 4to, 2 vols., pp. xxii, 622; 
xiv, 610. Boston, 1842. 

Christlieb, T. Proiestant Foreign Missions. Translated by David Allen Read. 
16mo, pp. 264. New York, 1880. 

Coan, Titus. Life in Hawaii : An Autobiographical Sketch of Mission Life and La- 
bor (1835-1881). 12mo, pp. 340. New York, 1882. 

Cox, F. A. History of the Baptist Missionary Society from 1792-1842, to which is 
added a Sketch of the General Baptist Mission. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 444, 406, 34. 
London, 1842. 

Daggett, Mrs, L, H. Historical Sketches of Woman's Missionary Societies in Amer- 
ica and England. New edition. 16mo, pp. 143. Boston, 1883. 

Dobbins, F. S. A Foreign Missionary Manual: Geographical, Synoptical, Statistical, 
and Biographical. 16mo, pp. 203. Philadelphia, 1881. 

Gammell, W. A History of American Baptist Missions in Asia, Africa, Europe, and 
North America. Sixth edition. 12mo, pp. xii, 359. Boston, 1850. 

General Conference, Proceedings of, on Foreign Missions, held in Mildmay Park, 
London, 1878. 8vo, pp. viii, 434. London, 1879. 

Gracey, Mrs. J. T. Woman's Medical Work in Foreign Lands. 16mo, pp. 191. 
Dansville, N. Y., 1881. 

Gracey, J. T. The Missionary Yearbook for 1889-90. 12mo, pp. 428. New York, 
1889. 

Hamilton, R. W. Missions : Their Authority, Scope, and Encouragement. An Es- 
say. 12mo, pp. 430. Leeds, 1846. (Discusses the philosophy of missions.) 

Hassell, Joseph. From Pole to Pole. A Handbook of Christian Missions. 12mo, 
pp. 451. London, 1866. 

Holmes, J. Historical Sketches of the Missions of the United Brethren to 1817. 
Second edition. 8vo. London, 1827. 

Hood, G. Historical Sketch of Missions in South America. 12mo. Philadelphia, 
1881. 

Jackson, Sheldon. Alaska and Missions on the North Pacific Coast. 12mo. New 
York, 1880. 

Johnstone, Jas. Report of the Centenary Conference on the Protestant Missions of 
the World in London, 1888. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 560, 624. London, 1888. (Vol. 
I has quite an extensive Bibliography prepared by Rev. S. M. Jackson. It is an 
abstract of the Bibliography in Bliss's Encyclopaedia of Missions.) 

Jubilee, The Misi^ionary : An Account of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the American 
Baptist Missionary Union, at Philadelphia, 1864. 8vo, pp. 500. New York, 
1865. 

Kennedy, James. Life and Work in Benares and Knmaon, 1839-1877. With an 
Introductory Note by Sir William Muir, late Deputy-Governor of the North- 
western Provinces of India. 8vo. Illustrated. London, 1884. 

Kingsley, Bishop C. Round the World. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 344, 325. Cincinnati, 
1868. 

Kingsmill, J. Missions and Missionaries. Historically Viewed from their Commence- 
ment. 8vo, pp. viii, 534. London, 1853. 

Laurie, Thomas. The Ely Volume, or the Contributions of our Foreign Missions to 
Science and Human Well-being. 8vo, pp. 532. Boston, 1881. 



382 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Lowe, J. Medical Missions-, Tlieir Place and Power. 8vo. London, 1886. 

Lowrie, J. C. A Manual of the Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the 
United States of America. 12mo, pp. 359. New York, 1868. 

Maclear, G. F. A History of Christian Missions during the Middle A^es. 8vo, pp^ 
xxi, 466. Cambridge, 1863. 

Merivale, C. Conversion of the West. 16mo, 5 vols. New York, 1879. 

Merivale, C. The Conversion of the Roman Empire. 8vo, pp. 267. New York, 1865. 

Merivale, C. The Conversion of the Northern Nations. 8vo, pp. 23 i. New York, 
1866 

Mitchell, J. Murray. Foreign Missions of Protestant Churches, their State and Pros- 
pects. 12mo. New York, 1888. 

Moister, William. A Handbook of Wesleyan Missions, Briefly Describing their Rise, 
Progress, and Present State in Various Parts of the World. 1 2mo. London, 1883. 

Miillor, F. Max. On Missions: A Lecture delivered in Westminster Abbey. 12mo, 
pp. 77. New York, 1874. 

Murray, A. W. Tiie Martyrs of PoWnesia. 12mo. London, 1884. 

Newcomb, H. A Cyclopsedia of Missions: Containing a Comprehensive View of 
Missionary Operations throughout the World. 12mo, pp. vi, 784. New York, 1854. 

Philips, J. E. Woman's Work in Foreign Missions. 8vo. London, 1865. 

Reid, J. M. Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
12mo, 2 vols., pp. 462, 471. New York, 1879. 

Sherring, M. A. The History of Protestant Missions in India, 1706-1882. Edited 
and carefully revised and brought down to date by tlie Rev. E. Storrow, for- 
merly of Calcutta. With Four Maps. 8vo, pp. 482. Loudon, 1875. Second 
edition, 1884. 

Slater, T.E. The Philosophy of Missions. 12mo. London, 1882. 

Smith, F. The Origin and History of Missions. Compiled and Arranged from 
Authentic Documents. 4to, 2 vols., pp. xxii, xl, 622; xiv, 610. Boston, 1842. 

Smith, S. F. Missionary Sketches : A Concise History of the Work of the American 
Baptist Union. 16mo, pp. 358. Boston, 1869. 

Smith, Thomas. Mediaeval Missions. 12mo, pp. ix, 279. The Duff Lectures. 
New York, 3 880. 

Tliompson, Augustus. Sketch of the Origin and the Recent History of the New 
England Company. By tlie Senior Members of the Company. 12mo. London, 
1884. (The earliest of the Missionary Societies in Great Britain in modern times.) 

Thompson, A. C. Moravian Missions. Twelve Lectures. ]2mo, pp. 516. New 
York, 1882. 

Thomson, Bishop E. Our Oriental Missions. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 267, 281. Cincin- 
nati, 1871. 

Warneck, Gustav. Outline of the History of the Protestant Missions from the Ref- 
ormation to the Present Time. A Contribution to Recent Church History. 
Reprinted, with additions, from the Real-Encyklopadie. Translated from the 
second edition by Thomas Smith, D.D., Professor of Evangelistic Theology, 
Edinburgh. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1884. 

Wheeler, Mrs. M. S. The Woman's Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist 
Episcopal Cliurch. 12mo, pp. 346. New York, 1881. 

Wilkinson, John. Israel's Mission and Missions to Israel. 12mo. London, 1889. 

Williams, Monier. Religious Thought and Life in India. An Account of the Relig- 
ions of the Indian Peoples, based on a Life's Study of their Literature, and on 
Personal Investigations in their own country. 8vo. PnrtX Vedism, Brah- 
manism, and Hinduism. London, 1888. 



LITERATURE OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. 383 

Williams, S. "Wells. The Middle Kingdom : a Survey of the Geography, Government, 
Liierature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese Empire and its Inhab- 
itants. Revised edition, with Illustrations, and anew map of the Empire. 8vo, 
2 vols., pp. 836, 774. New York, 1848. Fifth edition, 1883. (Chapter xix, on 
Christian Missions among the Chinese, traces the unparalleled progress of the 
Christian religion among that people.) 

Young, Robert. Liglit in Lands of Darkness. A Record of Missionary Labour 
among Greenlanders, Eskimos, Patagonians, etc., Armenians, Nestorians. Pi-r- 
sians, Egyptians, and Jews. With Introduction by the Earl of Shaftesbury. 
Third edition. 12mo. London, 1884. 

For full Literature on the special mission fields, see Hurst's Bibliotheca Theologica, 
pp. 179-188. Also S. M. Juckson, Bibliography of Missions in the Bliss En- 
cyclopaedia of Missions. 

(2) Lives of Missionaries. 

Carey, William. By His Nephew, Eustace Carey. 12mo. London, 1836. Second 
edition, 1837. (There are also Lives by Jo«eph Belcher, Von A. Christ, James 
Culross, George Smith. John B. Myers, J. Marshman. John S. Banks.) 

Coan, Titus M. Autobiography. 12mo. New York, 1882. 

Eliot, John, Life of. By R. B. Caverly. 12mo, London, 1881. 

Gardiner, Allen Francis, Life of. By J. "W. Marsh. 8vo. London, 1883. (There are 
also Lives by J. W. Marsh, W. H. Sterliug, and Charles Bullock.) 

Gossner, Johannes E., Life of. By J. D. Prochnow. Translated by L. Morgan. 12mo. 
London, 1865. 

Heber, Reginald, Life of. By His Widow. 4to, 2 vols., pp. vi, 564; xii, 638. 
London, 1830. (Also Lives by Tiiomas Robinson, G. Bonner, James Chambers.) 

Hunt, John, Life of. By G. S. Rowe. 24mo. Cincinnati, 1837. 

Japp, A. H. Master Missionaries: Studies in Heroic Pioneers' Works. 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1880. 

Judson, Adoniram, Life of. By Edward Judson. 8vo, New York, 1883. (There 
are also Lives by H. Bonar, J. Clement, Mrs. H. C. Conant, A. D. Gillett, 
Eustace Judson, William C. Richards, Francis Wayland.) 

Livingstone, David, Life of. By W. G. Blaikie. New edition. 8vo. pp. 504. New 
York, 1882. (There are also Lives by T. Hughes, Dr. Macauley, A. Montefiore, 
Samuel Mossman, J. S. Roberts. H. Seymour, Samuel Smiles, and others.) 

Martyn, Henry, Life of. By Charles D. Bell. 12mo. New York, 1880. (Also Lives 
by John Hall, John Sargeant, Samuel Wilberforce, and others.) 

Moffat, Robert, Life of. By David J. Deane. 8vo. London, 1887. Also Lives by 
"W. Walters, M. E. Wilder, Anne Manning, John S. Moffat.) 

Patteson, John C, Life of. By Frances Awdry. 12mo. London, 1875. (Also Lives 
by W, E. Gladstone, G. Knudsen, Jesse Page, C, M. Yonge, Mrs. Charles. 

Pitman, Mrs. E. R. Heroines of the Mission Field: Biographical Sketches. 8vo, pp. 
368. London, 1880. 

Shervyood, J. M. Memoirs of Rev. David Brainerd, Missionary to the Indians in 
North America. Based on the Life of Brainerd prepared b}^ Jonathan Ed- 
wards, D.D., and afterwards revised and enlarged by Sereno E. Dwiglit, D.D. 
With an Introduction on the Life and Character of David Brainerd, by the Edi- 
tor. Also an Essay on God's Hand in Missions, by Arthur T. Pierson, D.D. 
r2mo, pp. 354. New York, 1884. 

Smith, L. E. Heroes and Martyrs of the Modern Missionary Enterprise. Svo. 
Hartford, 1852. 



384 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Smith, Thomas. Men Worth Remembering. "Alexander Duff." 12mo. London, 1884. 
WiUiams, John, the Martyr of Erromanga. By John Campbell. 12mo. London, 

1842. (Also Lives by VV. F. Besser and E. Ptout.) 
Williams, Samuel Wells, Life of. By Frederick Wells Williams. 8vo. New York, 

1888. 
Walsli, W. P. Modern Heroes of the Mission Field. 8vo, pp. x, 249. London, 

1879. Third edition, 1888. 
Zeisberger, David, Life of. By Edmund De Schweinitz. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1838. 

(Tliere are also several Lives of him in German.) 

(3) Ethnology of Missionary Lands. 

Bancroft, H. H. Native Races of the Pacific States of North America. 8vo, 5 vols. 

San Francisco, 1883. 
Barras, J. On the Natives of India. 8vo. London, 1889. 
Bellew, H. W. J. The Races of Afghanistan. 8vo. London, 1880. 
Biddulph, J. Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh. 8vo. London, 1880. 
Brace, C. L. Races of the Old World: A Manual of Ethnology. 8vo. London, 1863. 
Brown, Robert. Tlie Peoples of the World. 8vo, 6 vols. London, 1882-86. 
Clark, E. L. Races of European Turkey. 8vo. New York, 1878. 
Clarke, H. Early History of the Mediterranean Population. 8vo. London. 1882. 
Curr, E. M. The Australian Race: Its Origin, Language, Customs, Places of Landing 

in Australia, and the Routes by which it Spread Itself Over that Continent. 

8vo, 3 vols. Yol. iv, 4to. London, 1888. 
Dalton, Edward T. Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal. 4to. London, 1882, 
Earl, G. W. Native Races of the Indian Archipelago, Papnnns. 12mo. London, 1853. 
Ellis, A. B. The Tshi-speakiug Peoples of the Gold Coast of West Africa: Their 

Religion, Manners, Customs, Laws, Languages, etc. 8vo. Loudon, 1887. 
Houghton, R. C. Women of the Orient, 12mo. Cincinnati, 1878. 
Lewin, T. H. Wild Races of Southeastern India. Svo. London, 1870. 
Painter, J. T. Ethnology: A History and Genealogy of the Human Race. 12mo. 

London, 1880. 
Watson, J. F., and Kay, J. W. Races and Tribes of Hindoostan. 4to, 4 vols. 

London, 1868-70. 
Whitmee, S. J. Ethnology of the Pacific. 8vo. London, 1879. 
Yeatman, J. P. Shemitic Origin of the Nations of Western Europe. Svo. Lon- 
don, 1879. 

SECTION XY. 
THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. 

J. A. Ernesti, Prol. de theologiae bistorlcae et dogmaticge conjungendae necessitate, Lips., 1857, 
and In the Opusc. theol.. Lips., 1792 ; L. Wachler, De theologia ex hlstoria dogmatura emendan- 
4a, Rintel, 1795 ; De Wette, Religion u. Theologie, section 2, pp. 167-193 ; Ch. Fr. lUgen, Werth 
d. Christl. DograenReschiclite, Leips., 1817 ; Augusti, Werth der Dogmengesch. In Theolog., Blat- 
tei- il, p. 11 sqq. ; W. K. L. Ziegler, Ideen iiber d. Begrifif u. d. Behandl. d. Dogmengesch. in 
Gabler's Neuest. theol. Journal, 1798, ii, p. 325 sqq. ; Thomasius, Aufgabe u. Behaudlung der 
Dogmengesch., in Harless' Zeitschr. f iir Protestantismus, 3, 2 ; * Th. Kliefoth, Einleit. in d. Dog- 
mengesch., Ludwigslust, 1839 ; F. Dortenbach, Methode d. Dogmengesch., in Stud. u. Krit., 1852, 
No. 4, pp. 757-822 ; Kling, in Herzog's Encykl., iii, p. 450 sqq. ; Ritschl, Methode der altem 
Dogmengeschichte (Jahrbb. fiir Deutsche Theologie, 1871, 2). 

The History of Doctrines is a scientific representation of the 
gradual unfolding, establishing, and settling of the Christian faith 



THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. 385 

into a definite body of doctrines, the distribution of the same 
into its particular elements, and the transformations Historyof doc- 
and changes through which it passed under tl)e iniiu- tnnes denned, 
ence of different and progressive forms of culture. It forms the 
bridge between Historical and Systematic Theology, and employs 
Church history in the character of an auxiliary. 

Christianity presented itself at the beginning with a doctrine, 
but not with a system of dogmatics. Its dogmas were compressed 
in the glad tidings of a salvation which had appeared to men, and 
its religious conceptions connected themselves with the figurative 
and popular phraseology of the time. The need of dogmatic devel- 
opment was only gradually felt. The tendency toward such devel- 
opment, which inheres in Christianity, was already apparent in its 
earliest adherents. The reflection and dialectics of Paul unfolded 
themselves side by side with the contemplation of John, both being 
strictly within the bounds of the religious sphere. But the neces- 
sity of defending Christianity against other modes of thought, and 
of guarding against the influence of the foreign principles of Ju- 
daism and Ethnicism, led by degrees to those definitions of doc- 
trine which the Church accepted as its common symbol, individual ten- 
Individual tendencies come into view, however, beside ^encies. 
the inclination toward a common form of doctrine. Different states 
of mind within the Church affected the mode in which its teaching 
was understood, and thus began the formation of a body of dog- 
mas, conditioned by the circumstances of the time, and struggling 
into definite shape by the force of its own inherent nature. It is 
'the task of the history of doctrines to follow out the The task of doc- 
process by which such formation of doctrine took place, ^^^^^ history. 
to ascertain its internal laws, to compare what has come into being 
with the original from which it sprang, and trace it back to the 
idea, as well as to ascertain the measure of truth it may contain in 
the midst of the erroneous elements in which it is involved. This 
is a task that can certainly be fully performed by him only who 
has apprehended the significance of the doctrine in its profoundest 
meaning, so that it would seem that the history of doctrines could 
only be successfully treated where it follows upon dogmatics. It 
should again be remembered, however, that no branch of any sci- 
ence can be completely developed without involving the others in 

the process. Moreover, while it is certain that the his- „ , ^. , 

^ ..... . Relation of one 

tory of doctrines, in its scientific perfection, presumes science to oth- 
acquaintance with dogmatics, it is equally certain that ®^' 
he alone is able to apprehend a doctrine in its vital relations 
who has cast a preliminary glance over its historical progress. 
25 



386 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Without this it would be to him only a rigid hieroglyph, a dead 
statute.' 

The principal thing, in connexion with the problem which the 
m of his ^is^^^y ^^ doctrines is expected to solve, is to furnish 
tory and reve- an account of the relation between what has come his- 
latioa. torically into being and what was originally revealed. 

This must neither be regarded as, from the standpoint of a false 
biblical positivism, a mere degeneration, or a running off into ordi- 
nances of simply human origin; or, from the standpoint of specula- 
tive narrowness, as an unconditional advance from the mere concep- 
tion to the pure idea. Attention must be equally bestowed upon 
the divinely intended and natural development of the truth con- 
tained in the Scriptural germ, and the divinely permitted, and like- 
wise natural, aberrations from the truth, which are conditioned by 
the very fact of such development. 

The history of doctrines has to do neither with evolution simply 
Province of doc- ^^^ with corruption alone, but with both; and its work 
trinai history, jg^ substantially, to determine the relation sustained by 
the one to the other. It deals with the positive acceptance of doc- 
trine by the Church and with the petrifying influence of tradi- 
tional beliefs, with agreements upon dogmas reached by the scien- 
tific process and with the insipid character they assumed in the 
course of rationalistic manipulations, with the transfiguration re- 
ceived at the hands of a true speculation and the volatilizing efffects 
of idealistic processes, and, finally, with the pregnant interpretations 
of presaging minds and the obscurities entailed by a pseudo-mysti- 

^ The primary meaning of doyfia is statute^ decree, in the outward and positive sense. 
Comp. the " decree that went out from Caesar Augustus," Luke ii, 1, and also Dan. 
ii, 13; vi, 8; Esther iii, 9; in the LXX, and 2 Mace, x, 8, in the Apocrypha. The 
term ^oyfiara is also applied in the New Testament (Eph. ii, 15 ; Col. ii, 14) to the 
Jewish ordinances from which Christ has delivered us ; for it is to be presumed that 
the better class of exegetes are agreed that the teachings of Christianity are not so 
designated in those passages. Christian doctrine is never designated by the term 
66y/xa in the New Testament (evayyeXiov, Kr/pvyiia, ?.dyog or 66bg tov Qeov being 
Used instead) ; in Acts xv, 22 and 26, where it occurs, the reference is to conclusions 
reached with regard to a practical question. By the Stoics, however, the word is used 
in the sense of doctrine (or principle), e. g., by Marc. Aurel. in Libro ad se ipsum, 
ii, 13 ; and similarly the Latins employ the words decretum, placitum (Cicero, Acad. 
Quaest. iv, 9 ; Senec. Epp., 94, 95). This usage was afterward followed by the Church 
fathers. Comp. the citations in Suicer, Thesaurus^ s. v. 66y(j.a, and Hagenbach, Hist. 
Doct., § 1, note 1. But they too employ it in the sense of a firm, established princi- 
ple (to delov 6uyfia\ and at others to designate a temporary subjective opinion. The 
History of Doctrines may not, however, be made simply a record of passing opinions, 
although it must take cognizance of them as elements of temporary importance. 
Comp. J. P. Lange, Christl. Dogmatik, p. 2; Herzog, Encykl. iii, 433. 



THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. 387 

cal mode of treatment. The work of the history of doctrines is 
properly performed only when all such elements are rightly appre- 
hended and appreciated.^ This task should not be rendered more 
difficult by the carrying of unnecessary ballast of any kind. For 
this reason much that requires notice in the treatment of Church 
history may here be presumed as falling within that department.'* 

SECTION XVI. 

GENERAL AND SPECIAL HISTORY. 

The unfolding and demonstrating of the dogmatic spirit that 
runs through the whole will be continually apparent in the defining 
of particular dogmas, which again, in turn, determine the doc- 
trinal spirit of an age. For this reason the general and the special 
history of doctrines is found to be interwoven in such a way as not 
to admit of their being totally separated, but to require that, in their 
treatment, regard be had to the relations they sustain to each other. 

Christian doctrine is, in its root, a unit (to deiov Soyiia), and the 
various formulations of particular doctrines are merely christian doc- 
raembers into which the organism may be divided. A ^^^^ ^ ^^*' 
living recognition of this fact leads to the ignoring of the distinc- 
tion between general and particular; and many late writers have, 
accordingly, rejected the division into general and special history 
of doctrines. It is certain that the method which presents the 
general history in one series, or volume, and the special in another, 
without establishing any living relations between the two sections, 
must be set aside. ^ For the former thus becomes merely an ex- 
panded chapter from ecclesiastical history — a history of the Church 
teaching, and also, in part, a history of dogmatics — while the latter 
is reduced to the character of a historical supplement to dogmatics, 

^ It would not be proper, for instance, to formulate in advance a general idea of 
rationalism, mysticism, etc., and then seek to adapt the different features as observed 
to such preconceived scheme. Every such tendency must be explained in conformity 
with its historical aspects and relations; comp. Klieforth, p. 319. 

^ Hase says : " The distinction between the History of Doctrines as a special sci- 
ence, and as a part of Church history, is merely formal in its character. For if the 
difference of extent, which is determined by external considerations, be left out of the 
question, the two deal simply with different poles of the same axis. The former 
treats the dogma as it develops itself in the form of definite conceptions, while Church 
history discusses the dogma in its relation to outward events." Church History 
(Blumenthal and Wing's ed.), p. 12. Similarly Kliefoth, p. 324: "The whole of 
Church history is to be regarded as introductory to the History of Doctrines." Con- 
cerning its relation to other historical departments (e. g., the history of heresies), comp. 
Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctrines (Smith's ed.), § 6. 

^ This is the chief fault of arrangement in Augusti and Baumgarten-Crusius. 



388 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

a historia dogmatis. This difficulty can be avoided only by an 
Elastic treat- elastic treatment of the general history, so as to allow 
aT^^History ^^ ^^ extend partially into the Special, or by arranging 
necessary. the matter according to periods, and giving the prece- 
dence in each period to the general history. Thus the dogmatic 
principle governs the period, and the special history is made to 
follow. In this case the general history of doctrines takes on the 
character of an introduction.^ We consider the latter to be the 
more suitable plan in a methodological point of view, though, for 
purposes of artistic treatment, the former is even still more favour- 
able. The arrangement of the particular doctrines, moreover, 
should not be unconditionally governed by a firm and previously 
Arrangement Constructed dogmatical system, but solely by the dog- 
dogmattecha!-- ^^^^^ character that predominates in the periods to 
acter. which they respectively belong.'' For every period has 

a keytone, derived from some doctrine of preponderating influence, 
which underlies and runs through the whole of its development, 
and gives to the period its dogmatic character.' This principle 
leads to a division into periods of corresponding character. 

* At this point we coincide with Kliefoth, p. 334 sq. : " When the entire mass of 
dogmatic phenomena has been classified by periods, it becomes requisite to describe 
the internal progress of the periods, and to determine the historical point within the 
period that each particular dogmatic phenomenon has occupied. Not until this has 
been done can the historical relations of every such phenomenon be thoroughly un- 
derstood." It is, of course, evident that external events, e. g., the progress of a con- 
troversy, the holding of councils, the publication of decrees, etc., cannot be entirely 
disregarded, since they afford the necessary points of connexion. But " the writer on 
the History of Doctrines will need to include only so much as may be necessary to 
constitute the thread between the different knots in the course of dogmatic develop- 
ment, or as may be otherwise needed for illustrating the history of the dogma upon 
which he is engaged." Kliefoth, p. 346 ; also p. 367 sq. 

^ The inadmissible character of the " local " method was already noticed by de 
Wette (Rel. u. Theol., p. 179). Comp. also Kliefoth, p. 370, and Meier's method of 
treating the History of Doctrines. Baur correctly observes (Dogmengesch., p. 14) : 
" The general element which must be prefixed to the history of each period as an in- 
troductory feature can consist only in the determining of the general point of view 
under which each period must be regarded, and in the assigning of its rightful place 
to the period as a definite element in the process of historical development in general. 

^ Hase says, " That certain particular doctrines form epochal points in one century, 
while certain others fix the attention in another, is not the result of accidental causes 
merely, but is an interest grounded in necessity ; and any dogma can attain to epoch- 
al importance but once in the course of its history." — Rosenkranz, p. 248. " History 
embraces only what has truly lived at some time, and has thereby become immortal, 
as constituting a point at which the rays of the Christian mind were refracted ; for it 
is a history of the living, and not of the dead, even as God is the God of the living 
only." — Church History, p. xii. 



DIVISION OF DOCTRINAL HISTORY. 389 

SECTION XVII. 

DIVISION OF DOCTEINAL HISTORY. 

Comp. Hagenbach, article in Stud. u. Krit., 1828, No. 4, and Kllefoth, 1. c, p. 56. 

The division of the history of doctrines into periods is governed 
by a different principle from that which applies in con- j^i^gj^^ ^f ^^^ 
nexion with Church history in general. The epochs trinai history 
which appear important to the Church, considered as a ^^°p^" 
whole, are here secondary to those which give a different direction 
to doctrine. It follows, therefore, that the division is to be con- 
formed to the dogmatic spirit which prevails in, and animates, any 
given time. 

, It has been remarked, that the periods in ecclesiastical do not al- 
ways coincide with those of secular history, because elements that 
exert a decisive influence in the one department are not equally im- 
portant in the other. A similar observation will apply to the rela- 
tion sustained by the history of doctrines to that of the Church. 
For, while the history of doctrine is involved in that of the Church 
and its constitution, it is yet possible that "great changes may 
come to pass in the field of the one, while all continues unchanged 
in the other, and that a particular time may be important as the 
point of an unfolding in the one while it is altogether unimportant 
in the other." ^ It is, of course, difficult to discover the true turn- 
ing points at which the circles of doctrine separate. Difficulty of 
and the knots at which they run into each other. The ^^^""ni^gs^i 
determining of such points is itself dependent on the change. 
fixing of the nature of the dogma. The inquirer who regards the 
speculative side of the dogma as the regulative feature will mark 
out a different division from him who, before all else, goes back to 
the religious disposition of which the dogma is simply the intelligi- 
ble, but inadequate, expression, and who seeks to ascertain what 
practical influence was exerted by the dogma upon an ecclesiastical 
period. In a similar way the material aspect, which is the prepon- 
derance of certain doctrines — or the formal element — which is the 
practical conditions under which the formation of a doctrine was 
brought to pass — may become the determining influence with differ- 
ent minds. 

The division we advocate, for instance, into Apolo- ,, ^ . , 

/ ' ^ Matenal and 

getical. Polemical, Scholastico-Systematic, Symbolical formal meth- 

and Confessional, Philosophically Critical, and Specula- °^^' 

tive Periods, is predominantly formal, while Klief oth has proposed a 

* Schleiermacher, § 166. 



5390 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

division according to material conditions, based, at the same time, 
in the formal way, on national characteristics, and has ingeniously- 
subdivided the several periods into stages of growth, of settling in 
symbolic form, and of decline. His first period is the Grecian, in 
the course of which both the objective doctrines of God and of 
Christ (Theology and Christology) were developed (Origen, Athan- 
Kiiefoth's meth- asius, and the Cappadocians). The second is the Ro- 
®^' man Catholic (Augustine and the Scholastics), to which 

the development of Anthropology belongs. The third is the Ger- 
manico-Protestant (after the Reformation), which moves within 
the field of Soteriology (Justification, Repentance, Sanctification). 
The fourth (the present), finally, has for its task to attain to a 
correct recognition of the Church, and thereby to a sound escha- 
tology, based on the development of the Church considered as the 
kingdom of God. 

Baur divides the whole of the history of doctrines, in strict ac- 
cordance with his settled Hes^elian philosophy, into 
Baur's division. ^, . . , • t ,, rm • t <- i • , 

three principal periods: "Ihe period oi the ancient 

Church is the period of self -producing dogma and of the Christian 
religious consciousness — the substantiality of the dogma, which at- 
tains to objectivity in the dogma, and knows itself to be identical 
with it. The period of the Middle Ages and of Scholasticism is 
that in which that consciousness returns from the objectivity of the 
dogma to its own subjectivity, and contrasts itself with the dogma 
under the influence of rational reflection " (as though this influence 
had not been operative at any former time!). " The period since the 
Reformation is that of absolute self-consciousness, which is no 
longer bound to the dogma, (?) and has assumed a place above 
it " (?). This is not the proper place for exploding this division in 
its details, nor yet for extensively noticing other attempts.^ What 
has been remarked may suffice to indicate the necessity for adopt- 
ing a principle of division which is drawn from the movements of 
the life of the science itself. 

^ Miinsclier, for example, has adopted seven periods, and Lentz eight. Klee re- 
gards the division into periods as being wholly superfluous. J. P. Lange agees, upon 
the whole, with the arrangement we have adopted (Christl. Dogmatik, p. 65). Giese- 
Icr and Neander have retained the periods of Church history in the History of Doc- 
tiines as well. 



MODE OF TREATMENT. 391 

SECTION XVIII. 

MODE OF TREATMENT. 

The only proper mode of treating the history of doctrines is 
that wliich, emanating from the true nature of the dog- ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ 
ma, brings to distinct consciousness both what is change- doctrinal nis- 
able in the statements of doctrine and what is permanent ^^^' 
in the midst of the changes, and gives rise to such mutability itself. 
Only such a treatment, moreover, will warrant the expectation of 
realizing the practical advantage of preserving the history of doc- 
trines from yielding to the authority of a rigid narrowness of the 
traditional type, and from being dominated by a mania for novelty 
and condemning what is old. For the historical sense is the neces- 
sary base of a theological character. 

The remarks, in a preceding section, relating to a true pragma- 
tism in the treatment of Church history, are applicable at this point 
as well. The form assumed by particular doctrines may, indeed, 
not unfrequently be explained by a reference to different and exter- 
nal causes, such as political conditions and events, the scientific cul- 
ture of a period, or even conditions of climate, and other surround- 
ings. But, while seeking such explanations, the dynamical principle, 

which works from within outwardly upon the material, ^^ -^ 

•^ , ^ . ' The dynamic 

should not be forgotten, since the triumph of any chief principle im- 
tendency over others, which cannot be altogether acci- p°^^^^- 
dental, must, in the end, be judged by that principle.^ This twofold 
and self- complementary mode of viewing the history will guard 
against iwo errors which lie near at hand. On the one hand, the 
recognition of what is changeable in received conceptions of doc- 
trine, and the connected observation that much which ^, ... 
' __ ^ ^ ISiecessityof 

once was held to be indispensable to a correct faith is no recognizing 
longer so regarded by even very orthodox scholars, while ^ ^'^ses. 
other things which are now stubbornly maintained in many quar- 
ters were formerly regarded more mildly, or with indifference, will 
preserve the mind from being bound by the unw^orthy fetters of 
any system whose influence tends to confine inquiry from the out- 
set within narrowing limits, and will infuse a noble confidence in 
truth, which is not alarmed for the safety of the Church with the 
springing up of every breeze. 

But, on the other hand, even greater attention will be fixed upon 
the one thing needful, which, whatever may have been the form of 
doctrine, has always asserted itself, and has always demonstrated, 

^ Comp. Rosenkranz, p. 248, and Hagenbach in Coburger Theol. Annalen, article 
Ueber den Sieg der Orthodcxie uber die Heterodoxie, 1832, vol. 4, No. 1. 



392 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

however frequent may have been its temporary obscurations, that 
it is the permanent element which is destined to abide. It will ap- 
pear, moreover, especially when the periods have been properly 
arranged, and with evidential force, that every period was specially 
Acectraitruth determined and guided by some particular truth; that, 
for every age. g^ to speak, it had its own polar star, by which it shaped 
its course, and which shone for it with a brightness such as, with a 
change of constellation, it could not possess for any other age. 
But God continually brings up new stars, with the object that all 
should guide to the One who is the salvation of the world. It is, 
therefore, a sign of crudeness, and of a want of genuine enlighten- 
ment, when the mind finds it impossible to so far enter into former 
modes of thought as to discover that the productions of the human 
mind, when engaged upon the very noblest work that could com- 
mand its attention, are more than mere abortions of unreason and 
superstition.' The "absurdities of Scholasticism," which have so 
often been made matter for sport, are certainly as nothing when 
compared with the absurdity with which the schoolmen have been 
judged by the people, " whom they could not have used as copy- 
ists" (Semler).' 

HISTORY. 

Comp. Baur, Dogmensgeschichte, § 6. 

The history of doctrines, in its clearly defined outlines, is a new 

science. Materials for it have, however, been furnished from the 

beginning. A rich mine for discoveries exists already in ecclesi- 

astico-historical and polemico-dogmatical works of the Church 

fathers, especially Irenaeus, Hippolytus, and Epiphanius. Down 

*to our own time, also, works on Church history contain material for 

sthe history of doctrines. While connected in this way with Church 

[history on the one hand, the history of doctrines stands similarly 

iF.elated to dogmatics on the other. We have only to bear in mind 

the great dogmatical works of Chemnitz, Hutter, Quenstedt, J. 

Gerhard, and others. Works preliminary to the history of doc- 

' Rosenkranz, ubi supra : " While it cannot be denied that arbitrariness and acci- 
dent form an element in the History of Doctrines, as in every thing that is human, it 
is also true that the play of subjectivity, its dabbling in opinions, forms a feature that 
destroys and subordinates itself, as being unimportant, to the real movement. The 
estimate of the History of Doctrines which finds in it merely a lumber-room of human 
follies and silly opinions, is itself a silly opinion, which has no perception of the yearn- 
ing of the mind to know its own inner nature, and no conception of the secret alli- 
ance which binds all the actions of the mind into a general whole." Comp. Kliefoth, 
p. 208 sq. ; Baur, Dogmengesch. § 3, and (with reference to the unhistorical disposi- 
tion of Rationalism) pp. 42, 43. 

*Comp. Mohler, Kleine Schriften i, p. 131 sqq. 



LITERATURE OF DOCTRINAL HISTORY. 393 

trines proper were furnished by the Roman Catholic theologians : 
Petavius (1644-50, 1700), Thoraassin (1684-89), Duraesnil (1730), 
and by the Protestant Forbesius a Corse (1645 sqq.). It is only 
since the days of Seraler and Ernesti that a separate treatment was 
thought of (Ernesti, ubi supra, and Semler's Introduction to Baum- 
garten's System of Doctrine, Halle, 1759 sq.). At 6rst, the attention 
was merely directed to the accumulation of material, and this was 
followed with the critical treatment of doctrines, for the expressed 
purpose of " enlarging the range of vision for incipient theologians 
or theological students in general " (Semler). The positive method 
of treatment was soon added, and the history of doctrines was 
made to serve in defence of dogma in the interests of Apologetics 
(Augusti). The higher view, which has regard equally to the crit- 
ical and the dogmatical elements, and which dialectically mediates 
the contrasts between the positive and the speculative, is a fruitage 
of the recent science. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OP DOCTRINAL HISTORY. 

Alger, "William R. A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, with a Bib- 
liography by Dr. Ezra Abbot. Philadelphia, 1864. Sixth edition, 8vo, pp. 
676. New York, 1869. New edition, 1878. 

Bernard, Thomas Dehany. The Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament, Consid- 
ered in Eight Lectures delivered before the University of Oxford on the Bamp- 
ton Foundation. 12mo, pp. 258. New York, 1883. 

Craven, E. R. The Nicene Doctrine of the Homoousian. Bibliotheca Sacra, 1884, 
p. 698, pp. 63. 

Crippen, T. G. A Popular Introduction to the History of Christian Doctrine. 8vo, 
pp. 357. Edinburgh and New York, 1884. (Traces each doctrine or section of 
doctrine in detail rather than by periods.) 

Delitzsch, Franz. Old Testament History of Redemption. Translated from Manu- 
script Notes of Lectures by Samuel Ives Curtis. 16mo, pp. 213. Edinburgh, 188L 

Donaldson, James. A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine from the 
Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council. 8vo, 3 vols. London, 1864-66. 

Dorner, J. A. History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ. 
With a Review of the Controversies on the Subject in Britain since the Middle 
of the Seventeenth Century. Translated by W. Lindsay Alexander, D.D., and 
D. W. Simon, D.D. 8vo, 5 vols., pp. xviii, 467 ; vlii, 544 ; 456 ; viii, 462 ; xxviii, 
502. Edinburgh, 1862-64. 

Dorner, J. A. History of Protestant Theology, Particularly in Germany. Trans- 
lated by G. Robson and Sophia Taylor. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xxiii, 444; 511. 
Edinburgh, 1871. 

Hagenbach, K. R. Text-Book of the History of Doctrine. The Edinburgh Transla- 
tion by C. W. Bush, Revised, with Additions from the fourth German edition 
by Henry B. Smith, D.D. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 478, 558. New York, 1861-62. 

Harnack, Adolf. Outlines of the History of Dogma. Translated by Edwin Knox 
Mitchell, 8vo, pp. xii, 567. New York, 1893. (Harnack treats first of the 
rise of ecclesiastical dogma, and next of its development. The history of Prot- 



394 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

estant doctrine is excluded. He denies that the dogmas arc the exposition of 
Christian revehition, and affirms thai dogmatic Christianity is the work of the 
Hellenic spirit upon gospel soil.) 

Howard, George B. The Schism Between the Oriental and Western Churches, with 
Special Reference to tlie Addition of Filioque to the Creed. 12mo, pp. vi, 118. 
London, 1892. (A concise yet thorough discussion.) 

Jacob, G. A. The Lord's Supper Historically Considered. 12mo, pp. 82. London, 
1884. (Based on a work entitled "The Lord's Su[)per: Historj- of Uninspiied 
Teaching," by the Rev. Charles Hebert, D.D., and defends the Zwingliaii theory 
of the Supper.) 

Lecky, "William H. History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne. 
8vo, 2 vols., pp xviii, 498; x, 423, New York, 1869. (Although this does not 
profess to be a history of dogma, it is valuable as showing the clianges wrought 
by Christianity in the ethical ideas of Europe.) 

McElhinney, John J. The Doctrine of the Church : A Historical Monograph. With 
a Full Bibliography of the Subject. 12mo, pp. 464. Philadelphia, 1871. (Tlie 
bibliography has a simple chronological arrangement.) 

Neander, A. Lectures on the History of Christian Doo^-mas. Translated by J. E. 
Ryland. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. B56, 264. London, 1858. 

Newman, John Henry. An Essay on the Development of Doctrine. 8vo, pp. 208. 
New York. No date. (This is not so much a history of doctrine as an effort lo 
show that the Roman Catholic Church rightly claims authority over the devel- 
opment of doctrin^. In its time this book was the subject of much comment 
and controversy.) 

Pusey, E. B. The Doctrine of the Real Presence as Contained in the Fathers, from 
the Days of St. John the Evangelist to the Fourth General Council, Vindicated 
in Notes on a Sermon, " The Presence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist," Preached 
A. D. 1853 Before the University of Oxford. 8vo, pp. xii, 722. Oxford. 1855. 
(Although this work is a defence of a sermon, yet it contains a large collection 
of testimonies of the Fathers, and is in that respect valuable.) 

R-euss, Edward. History of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age. Translated 
by Annie Harwood. With Preface and Notes by R. W. Dale. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 
xxviii, 424; viii, 5^8. London, 1872-74. 

Richey, Thomas. The Nicene Creed and the Filioque. A Monograph. Reprinted 
with Notes from the Church F]clectic. 12mo. New York, 1884. (An attempt 
to show that " the creed grew, just as the Bible did, out of the experience of 
the Church.") 

Ritschl, Albrecht. A Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and 
Reconciliation, Translated from the German by John S. Black. 8vo, pp. xvi, 
605. Edinburgh, 1872. (After a brief introduction Ritschl begins with An- 
selm's tlieory of reconciliation, and from thence traces the history of the mediae- 
val and the Reformation ideas of justification. Then follow variations of the Refor- 
mation principle made by the schoMs of German theology and philosophy.) 

Shedd, W, G. T. A History of Christian Doctrines. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. viii, 412 ; vi, 
508, New York, 1869, 

Sheldon, Henry C. History of Christian Doctrine. 2 vols. Yol. I, from A, D. 90 
to 1517, pp. 411 ; Vol. II, from A. D. 1517 to 1885, pp. 444. 8vo. New York, 
1886. 

Smeaton, George. The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit. The ninth series of the Cun- 
ningham Lectures. 8vo. pp. x, 372. Edinburgh, 1882. (The tliird division 
contains the history of the doctrine.) 



LITERATURE OF DOCTRINAL HISTORY. 395 

Swete, H. B, On the History of the Doctrine of the Procession of the Holy Spirit; 
from the Apostohc Age to the Death of Cliarlemagne. 8vo, pp, 246. Cam- 
bridge, 1876. (A. very scholarly trcaiment.) 

Tulloch, John. Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in the Seventeenth 
Century. Svo, 2 vols. Edmburgh, 1872. 

Wall, William. The History of Infant Baptism. Second edition. 8vo, 4 vols., pp. 
Ixi, 535; xiv, 575; vii, 584; 555. Oxford, 1845. (Vol. Ill consists of Mr. 
Gale's Reflections on Wall's History, and Vol. IV of Wall's defence.) 

Wiggers, G. F. An Historical Presentation cf Augustinianism and Pelagianism 
from the Original Sources. Translated from the German, with Notes and Addi- 
tions, by Ralph Emerson. Svo, pp. 383. Andover, 1840. 

Thougii not histories of Cliristian doctrine, yet, as discussions of the conditions un- 
der which early doctrine was developed, the following works will be most use- 
ful to the student: (1) " Delivery and Development of Christian Doctrine." 
The Fifth Series of Cunningham Lectures. By Principal Robert Rainy, New 
College, Edinburgh (8vo, pp. xv, 409. Edinburgh, 1874). (2) " The Influence of 
Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church." By the late Edwin Hatch, 
of the University of Oxford (the Hibbert Lectures for 1888. Svo, pp. xxiii, 
359. London, 1892). Principal Rainy's topics are Delivery of Doctrine in the 
Old Testament ; Delivery of Doctrine in the New Testament ; Function of the 
Christian Mind with Reference to Doctrine ; Development of Doctrine ; Creeds. 
Principal Rainy's contention is that doctrine arose from a desire " to settle what 
God had given to be believed on certain points and to guide aright the souls of 
men," and "that the intention to satisfy the scientific interest was hardly at 
all kept in view." Dr. Hatch discusses : Greek Education ; Greek and Christ- 
. Ian Exegesis ; Greek and Christian Rhetoric ; Christianity and Greek Philoso- 
phy; Greek and Christian Ethics ; Greek and Christian Tiieology — the Creator; 
Greek and Christian Theology — the Moral Governor ; Greek and Christian The- 
ology — ^God as the Supreme Being; The Influence of the Mysteries upon Christ- 
ian Usages ; The Incorporation of Christian Ideas as Modified by Greek into 
a Body of Doctrine; The Transformation of the Basis of Christian Union. His 
contention is that the Greek mind not only acted powerfully in the formation of 
Christian doctrine and usage, but brought into both much that does not properly 
belong there. The proposition with which he sets out is that the Sermon on 
the Mount contains the entire substance of Christianity. With these may be 
associated: "The Continuity of Christian Thought." By Alexander V. G. 
Ahen (12mo, pp. xviii, 438. Boston, 1884, 1893). This is a plea for the 
Greek view of the Incarnation and Anthropology, as against the Latin. 



396 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION XIX. 

PATRISTICS AND SYMBOLICS. 

An exact acquaintance with the lives and works of individuals 
who rose to eminence above their contemporaries as teachers of the 
Church (Patristics), and whose efforts prompted the development 
of dogma, is included, though not wholly absorbed, in the circle of 
studies belonging to the history of doctrines. But inasmuch as the 
dogma is not the concern of individuals merely, having become the 
possession of the Church, nor an ecclesiastical branch, because it is 
the expression of the common faith, the teachings of ecclesiastical 
confessions (Symbolics) likewise form an integral part of the history 
of doctrines. 

SECTION XX. 

PATEISTICS. 
1. Herzog, Real-Encyklopaedie. 2, M'Clintock and Strong, Cyclopaedia. 
The material usually comprehended under the name of patristics 
(patrology) is difficult to unite into an independent science with 
scientific limitations, because, 

1. The term Church father itself designates a vacillating idea, 
whose only stability rests on empirical foundations. 

2. The material of patristics is partly resolved in that of literary 
history and partly in that of ecclesiastico-historical monographs, 
while only the remainder is reserved for the use of the history of 
doctrines. 

Patres ecdesiae^ is the name given to men who by their intel- 
lectual energy promoted the life of the Church, especially in the 

earlier stages of its development. The additional name 

Church fathers. ^ . ^7.-« tjj. \^ £ ^.x. i. :\ 

of patres apostohci is applied to such oi them as stood 

nearest the apostles, the fathers of the first century, such as Bar- 
nabas, Hermas, Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, and Papias. 
The usage is, however, very variable. The Roman Catholic Church 
distinguishes between Church fathers, Church teachers, and Church 
writers. The latter class includes those who are not honoured as 
fathers, or whose orthodoxy is suspected — e. g., Origen — while 
Church teachers are those whose orthodoxy is acknowledged, and 
who have, in addition, exercised a determining and shaping influ- 
ence upon the dogma. These are Athanasius, Basil the Great, 

* Corresponding to the Heb. 3X. The pupils of the rabbins were termed their 

T 

sons. Comp. Schoettgen, Horae Hebr, et Talm,, i, p. 745, on Gal. iv, 19; Clem. Alex. 
Strom., i, 31 Y ; avriKa naTEpag rovg KarrjxT/GavTac (pafiev^ Basil the Great in Constitut. 
Monast., c 20; Chrysost. Hom., 11 and 48, vol. v; Suiceri, Thesaur., ii, p. 637 b. 



PATRISTICS. 397 

Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom in the East; and Jerome, 
Ambrose, Augustine, and Gregory the Great in the West. Thomas 
Aquinas and Bonaventura are also included with them. The bound- 
aries of patristics are indefinite also as respects time. Limits of Pa- 
Protestants close the series of Church fathers with the tristicsintime. 
6th century (Gregory the Great), Roman Catholics with the 13th. 
The scholastic divines, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and others, 
however, are preferably termed doctor es ecdesiae, their activity be- 
ing, in point of fact, chiefly limited to teaching ; while, in the case 
of the fathers of the early centuries, the government of the Church, 
and also the characteristics of their personality, claim attention as 
well. This may be seen in the life of Cyprian, and in the much 
later illustration in Bernard of Clairvaux. 

The Church fathers are not only ecclesiastical lights, luminaria^ 
but also, in many instances, ecclesiastical princes, pri- other terms for 
mates, and saints, sancti patres. This constitutes the church fathers. 
reason why patristics is interwoven with different branches of the 
history of the Church. If it be chiefly regarded with reference to 
its biographical element — the lives of the fathers, to which some 
apply the distinctive name of Patrology • — it will coincide with 
ecclesiastico-historical monography. If attention be directed only 
toward the writings left by the fathers, it will become a branch of 
the history of literature.^ Thus patristics will constitute an ele- 
ment in the history of doctrines only in so far as the object is to 
comprehend the teachings of an ecclesiastical personage in connex- 
ion with the modes of thought which prevailed in his time, and to 
assign to it a suitable place in the dogmatical development as a 
whole. The difference prevails, however, that in the former case 
the person himself becomes, monographically, the central object of 
the inquiry, while the history of doctrines is more especially con- 
cerned with the opinion of the individual as related to the develop- 
ment of doctrine at large. The history of doctrines is, for in- 
stance, less concerned to know how Augustine attained to his con- 
victions than how the Church came to adopt his views as its own.' 

i Danz, p. 322. 

' This may likewise be treated as a distinct branch which, however, will be simply 
a collateral branch of the history of Christian culture in general. We assigned to it 
a separate place in our first edition (and also in the History of Missions), and Pelt 
also accords it separate treatment " only because of its special importance for theo- 
logians, and because it is the customary method," and without assigning to it a place 
in the organism of theological sciences (§ 5*7). It is probably better for the purposes 
of encyclopaedia to narrow down the framework, for which reason we give it no sepa- 
rate paragraph. 

' Comp. Hagenbach, History of Doctrines (Smith's ed.), § 5. 



398 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

In all such cases it is difficult to understand wby patristics should 
be erected into an independent study. In a scientific aspect it is 
immaterial whether the life of Augustine or that of Spener be 
under discussion — both of them are comprehended under the idea 
of monography. Bibliographical investigations, in relation to the 
various editions of Lactantius, have the same scientific .character as 
though they were concerned with the letters of Luther or Calixtus. 
It follows, that the contribution to the history of doctrines ren- 
dered by patristics is not different in substance from 
tristics to doc- that furnished by every monograph in which doctrinal 
IS ory. i^^g^Qjy j^g involved. For, while we must be concerned 
to know the doctrinal system of an Athanasius or Augustine, it is 
equally important that Anselm, Luther, Quenstedt, Bengel, Schleier- 
niacher, and Rothe be made to contribute toward the common work. 
The only qualification to which weight attaches is, that the possi- 
bility of pre-eminent service decreases with the progress of time.* 
Real productiveness is greater in proportion as the development is 
near the point of origin. But it would, nevertheless, be arbitary, 
and an evidence of mechanical views, if the attempt were made to 
confine such productiveness " altogether to the age of the so-called 
Church fathers." 

Remarks of a somewhat similar character will apply to the ap- 
The term pellation "classic." In neither case is it possible to 
"classic." draw a clearly defined line, although certain eminences 

will be presented to every eye as decidedly and energetically prom- 
inent; and, as in that instance, the attention of students is to be 
turned toward the classical, so patristical studies are to be recom- 
mended here, in order that familiarity with ecclesiastical modes of 
thought and language may be acquired at an early stage. To at- 
tempt the reading of all the Church fathers would be far too great 
a task for the student, to offset which the treatment of Church 
history should include an outline of patristics. Certain of the fa- 
thers may, in addition, be described in monographs, and the more 
important of their works be read, in part or as a whole, as j^atristic 
selections, under the direction of the teacher. For this purpose we 
may particularly recommend, in addition to the Apostolical Fathers, 
the Epistle to Diognetus, the Apologists (Justin Martyr, Athen- 
agoras, Theophilus of Antioch, Minucius Felix, and some portion 
Best works of ^f Tertullian), the Alexandrians (Clement and Origen^ 
the fathers. ^^ least in extracts or summaries), Athanasius, Basil the 
Great, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa (in a similar way), 
some of Chrysostom's Homilies and the work De Sacerdotio, and 

' Schleiermacher, § 251 



PATRISTICS. 399 

Augustine's Confessions, De Doctrina Christiana, Enchiridion ad 
Laurentium, and De civitate Dei.^ 

THE HISTORY OF PATRISTICS. 

The necessity of collecting the material of patristics could not 
arise before an ecclesiastical literature had been formed. Jerome 
(died 420) composed Illustrious Men, or Ecclesiastical Writes, 
and was followed by Gennadius (490), Isidore of Seville (in 
the 7th century), Ildefonsus of Toledo (in the 8th), and by Hono- 
rius Augustodunensis, Sigebertus Gemblacensis, Henr. Gaudavensis, 
Joh. Trithemius, and Aubertus Mirseus (between the 12th and 16th 
centuries). All are found in J. A. Fabricii, Bibliotheca eccles., 
Hamb,, 1718. The Benedictine monks, more accurately the Con- 
gregatio St. Mauri, have distinguished themselves by their editions 
of the Church fathers ; and a number of theologians in the Anglican 
Church have likewise performed meritorious work in this direction. 
In later times patristical studies were promoted in the Roman 
Catholic Church by Robert Bellarmine (in the 17th century), Caspar 
Oudin, Ellies du Pin, le ISTourry, Tillemont, Ceillier, Lumper, Spren- 
ger, Mohler, and others ; and, in the Protestant, by Scultetus, Nol- 
ten, Oelrichs, Cave, Schoenemann, and J. G. Walch. The earlier 
works were more particularly confined to the bibliographical de- 
partment, while in modern times the method of monographical 
discussion has been elevated into an art. 

^ R. Rothe, writing while yet a student, says, " I am convinced that no person can 
become athorough and skilful theologian who has not made a serious and life-long 
task of the study of the Church fathers, and who has not derived adequate and spir- 
itual strength from their sanctified spirit and their genuinely religious application of 
a solid learning. But for this the longest life will ever be too brief, so that there can 
be no thought of completing the work while at the university" (C. Nippold i, p. 98). 
Certain mediaeval writers — Scholastics and Mystics — have equal claim to be made the 
object of careful study, especially Anselm, Cur Deus homo, and pre-eminently the 
Reformers. The history of the Reformation, for instance, may be most attractively 
followed along the thread of the letters of Luther (published by de Wette), Zwingle 
(by Schulcr and Schulthess), and Calvin (Strasburg ed., by Strauss, Baum, and Cunitz). 
Every student should have also read, in addition to the more important of Luther's 
writings (the Address to Christian Nobles of the German Nation, and that on the 
Babylonian Captivity), the Loci Communes of Melanchthon and Calvin's Institutes. In 
a word, the entire history of Christian literature should be made to pass in living 
farms before the eye of the theologian. This, however, is nothing more than the 
practical realization of the idea of thorough study of the field of Church history iu 
general. 



400 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

PATRISTIC LITERATURE. 

1. German and French. 

i 

Best Editions of Collected Wo7'ks of the Fathers. 

Cailleau, A. B., et M. N. S. Guillon, Collectio selecta ss. eccl. patrum. Paris, 1829 ss. 

148 vols. 
Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum ed. cousilio et impens s Acudemiae Jit- 

eranim Csesariae Yindobonensis, IdiQQ sqq. (Vol. I, Sulpic. Severus. II, Mi- 

nucius Felix. Ill, Cyprian, IV, [1875] Arnobius.) 
Gallandii, A. Bibliotlieca vett. patrum antiquorumque scriptt. eeclesiast. Venet., 

1765-88. 14 vols. fol. (Gives the smaller writings of tine Cliurch fathers iu the 

most complete collection. However, it remains unfinished.) 
Horoy, Medii aevi biblioth. patristica. Vol. I. (Honor. III.) Paris, 1879. (Expected 

to be in 100 vols.) 
Magna bibliotheca vett. patrum et antiqu. scriptorum eeclesiast., ed. Margarin de la 

Eigne. Pari^J, 1575. Most complete, Paris, 1654. 17 vols. fol. 
Maxima bibliotheca vett. patrum, etc. Lugd,, 1677. 27 vols. fol. (The Greek 

fathers only in Latin translations. Especially important because of introduction 

of mediaeval tlieologians.) 
Migne, J. P. Patrologiae cursus completus s. bibl. universalis ss. patr. scriptorumque 

eccl. Paris, 1844 ss. (The Latin Fathers in 221 vols., the Greek in 161.) 
Migne, J. P. Theologise cursus completus. Vol. I, Paris, 1879. (In 28 vols.) 
Permaneder, M, Biblioth. patristica. Landsh., 1841-44. 2 vols. New edition, 

1850. (Vol. I, entitled : Patrologia generalis s. encyclopsedia patristica.) 
Reififerscheid, A. Biblioth. patrum latin, italica. (Catalogue of MSS. of Latin 

Church fathers in the Italian libraries.) Vienna, 1865 ft. 

2. English and American Literature. 

Ante-Nicene Christian Library, edited by Roberts and Donaldson. 8vo, 24 vols. 

Edinburgh, 1864-72. 
Augustine, The Confessions of. Edited by William G. T, Shedd. ]2mo, pp. xxxvi, 

417. Andover, 1860. (A very convenient edition of the Confessions. Dr. 

Shedd has prefixed an Introduction.) 
Bennett, J. The Theology of the Early Christian Church, Exhibited in Quotations 

from the Writers of the First Three Centuries. 12rao, pp. xii, .315. London, 1852. 
Blunt, J. J. Lectures on the Right Use of the Early Fathers. Third edition. 

8vo. London, 1869. 
Bolton, W. J. The Evidences of Christianity, as Exliibited in the Writings of its 

Apologists down to Augustine. 8vo, pp. 237. New York, 1854. 
Bright, William, Select Anti-Pelagian Treatises of St. Augustine, and the Acts of the 

Second Council of Orange, 12mo, pp. Ixviii, 399. Oxford, 1880. (The Latin 

text of the treatises is given; Dr. Bright has prefixed an historical introduction.) 
Burton, E. Testimonials of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Divinity of Christ. 

Second edition. 8vo. London, 1 829. 
Burton, E. Testimonies of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Doctrine of the Trinity, 

and of the Divinity of the Holy Ghost. 8vo. London, 18B1. 
Cave, William. Lives of the Most Eminent Fathers of the Church, that Flourished 

in the First Four Centuries. A New and Revised Edition by Henry Carey. 

8vo, 3 vols., pp. XX, 463; xv, 463 ; iv, 444. Oxford, 1840. 



LITERATURE OF PATRISTICS. 401 

Church, R. W. St. Anselm. 8vo, pp. xii, 303. London, 1870. 

Daille, John. A Treatise oh the Right Use of the Fathers in the Decision of Contro- 
versies existing at this day in Religion. Translated from the French by T. 
Smith. Re-edited and amended by G. Jekyll. Second edition, Bvo, pp. xxiv, 
359. London, 1842. (This famous book, by one of the Protestant scholars of 
the seventeenth century, was brouglit out again in llie time of the Tmctarian 
controversy. It is an argument against the authority of the Fathers in matters 
of doctrine.) 

Deane, Henry. The Third Book of St. Irenseus, Bishop of Lyons, against Heresies. 
With Short Notes and a Glossary. 12mo, pp. iv, 115. Oxford, 1880. (This is 
a text-book for the use of theological students. Besides the Latin text, each 
chapter is prefaced with a synopsis of its contents.) 

Douglass. Series of Christian Greek and Latin Writers. Editor, F. A. March. 
12mo, 5 vols. New York, 1874-80. 

Harrison, J. Wliose are the Fathers ? 8vo, pp. ix, 728. London, 1867. 

Jackson, G. A. The Apostolic Fathers and the Apologists of the Second Century. 
18mo. New York, 1879. (A Series of Church History Primers.) 

Kaye, John. Some Account of the Writings aud Opinions of Justin Martyr. Third 
edition. 8vo, pp. 222. London, 1853. 

Neander, Augustus. "The Life of St. Chrysoslom. Translated by the Rev. J. C. 
Stapleton. 8vo, pp. viii, 438, London, 1844. (Also London, Bohn Ecclesias- 
tical Library.) 

Neander, Augustus. Anti-Gnosticus ; or. The Spirit of Tertullian, and an Introduc- 
tion to his Writings. Translated from the Second Edition (1849) of the Original 
German. 12mo, pp. 191-552. London, 1851. (The edition quoted is in the 
Bohn Ecclesiastical Library, and is bound up with the second volume of Nean- 
der's History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church.) 

Perry, G. G. The Christian Fathers. Bvo. London, 1870. (Ignatius, Polycarp, and 
fourteen others.) 

Poole, George Ayliffe. The Life and Times of Saint Cyprian. Bvo, pp. xv, 417. 
Oxford, 1840. 

Roberts, Alexander, and Donaldson, James, Editors. Also A. Cleveland Goxe, Amer- 
ican Editor. The Nicene Fathers. Large 8vo, 9 vols., double columns. 
Buffalo, 1887. 

Rule, Martin. The Life and Times of St. Anselm. Bvo, 2 vols., pp. 438, 425. Lon- 
don, 1883. 

SchafiT, Philip, Editor. A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of 
the Christian Church. Large Bvo. Fourteen volumes, double columns. Buf- 
falo, 1886-90. 

Schaff", Philip, and Wace, Henry, Editors. A Select Library of the Nicene aud Post- 
Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. Second Series, Large Bvo, 6 vols., 
double columns. New York, Oxford, and London, 1890-93. 

Semisch, Charles. Justin Martyr : His Life, Writings, and Opinions, Translated from 
the German by J. E. Rylance. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. xx, 341 ; xvi, 387. Edinburgh, 
1843. (Semisch's examination of Justin's doctrinal opinions is very thorough.) 

Stephens, W. R. W. Life and Times of St. John Chrysostom. Bvo, pp. xvi, 456. 
London, 1872. 

Wilson, William. The Popular Preachers of the Ancient Church: Their Lives, Their 
Manners, and Their Work. 12mo, pp. 282. London, no date. (Gives lives 
of Cyprian, Ambrose of Milan, Augustine of Hippo, Basil the Great, Gregory 
Nazianzen, and Chrysostom.) 
26 



403 HISTORICAL THEOLOaY. 

SECTION XXI. 

SYMBOLICS. 

Symbolics, in a broad sense, designates the science of the origin, 
Definition of nature, and contents of all the public confessions in 
symbolics. which the Church has laid down a summary of its teach- 
ing, and which it has erected at certain times and under certain 
forms as the standard of its faith. In a more limited sense, the 
term is used to denote a knowledge of the distinctive teachings 
which, especially since the Reformation, separate the diiferent di- 
visions of the Church from each other in doctrinal matters, the con- 
trast between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, and the minor 
differences therewith connected. Symbolics forms an integral part 
of the history of doctrines, or coincides with comparative dog- 
matics, or polemics, in proportion as the purely historical or the 
dogmatico-polemical interest predominates in the stating and dis- 
cussing of such opposing standards. It is probably best to regard 
it as a historical science connected with the history of doctrines, 
but as also, under this form, a necessary aid and point of transition 
to dogmatics. 

I,vii(3oAov (a token, mark^) denotes, in ecclesiastical usage, a for- 
mula preserved by tradition or in writing, by which all who belong 
to the same ecclesiastical party may recognize each other. The 
symbol is the common shibboleth, the ecclesiastical standard, about 
which the community is gathered. The use of such symbols, of 
which the so-called Apostles' Creed was the earliest, is derived 

^. , ^ , , from the ritual of baptism. Its first office, therefore, 
First and later ... . . . . . 

office of sym- was to distinguish the Christian, as belonging to a dif- 

^°^* ferent religious society, from the Jew and the heathen; 

and it was afterward employed to distinguish orthodox Catholic 

' Comp. Suicer, Thesaur, Eccles., s. v., and Creuzer, Symbolik Mone's ed., § 16, p. 13). 
I,vjj.(3o?iov signifies what is formed by the joining together of two parts ; e. ff., the 
term avfi^old was applied to the two halves of the tablets which served as pledges of 
a contracted hospitality (tesserce hospitalitatis). It was afterward employed to desig- 
nate all unions ; and, subsequently, everything that in the progress of time came to 
take the place of the coarse tokens of earlier times, a pledge in general. Thus we 
find it applied to the ring, which was given instead of ordinary contributions toward 
a common feast, and later to the pledge for subsequent redemption, which was in use 
in matters of exchange; also to the tessera militarise the parole; in brief, to any 
token, any sign, by which those belonging together, the initiated, might recognize 
each other. Its derivation from avfi^uXTi-eiv, for the purpose of proving that each of 
the apostles contributed one article to the Apostles' Creed, is absurd. Nor is art 
symbolism to be taken into account in this connexion. This has its place, but in a 
different theological department (Liturgies), although but little has been done as yet 
toward its thorough scientific development. Oomp. the section on Archaeology. 



SYMBOLICS. 403 

Christians from heretics. The bjioovatog of the Nicene symbol 
served in this way to discriminate the adherents of the Athanasian 
(orthodox) faith from tJie Arians. 

The Nicene, the so-called Athanasian — the Symb. Quicumqne of 
later date — and the so-called Apostolic Creed, form the three 
principal symbols of the Church. But when the adherents of the 
purified doctrines separated from the Roman Catholic Church, in 
the time of the Reformation, they laid down the doctrines held by 
them in common, first apologetically, and then polemically, in sepa- 
rate symbolical writings, the Lutherans and the Reformed party 
each constructing their own, because of deviations from the truth 
that had taken place — each, however, holding fast to the three 
leading symbols of the early Church. The differences existing with- 
in the above-mentioned parties, together with the controversies that 
agitated the Protestant Church as a whole, gave rise to still further 
symbolical divergencies. It was also desired to erect barriers 
against all intermixture with non-Catholic bodies (Anabaptists, 
Anti-Trinitarians, Anti-Scriptuarians, etc.), with whom the Reform- 
ers wished to have nothino^ in common. 

The following are the Lutheran symbols, brought together in 
1580 in the Book of Concord: The Conf. Augustana, Lutheran sym- 
1530, the Apology, 1531, the Articles of Smalcald, 1537, ^°^^- 
and the Formula Concordiae, 1579, to which must be added the 
two Catechisms of Luther, 1528 and 1529. The Reformed Con- 
fessions are less sharply distinguished from other theological pro- 
ductions, and less generally received. The more prominent are 
the Swiss (Conf. Bas. i; Helv. i or Bas. ii, and Helv. ii), Gallic, 
Belgic, Anglican (xxxix Articles), Scottish, and American, and the 
Anhalt, Brandenbergian, and Heidelberg Catechisms. To these must 
be added the Arminian Confession, by the Remonstrants of Hol- 
land. It consisted of 26 chapters, and appeared first in 1622.^ 

The Roman Catholics, on their part, now saw themselves com- 
pelled to present more clearly what Avas distinctive in their teach- 
ing. This was done in the Professio fidei Tridentina and the Cat e- 
chismus Romanus. The smaller sects and ecclesiastical parties 
likewise reduced to writing the points at which they diverged from 
the general belief; e. r/., the Anabaptists (Mennonites), Socinians, 
Quakers, and others, although such writings have, in some instances, 
simply the authority of private productions. The Socinian Catechis- 
mus Racoviensis might deserve to be considered a symbolical book 
more than any of the others. The idea of confessional TVTitings can- 
not be entertained in connexion with the Quakers, who make their 
^ Comp. Winer (Pope's ed.), Creeds of Christendom, p. 28. 



404 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

religious life altogether independent of the letter, even that of the 
Bible/ 

The task of Historical Theology embraces even the origin and 
fortunes of these books. To whatever extent symbolics is primar- 
ily engaged upon this external history, it will coincide with the his- 
tory of ecclesiastical literature. Or, it might, if not in too detailed 
a form, be incorporated with Church history, which is necessarily 
obliged to take notice of the origin of movements of great import- 
ance. But the task of symbolics is more extensive. What has 
Scope of sym- been thus far noted partakes more of the nature of in- 
bohcs. troduction, analogous to the introduction to the books 

of the Bible. To this must be added exegetical investigation, in- 
asmuch as the meaning of these confessional writings is to be ascer- 
tained, construed, and explained. But as exegesis leads immedi- 
ately into Biblical dogmatics as its resultant, so symbolics does 
not rest satisfied with having explained each particular confession, 
but passes on to construct, in harmony with the definitions of the 
several symbolical writings, a system of Roman Catholicism, of 
Protestantism, of Anabaptism, Socinianism, Quakerism, and the 
rest. Finally, it proceeds to compare these ecclesiastical systems 
with the general principles upon which they are based, or with each 
other, by an examination of particular doctrines which they receive. 
In the latter function it becomes Comparative dogmatics.'' When 
it goes to the length of taking part directly in favour of some mode 
of belief, and of defending it, in opposition to other beliefs — e. g., 
the views of Protestantism against those of Roman Catholicism — 
it becomes Polemics. 

Symbolics thus provides the weapons for polemics, and is its his- 
Reiation of torical base. It is related to the history of doctrines 

symbolics to ^g -g ^^^ j,^q^ ^^ ^|jg trunk of the tree, or the eddy to 

history of doc- . . ' , . 

trines. the Stream. The history of doctrmes is obliged to pass 

through the field of symbolics, and even becomes symbolics to some 
extent. In the history of doctrines we have made a distinction 
between the general and the special. Symbolics may similarly 
be treated in a general way by discussing principles, noting oppo- 
site ideas at large; for example, those of Roman Catholicism and 

^ The term symbolics is not, therefore, thoroughly appropriate, and can only denote, 
in instances Avhere no symbols exist, that " the statements are conformed to the most 
classical and generally acknowledged mode of presenting any particular faith." — 
Schleiermacher, § 249, note. 

2 Schleiermacher, § 98, distinguishes between Comparative Dogmatics and Symbol- 
ics, but is not wholly decided to recognize either as a science which could well exist 
independently. 



SYMBOLICS. 405 

of Protestantism, or it may trace the particular differences in sepa- 
rate doctrines. The two methods must be combined. It has been 
justly observed, however, with reference to the conflict of princi- 
ples, that the task of symbolics has not been fully accomplished 
when it has brought into view the existing dogmatic contrasts, since 
the differences between the several confessions extend also into the 
domains of ethics, politics, and social life. 

The symbolics of to-day will, accordingly, need to be expanded 

into a science that shall not only embrace the dogmatic ^ ^ _ 

•^ ^ ^ ^ Symbolics a 

vital tendencies of Roman Catholicism and Protestant- broad science 
ism, and, further, those of Lutlieranism and Calvinism, *^<*^y- 
of Episcopacy and Puritanism, of the Orthodox and the Schismatic 
in Protestantism, but also the moral, political, artistic, and scientific 
factors, bringing the whole together for purposes of comparison, 
and pointing out how every such confessional feature stands con- 
nected with the fundamental dogmatic principle upon which the 
confession rests.^ The material for such a science, which would be 
highly interesting as bearing upon the history of culture as well, 
but for which the term " symbolics " would no longer be an ade- 
quate designation, must be sought in the history of the Reforma- 
tion, and of later times, down to the present. 

HISTORY. 

Symbolics, in the broad sense, was already cultivated, in part, in 
the antiquity of the Church, inasmuch as certain teach- origin of mod- 
ers in the Church — like Augustine, On Faith and Sym- em symbols. 
bol, A.D. 393 — explained the ecclesiastical symbols. But a "defi- 
nite recognition of ecclesiastical contrasts was begotten by the Ref- 
ormation " (Pelt, p. 444). Symbols, strictly speaking, first orig- 
inated in the Lutheran Church, though the term confessio, which 
was preferred by the Reformed, was also in use (Confessio Augus- 
tana). Upon the basis of this symbolism polemics unfolded itself, 
Chemnitz, Examen concilii Trid, being on the one side, and Bel- 
larmine, De controversiis fidei, on the other; and, likewise, between 
Lutherans and the Reformed party, Hospinian, Concordia discors, 
1607, and Hutter, Concordia concors, 1614. The need of Historical 
Introductions to the symbolical books was not felt, however, prior 
to the middle of the 17th century. 

This method of discussing simply the history of the The pragmatic 
books was supplemented in the 18th century by the method. 
pragmatic method, the foundation for which was laid by Planck, 

' Pelt applies to this the name " Science of Confessional Principles, or Science of 
the Principles of the Separate Churches," pp. 375 and 444. 



40G HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

and wliich was developed by Marlieineke and Winer, tlie former 
giving more attention to the general discussion, the latter to the 
treatment of particular questions (locis). Koellner followed in the 
footsteps of both these writers, wath his large work, while Guericke 
again departed from the position of impartial investigation, and 
pressed symbolism into the service of his Lutheran proclivities. A 
presentation of symbolics, from the Roman Catholic point of view, 
by Mohler (1832), naturally aroused a lively interest for this sub- 
ject, and called forth a number of works in opposition (by Nitzsch 
and others), particularly the Symbolics by Baur (1834), and a con- 
tinued interchange of further writings. This science, which had 
for a time occupied the position of quiet objectivity, was thus trans- 
ferred again to the ground of polemics, and called for a renewed 
treatment in harmony with its principles. 

The opposition between the Lutheran and the Reformed views, 
Opposition be- which had at one time sunk into indifference, and had 

tween Liitber- g^^l^sequentlv been compromised by the establishment 

an and Re- . ^ . 

formed. of the "Union," or, at least, had been reduced to its 

merely relative importance, has also come into the foreground of 
late, and been carried to excess. Science has gained thereb}^, inas- 
much as the differences connected with the principles of the Reform- 
ers, which had formerly been overlooked, were now more sharply 
apprehended and more definitely stated. It is to be regretted, how- 
ever, that the passions and the narrow spirit of the disputants have 
often perverted the actual points of view, and caused a confusion from 
which we can hope to be delivered, through God's mercy, only by a 
cautious theology enlisted in the service of truth and not of a party. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OE SYMBOLISM. 
(This list also includes Hardouin and Mansi.) 

Baron, J. The Greek Origin of the Apostles' Creed. 8vo. London, 1805. 
Bethune, G. W. Expository Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism. 12mo, 

2 vols., pp. viii, 491, 535. New York, 1864. 
Book of Christian Discipline of the Society of Friends in Great Britain. Svo, pp. 

xiv, 312. London, 1883. 
Boultbee, T. P. An Introduction to the Theologj'" of the Church of England, in an 

Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles. Svo. London, 1871. 
Bright, "William. Notes on the Canons of the First Four General Councils. Svo, pp. 

vi, 215, Oxford, 1882. (Each canon is treated in a manner yielding a contribu- 
tion to Cliurch liiRtor3\) 
Browne, E, H. An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles, Historical and Doctrinal. 

Svo, pp. 871. New York, 1870. 
Brownlee, "W. C. The Doctrinal Decrees and Canons of the Council of Trent. 

Translated from the first edition with a Preface and Notes. 16mo, pp. 119. 

New York, 1857. 



LITERATURE OF SYMBOLISM. 407 

Budd, Henry. The XXXIX Articles of Our Established Church, 1571. 12mo, pp. 
311, London. No date. 

Bungeaer, L. F. History of the Council of Trent. From the French. Edited with a 
Summary of the Acts of the Council by John McClintock. 12mo, pp. 546. New 
York, 1855. 

Burnet, G. An Exj osition of the Thirty-ume Articles of the Church of England. 
Svo, pp. xlviii, 542. Oxford, 1805. 

Chrisman, E. B. Origin and Doctrines of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. 
IGmo, pp. 191. St. Louis, Mo., 1858. 

Dale, Alfred W. W. The Synod of Elvira, and Christian Life in the Fourth Century. 
A Historical Essay. Svo, pp. xxviii, 354. London, 1882. 

Dales, John B., and Patterson, R. M., Editors. Proceedings of the Second General 
Council of the Presbyterian Alliance, convened at Philadelphia, September, 1880. 
Svo, pp. 1,154. Philadelphia, 1880. (Tliis important volume contains the creeds 
and terms of subscription of the Presbyterian Churches of Great Britain, British 
Colonies, United States, France, Switzerland, Austria, and Spain, collected un- 
der the direction of the Alliance.) 

Doctrine (The) of the Church of England, as stated in Ecclesiastical Documents set 
forth by Authority of Church and State. Svo. Lnudon, 1868. 

Ffoulkes, E. S. The Athanasian Creed. 12mo. London, 1871. 

Forbes, A. P. A Short Exposition of the Nicene Creed. 12mo, pp. 345. London, 
1866. 

Forbes, A. P. An Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xl, 
299, 518. Oxford, 1867. 

Fulton, John. Index Canonum. Containing the Canons called Apostolical, the Can- 
ons of the Undisputed General Councils, etc., together witli a Complete Digest of 
the Whole Code of Canon Law in the Undivided Christian Church. Svo. New 
York, 1872. (A work of much value.) 

Greg, W. R. The Creeds of Christendom. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1863. 

Grier, Richard. An Epitome of the General Councils of the Church from the Coun- 
cil of Nice, A. D. 325, to the Conclusion of the Roman Council of Trent, in the 
year 1563. 12mo, pp. 338. Dublin, 1828. 

Hall, P. The Harmony of Protestant Confessions. Svo, pp. 695. London, 1841. 

llardouin, Joannes. Acta Conciliorum et Epistolse Decretales, ac constitutiones sum- 
morum Pontiticum. 12 vols., folio. Paris, 1715. (This is a great work on the 
Councils, and stands in value next after Mansi. The last volume covers the 
ground from A. D. 1509 to 1714. There is also an excellent index.) 

Hardwick, C. A History of the Articles of Religion, with Documents, A. D. 1536- 
1615. Third edition. 12mo, pp. xx, 420. Londm, 1876. 

Harvey, W. W. The History and Theology of the Three Creeds. Svo, 2 vols., 
pp. XV, 348, 352. London, 1 854. 

Ilefele, Charles Joseph. A History of the Councils of the Church from the Origi- 
nal Documents. Translated from the German, with the author's approbation, 
and edited by tlie editor of Hagenbach's History of Doctrines. 3 vols., i^p. ix, 502 ; 
xvi, 503; xii, 480. Edinburgh and New York, 1883. (The third volume in- 
cludes tlie history of the councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. One of the gi'eut 
works in Cliurch history.) 

Heurttley, C. A. HarmoniaSymbolica: a Collection of Creeds belonging to the An- 
cient Western Church, and to tlie Mediaeval English Church. Svo, pp. 181. 
Oxford, 1858. 

Hodge, A. A. A Commentary on the Confession of Faith. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1869. 
2G 



408 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Jacobs, Heury E. The Book of Concord; or, The Sj'tnbolical Books of the Evangel- 
ical Lutheran Ctuircb. Wiih Historical lutroduction, Notes, Appendices, and 
Indices. 2 vols. Yol. I, The Confessions. 8vo, pp. 671. Philadelphia, 1882. 
Yol. 11, Ilistoiical lutroduction, Appendices and ludices. Pp. 429. Philadel- 
phia, 1883. (Indispensable to the student of Lutlieranism.) 

Jelf, R. W. The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. 8vo. London, 1873. 

Jenkins, R. C. Romanism: A Doctrinal and Historical Examination of the Creed of 
Pope Pius lY. 8vo. London, 1882. (A criticism of the creed, which is based 
on the decrees of the Council of Trent.) 

Jimeson, A. A. Notes on the Twenty-five Articles of Religion as Received and 
Tauglit by Methodists in the United States. Second edition. 12mo, pp. 407. 
Cincinnati, 1854. 

Kaye, John. Some Account of the Council of Nicsea in Connexion with the Life of 
Atlianasius. 8vo, pp. 306. London, 1853. 

King, (Sir) Peter. The History of the Apostles' Creed, with Critical Observations on 
its Several Articles. Pourth edition. ]2mo, pp. 415. London, 1729. (Tlie 
first American edition. Pp. 340. Elizabethtowu, K J., 1804.) 

Kraulli, C. P. The Augsburg Confession. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1869, 

Krauth, C. P. The Conservative Reformaiion and its Theology, as Represented in 
the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical 
Lutheran Church. Svo, pp. 855. Philadelphia, 1871. 

Laurence, Ricliard. An Attempt to Illustrate those Articles of the Churcli of Eng- 
land which the Calvinists Improperly Consider as Calvinistical. Bampton Lec- 
tures for 1804. Pourth edilion. 8vo, pp. 423. Oxford, 1853. 

Lectures on the Augsburg Confession, on the Holman Foundation. Delivered in the 
Theological Seminary of the General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, 
Gettysburg, Pa. First Series, 1866-86. Svo, pp. 888. Philadelphia, 1888. 
The vohniie contains: I. Tlie Trinity. By J. A. Brown. IT. Original Sin. By 
S. Sprecher. HE. The Person and Work of Christ. By S. S. Schmucker. I Y. Jus- 
tification by Faith. By M. Yalentine. Y. Tlie Office of the Ministry. By C. A. 
Hay. YI. New Obedience. By C. A. Stork. YII. The Church. By J. G. 
Morris. YIIL The Church as It Is. By H. Zicgler. IX. Baptism. By F. W. 
Conrad. X. The Lord's Supper. By G. Diehl. XL Confession. By A. C. 
Wedekind. XII. Repentance. By S. W. Ilarkey. XIII. Use of the Sacra- 
ments. By W. M. Baum. XIY. Call to the Ministry. By L. A. Gotwald. XY. 
Human Ordinances in the Church. By S. A. Holman. XYI. Civil Polity and 
Government. By L. E. Albert. XYII. Christ's Return to Judgment. By E. 
J. Wolf. XYIIL Free Will. By H. L. Baugher. XIX. The Cause of Sin. 
By S. A. Repass. XX. Relation of Faith and Good Works. By E. Huber. 
XXL The Invocation of Saints. By J. C. Koller. 

Lumby, J. R. The History of the Creeds. Svo. London, 1873. 

Macbride, John D. Lectures on the Articles of the United Church of England and 
Ireland. Svo, pp. 534. Oxford, 1853. 

Macpherson, J. The Westminster Confession of Faith ; with Introduction and 
Notes. 12mo, pp. 171. New York, 1881. 

Mansi, Joan. Domin, Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio. 31 vols. fol. 
Florence and Yenice, 1759-98. (The best collection down to 1509, A new 
edition, fac-simile, published by Yictor Palme. Paris and Berhn, 1884, sqq.) 

Mn thews, George D. Alliance of the Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian 
System. Minutes and Proceedings of the Third General Council. Svo. Belfast, 
1884. 



LITERATURE OF SYMBOLISM. 409 

Mitchell, Alexander F. The Westminster Assembly : its History and Standards. 
Being the Baird Lecture for 1882. 12mo, pp. 519. London, 1883. (Traces 
Puritanism to its beginnings in the sixteenth century.) 

Nampon, A. Catholic Doctrine as Defined by the Council of Trent. 8vo. Phila- 
delphia, 1869. 

Newman, J. H. Tract Number Ninety. Remarks on Certain Passages in the Thir- 
ty-nine Articles. 8vo, pp. 134. New York, 1865. 

Pearson, J. An Exposition of the Creed ; with an Appendix containing the Principal 
Greek and Latin Creeds. 8vo. London, 1870. 

Perry, S. G. P. The Second Synod of Ephesus, together with Certain Extracts Re- 
lating to it, from Syriac MSS. preserved in the British Museum and now first 
edited. 8vo, pp. 459. Dartford, 1881. 

PopofiF, Basil. The History of the Council of Florence. Edited by Rev. J. M. Neale. 
12mo, pp. 189. London, 1861. 

Radcliife, John. The Confession of Our Christian Faith, commonly called the Creed 
of St. Athanasius, illustrated from the Scriptures of the Old and New Testa- 
ments, by parallel passages from the Greek and Latin Writers of the First Five 
Centuries and the Apostles and Nicene Creeds. 8vo, pp. 510. London, 
1844. 

Revised Confession of Faith and Catechism of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, 
adopted by the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, A. D. 1883. Nashville, Tenn. 

Rogers, T. Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles. 8vo. London, 1853. 

Rule, W. H. Councils, Ancient and Modern; from the Apostolical Council of Jeru- 
salem to the (Ecumenical Council of Nicsea and the last Papal Council in th& 
Vatican. 18mo. London, 1810. 

Scott, Thomas. The Articles of the Synod ofDort. Translated from the Latin witli. 
Notes. With an Introductory Essay by Samuel Miller. l2mo, pp. 260. Phila- 
delphia, 1856. 

Schafif, P. Bibliotheca Symbolica Ecclesise Universalis. The Creeds of Christendom, 
with a History and Critical Notes. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. 954, 551, 880. New York, 
1879. (As a comparative history of Protestant and other theologies the first 
volume has great value.) 

Schaif, P. The Harmony of the Reformed Confessions, as Related to the Present 
State of Evangelical Theology. 16mo, pp. 70. New York, 1877. 

Schafi', Philip. Creed Revision in the Presbyterian Churches. 8vo, pp. 67. New 
York, 1890. (This book, besides an analysis of the Westminster Confession, 
contains the New Confession and Declaratory Statement of the Presbyterian 
Church of England.) 

Stuckenberg, J, H. W. The History of the Augsburg Confession, from its Origin till 
the Adoption of the Formula of Concord. 12mo, pp. 335. Philadelphia, 1869. 

The Symbolical Books of the Yarious Churches of the United States, such as the Con- 
fession of Faith (Presbyterian), the Methodist Discipline, the Constitution of the 
Reformed Church (Dutch) in America, the Augsburg Confession, the Heidelberg 
Catechism, the Revised Prayer Book of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and 
the Confession which is most generally recognized by the Congregational 
Churches can be readily procured from the denominational publishing houses, 
for which see Appendix II. 

The Westminster Confession of Faith. With Introduction and Notes by the Rev. 
John Macpherson, M.A. 12mo, pp. 171. New York, 1881. 

United Presbyterian Church: Confession of Faith, Containing Confession, Catechisms 
and Testimony, Discipline, etc. 12mo. Pittsburg, no date. 



410 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Waterworth, J. The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and (Ecumenical Council of 
Trent. To which are prefixed Essays on the External and Internal History of 
the Council. 8vo, pp. 326. London, 1888. (Invaluable to the student of the 
Council.) 

"Welchman, E. The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. Illustrated with 
Notes, and coufirmed by texts of the Holy Scripture, and testimonies of the 
Primitive Fathers, together with references to the passages in the several au- 
thors which more largely explain the doctrine contained in the said articles. 
Fourteenth edition. 8vo, pp. 86. London, 1834. 

Westcott, B. F. The Historic Faith. 8vo. London, 1883. (Lectures on the Apos- 
tles' Creed.) 

Winer, George Benedict. A Comparative Yiew of the Doctrines and Confessions 
of the Various Communities of Christendom. With Illustrations from their 
Original Standards. Edited with an Introduction by William B. Pope. 8vo, pp. 
Ixx, 3P2. Edinburgh, 1873. (The doctrines of the various Churches are stated 
in tlie language of their symbolical books, and their divergences from one another 
are then pointed out.) 

SECTION XXIL 
ARCHJEOLO G Y . 

Compare Bingham, Antiquities of the Christian Church, 8vo, 9 vols, London, 1840 ; Newton's 
Essays on Art and Archaeology, London, 1885; Mommsen, on Latin Inscriptions, in Contem- 
porary Review, May, 1871 ; Kraus, Roma Sotterranea, Freiburg, 1879 ; Lenormant, Les Cata- 
comhes, Paris, 1858 ; Roller, Th., I^es Catacombes de Rome, Paris, 1870 ; De Rossi, Roma, Sotter- 
ranea Cristiana, lol., 5 vols., Roma, 1864-79 ; Garrucci, Storia dell' arte Cristiana, 8vo, 6 vols., 
Prato, 1873, 1881; Luebke, Ecclesiastical Art in Germany in the Middle Ages, from the fifth 
German edition by L. A. Wheatley, Edinburgh, 1887 ; Venables, article " Mosaics " in Diction- 
ary of Christian Antiquities, vol. ii. 

While the history of doctrines, in connexion with patristics and 
symbolics, presents the history of the development of doctrine 
apart from Church history in general, making of it an object for 
special consideration, ecclesiastical archaeology deals jDreeminently 
with the history of worship. But the boundaries of this science 
are as indefinite and changeable as its name is inappropriate. 

Gieseler says : " In strictness of language everything that once 
existed in the Church, and has now become antiquated, would be- 
long to ecclesiastical archaeology. But if this jDrinciple be admitted 
it will not be easy to justify the separate treatment of archaeology, 
as if it were an independent historical science. What scientific rea- 
son could be assigned for attempting the historical representation of 
everything that is ancient in the Church down to the boundary 
where it touches upon what now exists, but really excluding the 
latter from such representation ? For it is held to be a leading 
principle in historical science, that it should show how the now ex- 
isting has been developed out of what once was.' 



9) 1 



^ Uebersicht d. kirchenhistor. Literatur, in Stud. w. Krit, 1831, No. 3, p. 627 sq. 



ARCHEOLOGY. • 411 

The case resembles that of patristics. Arbitrary boundaries have 
been assumed, some extending archaeology down to 
Gregory the Great only, while others continue it to the a history of 
time of the Reformation. But as patristics must be ^°^ ^' 
brought down to the latest times in the form of a history of the 
literature and a history of theology, so must archaeology be carried 
onward as a history of worship. For the ancient is not entitled to 
separate treatment simply because it is old, though it will not be 
denied that, as in patristics, the first six centuries are of special im- 
portance as the constructive period, and especially so in liturgical 
features.^ By taking archaeology out of its connexion with the 
living development of the Church, and making it an incense-breath- 
ing reliquary, we degrade it as a science into a mere hunt for bric- 
a-brac, and give it an un-Protestant varnish of idle curiosity and 
favouritism. It becomes instructive and quickening Archasoiogy 
only through its relations to the present, which is JSeT^tT'^the 
obliged, in the interests of both dogmatics and liturgies, present. 
to continually draw from the ancient sources, and renew its life at 
the original beginnings of the Church itself. Archaeology, as the 
history of worship, enters into a relation with the history of Christ- 
ian art as close as that sustained by the history of doctrines to 
historical philosophy; and, as the latter prepares the way for dog- 
matics, so does the former for liturgies. 

Certain writers, especially older ones, and Boehmer among them, 
include the history of constitution in archaeology. But it is ques- 
tionable whether a separate treatment of that branch is needed, or 
be allowed to quietly retain its place upon the tree of Church his- 
tory, with which it is intimately united.^ It would, at all events, 
be impracticable to regard the two as forming a single worship and 
science. The history of worship also sustains an inti- morals. 
mate relation with Christian morals, or Christian life itself, in 
the more independent forms of its manifestation. Each is 
largely involved with the other ; for example, the history of 
asceticism, of fasting, and of feasts, the Church feasts being 
likewise popular festivals. It is difficult to indicate the bounda- 
ries at this point, and the historian will be obliged to depend 

' Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 168-'70; Danz, § '70; Rosenkranz, p. 221, and Guericke 
in Herzog, Encykl. s. v. 

^ Rheinwald's definition, according to which Christian archaeology is " the repre- 
sentation of the entire life of the Church, in the course of its development and ac- 
cording to its results," is evidently too broad, since it would include the history of 
doctrines also in archaeology. Compare, for a contrary view, Boehmer, who, how- 
ever, holds to the boundary of the first six centuries. 



413 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

upon a certain tact to preserve him from wandering away into for- 
eign matters.* 

HISTORY. 

The history of archaeology depends upon the history of worship 
itself. In the same measure as the latter rose from its original sim- 
plicity to an artistic representation under various forms, has it of- 
fered material for antiquarian research. The simple collecting of the 
material from the appropriate sources, as ancient liturgies, Acts of 
Councils, and Papal decretals, was all that was undertaken at first; 
for example, in the Roman Catholic Church, by J. Bapt. Casalius 
(Christianorum ritus veteres, 1645), who was joined by Cardinal 
Bona (died 1694), Claude Fleury (1682), Martene (died 1739), Th. 
Maria Mamachi (1749-55), and Selvaggio (1787-90). In the Prot- 
estant Church the initiative was taken, certainly not as the result 
of accident, by the Anglicans, and first of all by Joseph Bingham 
(died 1723), in the Origines Ecclesiasticae (Antiquities of the Chris- 
tian Church, 1708-26), whose work was translated into Latin by 
J. H. Grischow, Halle ed., 1724-38, and again in 1751-61 (10 vols. 
4to). The best English edition is by Pitman, London, 1840, 9 vols. 
8vo. He was followed, among Germans, by J. A. Quenstedt (Antiqu. 
Bibl. et Eccles,, Vit., 1699) and Hildebrand at Helmstedt (died 
1691), who published a series of dissertations. G. A. Spangenberg's 
Comp. Ant. Eccles. was published by G. Walch, Lips., 1733, and 
upon this followed S. J. Baumgarten, Simonis, and others. 

SECTION XXIIL 
STATISTICS. 

Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 95, 232 sq. ; Hagenbach's article on Statistics, in Herzog's Ency- 
klopsedla ; Schem, American Ecclesiastical Year-Book, New York, 1860. Dorchester, Problem 
of Religious Progress, New York, 1881. 

All history, on arriving at the present time, expands into statis- 
tics, which has to do with conditions instead of events. Ecclesias- 
tical statistics, accordingly, deals only with ecclesiastical conditions. 
It is possible, however, to secure resting-places in the past, also, from 
which to conduct a statistical review. On the other hand, the germs 
of a further historical development lie in the conditions of the pres- 
ent. The contrast between history and statistics must, for this 
reason, be considered a flexible distinction. 

^ The History of Morals must be distinguished from the History of Ethics, in the 
same way as the History of Dogmatics is distinguished from the History of Doctrines, 
the History of Liturgies from the History of Worship, and that of Ecclesiastical Ju- 
risprudence from that of Constitution. All of these are simply departments of the 
History of the Theological Sciences. 



STATISTICS. 413 

"Statistics," says Schlozer, "is history at a standstill;" but this 
is not a real pause, and what has been at this moment g^^^ ^^^^ 
treated as statistics will in a few years belong to his- furnish statis- 
tory. The historical presentation itself is obliged to ^^' 
furnish statistical information respecting the age of which it treats, 
thus interrupting the progress of the narrative, and changing the 
past into the present. It is not possible, however, to furnish such 
reviews with equal facility at all times, the periods of general con- 
fusion being especially unfavourable to such inquiry, while the 
times immediately before and afterward are eminently suitable. 
This may be seen, for example, in the state of the world immedi- 
ately before the introduction of Christianity, or the condition of the 
Church before the Reformation, or in the time of Charlemagne, 
Gregory VII., or Innocent III. The most favourable point for a 
statistical review is always where an old period ends and a new one 
begins. The statistics of the present, or statistics in the proper 
sense, includes, like the history, the whole of the kingdom of God 
in its earthly manifestation — the outward state of Christianity in 
its spread; its geographical extension, or the statistics of missions; 
and the constitution, worship, customs, and teaching of the Church. 

Statistics of doctrine may either content itself with simply stat- 
ing the prevalent confessions and tendencies of belief, as is usual 
with works of this character — numerical strength of the Roman 
Catholic population of a country, of the Lutheran, and others — or 
it may draft a somewhat detailed description of the existing state 
of doctrine. For it really is what Schleiermacher calls it, though 
it is but outwardly so, " a description of the teaching accepted in 
modern times." Statistics srenerally deals most lars^ely ^, ,. ,. , 

° -^ . statistical and 

with ecclesiastical constitutions — because this element ecclesiastical 
is more easily grasped and understood than others — and co^*^*'"'^!^'^- 
also with the worship. The most difficult feature to include in a 
description is the life itself, with all its shadings and gradations; 
and for this work, as for the nari-^ting of historical events, the skill 
of the artist will be required. The groupings may be arranged to 
correspond with different points of view; for example, by countries, 
confessions, forms of doctrine, constitution, worship, and their fac- 
tors. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages,^ and it 
will be advisable to combine different systems in the Best source for 
execution of this work. The best source for statistics statistics, 
is, beyond question, personal study and observation, which here 

^ See Pelt, p. 363 sq., and the combination proposed in that place : " Much remains 
to be accomplished by special effort in this department, with reference to both the 
material and the form. — Schleiermacher, ^ 245. 



414 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

possibly raay assure iis to some extent, but is absolutely denied to 
ns in history. Exact observation, however, is possible only when 
based on the facts of history down to the present time ; and the 
testimonies of contemporaneous authorities are largely needed with 
regard to existing facts. Suitable helps, in addition to woi'ks of a 
properly statistical character, may be found in official reports, de- 
scriptions of travel, especially when written by persons who travel 
in the interests of ecclesiastical affairs, and ecclesiastical periodicals 
and newspapers. 

The student of theolog}?- will, of course, need to become ac- 
quainted with such matters. He is required to comprehend the 
time in which he lives, and to enter with all his abilities and sympa- 
thies into its progress. But the neqidd nhnis has its application to 
his case. In the absence of a thorough historical preparation, and 
of the historic sense, the only attainment likely to be reached will be 
a limited knowledge instead of thoroughness. For nothing is more 
dissipating and destructive of thoroughness than an exclusive read- 
ing of newspapers and journals; and the temptation to employ the 
Shallow books reading of travels simply as a pastime is likewise an 
of travel. imminent danger. A shallow literature, of the tourist 

and journalistic type, has, unfortunately, deluged all lands, and it 
affords nothing but superficial reasonings. Beware of it ! Fortu- 
nate is the youth who has a paternal friend at hand, to impart coun- 
sel and aid in interpreting the signs of the times ! 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF ECCLESIASTICAL 

STATISTICS. 

Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events has been published 
yearly since 1866. Each volume contains the history and statistics for the year 
of the prominent denominations, and is not confined to the United States. 

Carroll, H. K. The Religious Forces of the United States: Einimerated, Classified, 
and Described on the Basis of the Government Census of 1890. Svo, pp. Ixi, 449. 
New York, 1893. (This volume is one of the American Church History Series. 
Its Author, Dr. H. K. Carroll, was superintendent of the ecclesiastical division 
of tiie United States Census of 1890.) 

Census Bulletins: of the United States Census; Department of Church Statistics. 
Issued under the direction of H. K. Carroll. 1891. 

Dorciiester, Daniel. Tlie Problem of Religious Progress. 12mo, pp. 603. New 
York, 1881. (The object of this book is to illustrate the progress of Protestant- 
ism in the United States. The author contends that the increase of the num- 
ber of communicants in the evangelical Churches of our country is greater in its 
ratio tlian the increase of the whole population.) 

The Denominational Yearbooks of English and American Churches contain carefully 
prepared statistics. For the English Church the annually issued " Clergy List " 
is valuable. It contains: 1. An Alphabetical List of the Clergy of Great Britain 
and Wales. 2. The Public Schools with their Officers. 3. List of the Bishops 



STATISTICS. 415 

and Archbishops of England and Wales, from tlie formation of each see to the 
present time. 4. The Colonial and Missionary Dioceses. 5. List of Benefices 
in England and Wales, with their net annual value. 6. List of the Patrons of 
Church Livings. 7. Tlie Benefices arranged under their ecclesiastical divisions. 
(Published in February of each year, 291 Strand, London.) 

The following Annuals are the best for recent statistics: Minutes of the General 
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States. Minutes of the 
Conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church; also tlie Methodist Yearbook. 
Minutes of the Conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. The 
Congregational Yearbook, also the English Congregational Yearbook. The 
American Baptist Yearbook, and tiie English Baptist Handbook. Tlie Minutes 
of the Wesleyan Conferences, The Lutheran Yearbook. The Freewill Baptist 
Register. The Universalist Register. Sadlier's Catholic Directory and Potts's 
and Whitaker's Church Almanacs. Nearly all the Churches of Canada publish 
Directories containing statistics. The Moravians publish an annual in London. 

Whitaker's Almanac, Loudon, contains the Ecclesiastical Statistics of Great Britain. 
The list of tlie sects of all kinds is taken from the records of the registrar's 
office, but the figures representing church populations are not official. 



416 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 



CHAPTER III. 

SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 



SECTION L 

Comp. Schleiermacher, § 196 ; von der Goltz, Der Weg zum Systeme der dogmatischen The- 
ologie, in Jahrbb. fiir deutsche Theologie iv, p. 679 sqq. 

Henry B. Smith, Analysis and Proof Texts of Julius Miiller's System of Theology (translation 
of) in Amer. Presb. and Theol. Review. New York, 1865. The same author's Introduction to 
Christian Theology, (edited by W. S. Karr), New York, 1883. ' 

Systematic Theology is the scientific and connected presentation 
of Christian doctrine in its relation to both faith and morals. For- 
merly it was regarded and treated as a single science of Christian 
teaching. But latterly, since the time of Danaeus and Calixtus, it 
has been divided into two distinct branches. These, however, 
should be regarded as simply different sides of that same life which 
manifests itself in faith and morals, and whose various qualities are 
in constant relation with each other. 

We have observed, in a former connexion, that Christianity was 
Christianity not, at the outset, an organized and self -inclusive body 

destined to de- £ doctrines. But this does not necessitate the con- 

velop into a 

system. clusion that Christianity was not destined to unfold into 

a system of doctrine at some future time. The pre-requisites for 
such a consummation existed from the first, and a sound develop- 
ment of its teaching could only lead to the analysis of its contents, 
and to their comprehension under a single idea. A relative dis- 
tinction may be established between the several doctrinal concep- 
tions of John, Paul, and other apostles. But the respective systems 
are simply members of the great organism of the developed Christ- 
ian teaching as a whole. There is no cessation in the develop- 
ment of doctrine. Where an apparent pause is observed, there is 
danger of stagnation and petrifaction. But there are single stages 
in the history, at which the dogmatic consciousness of the Church 
appears in a more assured light, and where the unfolding arrives at 
a relative conclusion. These are the times of symbols and of the 
greatest dogmatical writings, in which the belief of an entire age, 
or at least of an ecclesiastical party, or a school, is reflected. 



SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 417 

It thus becomes proper to speak of Lutheran, Reformed, or Ro- 
man Catholic dogmatics, whose results may be brought Ecclesiastical 
into the light of objective history. Such objective de- Dogmatics, 
scription has also been denominated Ecclesiastical Dogmatics, in 
distinction from Biblical Dogmatics. But neither the latter nor the 
former is dogmatics in the strictest sense.* Both are merely intro- 
ductory in their character; and ecclesiastical dogmatics results 
from symbolism, and is a further historical basis for dogmatics 
proper, just as biblical dogmatics results from biblical exegesis, and 
is the basis for the history of doctrines. The object object of dog- 
of dogmatics proper is not simply to record historical "^atics. 
matter, but also to express the conviction entertained by the writer 
who presents the system to our notice in word and print.^ 

It is, therefore, for adequate reasons that systematic theology is 
taken from the soil of history, into which it has struck its roots, 
and is made a separate branch of study,^ the very centre of the the- 
ological sanctuary and the heart of theological life. It takes the 
exegetical and historical material, and out of it constructs for the 

^ Dogmatics should always be ecclesiastical ; that is, be linked to the Church to 
which it owes its birth. But we understand by ecclesiastical what has been ecclesias- 
tically fixed and authorized, the symbolically statutory, or, as it has been termed, the 
socially established. See J. P. Lange, Christl. Dogm., i. The attempt has been 
made, of late, to limit the term dogmatics to this statutory, symbolical, and tradi- 
tional branch, while the German phrase " Glaubenslehre " — System of the Faith — has 
been applied, as alone appropriate, to what we would characterize as dogmatics 
proper. This is done, for example, by Alex. Schweizer, who, in his Christliche Glau- 
benslehre, follows in the track of Rothe. But it is impossible to understand, in view 
of the elastic meaning of the word doy/na, why the term dogmas may not be used with 
reference to the theology of the present day. This usage is further recommended by 
the ease with which the adjective " dogmatic," and the verb " to dogmatize," may be 
formed from the noun. Comp. Krauss on 1 Cor. xv, pp. v and vi. Yon der Goltz 
(ubi supra, p. 688) likewise declares that he is unable to attach the importance to the 
difference between dogmatics and the term advanced by Schweizer which that writer 
urges, and continues : " The mere stating of the doctrines held by the fathers is no 
dogmatics, but a cross section taken from the history of doctrines." 

* Qualified, of course, by the feature that such personal conviction claims to have 
discovered the true expression of ideas that now live in the Church, and have earned 
the right to make themselves heard. Only upon this ground does the work deserve 
the name of dogmatics. The mere statement of subjective views, sometimes having 
no reference to the Church, and even designed to antagonize the Church, and break 
down its teaching, reducing it to a mere zero, deserves to pass by any other name 
rather than that of dogmatics, or a system of the faith. 

^ Liicke, Stud. u. Krit., 1834, No. 4, p. 775 : "I am of the opinion that the scientific 
interest which gives birth to systematic theology is predominantly unlike the histor- 
ical, even though it include the critical element. It is simply the systematic, and 
not merely the subordinate, interest, in an orderly arrangement of a given historical 
material, but at the same time a desire to state scientifically the doctrines of Christian 
27 



418 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

present time that doctrine which, in its turn, yields the governing 
principles for practical theology. In this work it may also appro- 
priate to itself the name of theology, «:ar' e^oxrjv. 

Christian doctrine is not, however, simply a doctrine of the faith, 
Ethical charac- ^^ ^^^^ Sense that the faith is merely turned in the direc- 
ter of Christian tion of religious perception and apprehension. But it 

c nne. ^^^ ^^ ^^ equal extent, ethical doctrine, or, more pre- 

cisely, a doctrine of the life. Disposition and the life are embraced 
as one under Christianity. It preaches both faith and repentance, 
— a change of disposition — and its thoroughly |)ractical character 
even causes the regeneration of the soul to be of primary import- 
ance, while thought upon it, or reflection, has but a derived value. 
Christianity is, first of all, a religion, and not a theology. While 
it has been observed that religion, in its essence, is neither a form 
of knowledge nor of action, though it necessarily leads to both, it 
follows that the doctrinal system of a religion will need to develop in 
the two directions of knowing and doing. This is generally con- 
ceded with reference to the practical department. It would not be 
desired that either the doctrinal or the moral element should be 
wanting in a catechism of Christian teaching. The same is true of 
those sermons in which the two factors of doctrine and ethics are 
presented in combination. These, as in the case of Wesley and 
D wight, are justly regarded as superior to homiletical literature 
in general. 

The question is, however, whether the same rule shall apply in 

„ ^ . the scientific field as well. At the first, while the sci- 

Predommance ^ ^ ' ^ 

of the dogmat- ence itself was being developed out of the practical ele- 
ic m erest. ments at hand, the two features were interwoven with 
each other. We see an illustration of this in Augustine's Chris- 
tian Doctrine. The dogmatic interest, however, has, upon the 
whole, always overbalanced the ethical in religious controvei'sies. 
The Reformation seemed to spring primarily from moral, not di- 
rectly doctrinal, causes. But a change of relations soon took place, 
which resulted in the attaching of greater weight to the definition 
of doctrinal points. It might be said that attention was, with en- 
tire propriety, directed chiefly to the settling of the truths belong- 
ing to the faith, since works spring from faith. But the faulty 

faith and action with absolute truthfulness, in such a way that all doubt and opposi- 
tion, and all want of congruity in Christian thought, may be removed. This is wholly 
unlike the historical object." Lange, p. 49 : " The importance of dogmatics is ma- 
terially obscured when it is treated, as it was by Schleiermacher, simply as a branch 
of historical theology. The immediate object of historical theology is to make 
dogmatics possible, but not to absorb it." 



SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 419 

principle consisted in this fact, that the faith was too little appre- 
hended from the dynamical, and too greatly from the merely theo- 
retical, side, the apprehending of the faith being confounded with 
tendencies of beUef, and the understanding of the faith with its 
power. In this way Christian ethics long failed to receive just 
treatment. It was a mere tenant on the premises of dogmatics, 
sparingly introduced in connexion with the teaching of the divine 
law; and a practical application (usus practicus) was appended to 
the several dogmas as occasion might require. It is not caiixtus sepa- 
strange, therefore, that Caiixtus should fall upon the from^dogml? 
idea of emancipating ethics from dogmatics, and assign- ics. 
ing to it a separate field. ^ 

But the idea of emancipation should never have been entertained. 
Christian ethics must ever be grounded, and at home, in Christian 
dogmatics, if it is not to renounce the Christian character, and de- 
generate into a general or philosophical morality. The latter 
event actually came to pass ; and there was even a time when moral- 
ity spread itself over the practical field so broadly that dogmatics 
was shrivelled into a narrow extract. The separation of the two 
became an error as soon as it extended to principles, and assumed 
an internal independence of ethics from dogmatics. In this regard 
the recalling to mind of their original unity and connexion has been 
of advantage. It is a different question, however, whether their 

fusion into a sinHe science must be the result. Science ^.^ 

o , . . Diflference be- 

must often separate elements which are combined in tween dogmat- 
life, and theology may distinguish between dogmatics i^s and ethics. 
and ethics with the same propriety as philosophy discriminates be- 
tween the philosophy of religion and ethics. The one has to do 
with things to be believed, the other with things to be done. The 
one moves upon the ground of conception and recognition, the 
other upon that of modes of disposition and conduct based upon 
such recognition. In other words, "Dogmatics represents life in 
its transcendent relations to God, the eternal basis of its being; 
ethics according to its immanent relation to the world of man. 
Dogmatics regards it in its specifically ecclesiastical character, 
ethics in its general human character. Dogmatics describes the 
organ, ethics indicates the tasks that await its energy. Dogmatics 
teaches how man derives his Christian life from God, ethics how he 
is to give proof of it in the world of men, by human methods and 
in that exercise of incarnated power which we call virtue."^ The 

^ The Reformed theologian Danaeus attempted this even earlier than Caiixtus. Comp. 
Nitzsch, ubi supi'a. 

'^ Lange, ubi. supra^ pp. 46, 47. 



420 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

reference of the one to the other should, therefore, never be for- 
gotten, and a really Christian dogmatics will always guide into 
morality, while Christian ethics will point back to dogmatics. 

It may be noted, moreover, that Schleiermacher already deemed 
it "desirable that the undivided treatment should be employed 
from time to time,"^ and this desire has been responded to in recent 
times by two theologians, Nitzsch and Beck, although in diverse 
ways.^ The method has also been tried, finally, by Rothe, of in- 
cluding the substance of the doctrines of belief in ethics as being, 
in effect, the determining influence of the latter, and of regarding 
only the historical residuum as dogmatics.^ But it is not to be sup- 
posed that the usage has been thereby settled for all time. 

' Schleiermacher, § 231. J. C. v. Hofmann allows no other excuse for the sepa- 
ration of dogmatics from ethics than that of convenience. " Both branches have 
been at times considered historical, and at other times systematic, or dogmatics 
has been assigned to historical theology, while a special treatment has been demanded 
for ethics. The writer who distinguishes between the science of the kingdom of God 
in itself and the science of its actualization in man, or who designates dogmatics a 
history of the dealings of the redeeming God in their development, and ethics a his- 
tory of development in the men redeemed by him, will be compelled to treat the same 
material twice, wholly or in part, and this without any appreciable profit, but simply 
from different points of view. For it is impossible to describe God's dealings with 
man without discussing at the same time man's action toward God, or to describe the 
attitude of the Christian without preceding the description with a direct or implied 
reference to the attitude of God, to which the former corresponds. If the relation 
sustained by God be presumed, it is admitted that ethics is simply the part of a 
greater whole. If it be stated, ethics is thereby made such a part, nothing remains 
but tlie admission that Christian ethics, as the science relating to Christian conduct — 
not that of men in general — toward God, is indeed a separable, but not for that rea- 
son an independent, part of the one body of teachings which has its origin in the 
publication of that relation existing between God and man which has been established 
through the mediation of Christ." — Schriftbeweis i, pp. 14, 15. 

^Nitzsch, System der Lehre fur akadem. Yorlesungen. Bonn, 1829, 6th ed., 1851. 
Tob. Beck, Einl. in d. System der christl. Lehre, oder propsedentische Entwicklung der 
christl., Lehrwissenschaft, Stuttgart, 1838, Die christl. Lehrwissenschaft nach den 
bibl. Urkunden, Stuttgart, 1840. 

^ Theol. Ethik i, p. 38. In opposition see Lange, supra, p. 49, and Julius Miiller in 
Herzog's Encj'kl., iii, p. 439, and also Dorner in ibid., iv, p. 187: "Dogmatics and 
ethics are as certainly separate departments as God and man are really different from 
each other. . . . Dogmatics is engaged upon the being, thoughts, and actions of God, 
which . . . have for their object an ethical world ; Christian ethics has to do with the 
good that comes into actual being in the form of man's free-will, and under the actual- 
ized purpose of the love of God." Comp. also Schenkel's Dogmatik i, p. 13. 



DOGMATICS. 431 

SECTION 11. 

DOGMATICS. 

Baumgarten-Crusius, EinlPitung in das Studium der Dogmatik, Lpz., Ili20; F. Fischer, zur 
Einleitung in die Dogmatik der evangelisch-protestantischen Kirche, Tiib., 1828 ; Mynster, liber 
den Begriff der christlichen Dogmatik (theol. Stud. u. Krit., Jahrg., 1831, No. 3) ; Rust, Rede 
liber christliche Dogmatik, Frankf ., 1830 ; Kling, uber die Gestalt der evangel. Dogmatik (Tiib., 
theol. ZeitschrLft, 1834, 4) ; F. H. Th. Alihn, Einl. in das Studium der Dogmatik nach den Er- 
gebnissen der neuesten wissenschaftl. Forschungen, Lpz., 1837; Beck a. a. O. J. P. Lange, 
christl. Dogmatik, 1st part, Heidelb., 1849; Th. A. Liebner, introductio in dogmaticam christi- 
anam, Lips., 1854 ; J. Muller, in Herzog's RealencykL III, p. 433 f. ; Rothe, Begriff der evangel- 
ischen Dogmatik (Zur Dogmatik I.); Wiedermann, christl. Dogmatik. Einl., p. 1-20; Von der 
Goltz, iibi supra, and his Dogmatik, mentioned below. 

The best English and American treatment of Introductory Systematic Theology is found at 
the beginnings of the works, and not in separate volumes. For the older works, see Lowndes, 
The British Librarian, pp. 683-814. Hodge and Van Oosterzee, of later writers, furnish the best 
introductory discussion. 

Christian Dogmatics forms the central point of all theology. The 
reason is, that the results obtained by exegetical and historical in- 
quiry, in so far as they touch upon the Christian faith, are wrought 
over, and impressed upon, the consciousness of the present time, 
and are combined into that scientific whole from which the princi- 
ples underlying ethics and practical theology are to be deduced. 
Dogmatics is neither a mere philosophy of religion nor a mere his- 
tory of doctrines, but a science including both historical Dogmatics de- 
and philosophical elements. It is the science which ^^^d. 
presents to our notice the material obtained by exegesis and history 
in an organized and systematic form, representing the sum of the 
truths of the Christian faith in organic connexion with the facts of 
the religious consciousness. It, therefore, demands preparatory 
training in exegesis and history, as well as in philosophy. 

What has been said of systematic theology in general applies 
more especially to dogmatics, as constituting the centre of gravity 
in this matter. For ethics, which is connected with it, depends 
upon it in the last analysis. Hence August! is justified in the re- 
mark, that the old and generally adopted usage, which conceives 
dogmatics and theology as being synonymes, is evidence of the 
high importance which has always been attached to this first of all 
the departments of theology.^ It is, to use Lange's expression, " in 
a specific sense the theology of the Church." But there is, never- 
theless, no universal agreement respecting the extent and import- 
ance of this science, some regarding it as being simply historical in 
its nature, and others making it merely philosophical or specula- 
tive. Again, they who admit that it combines within itself both 
historical and philosophical elements, yet differ greatly with regard 
to the relations sustained by the one to the other. 
' System der christl. Dogmatik, § 1. 



422 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

The reducing of dogmatics to a mere historical science may grow 

out of various fundamental views. Those make a great mistake 

who regard the system of doctrines as completed once for all, for 

they confine dog-matics within the boundaries of the 

Dogmatics a •' ... 

progressive sci- past. This IS precisely the view of the sceptic, who 
^^^' seeks to degrade it into a mere old history, whose high- 

est usefulness consists in its walking behind, and bearing the train, 
very easily dispensed with, of the wisdom of our own time. There 
was no lack of opinions of the latter sort during the last century, 
and a number of dogmatical works dating from the present century, 
such as those of Bretschneider and Wegscheider, are filled with un- 
modified historical matter. Tzschirner took the ground of simple 
statement, without entering upon any direct discussion. 

There is, however, still another historical view of dogmatics, 
which at least grotvs out of a living apprehension of history, and 
therefore demands intellectual mediation between the past and the 
present. This view is represented by Herder,^ and especially by 
Schleiermacher, who, in point of fact, steps out from the past alto- 
Schieierma h gather, and makes of dogmatics, as he would of statis- 
er's definition tics, a science of the present as historically conditioned, 
o ogmatics. ^[j^^q }^g conceives it to be "the science of the combina- 
tion of doctrine which prevails in a Christian ecclesiastical com- 
munity at a given time." ^ 

1 Von Religion, Lehrmeinungen und Gebrauchen, § 37 : " Dogmatics, even on the 
conception which underlies its name, is simply a history of doctrines. How beneficial 
is it to carry forward every dogma to its limits, philologically, historically, philosophi- 
cally!" Though Rohr, in his Briefe iib. RationaHsmus, announced the expectation 
that the time will come when our dogmatics shall appear only in the character of a 
history of doctrines, and appealed for justification to the progress made by the spirit 
of inquiry among theologians since Socinus and Herbert of Cherbury, there seemed to 
be but Httle hope that the prophecy would be fulfilled. A certificate of death has, 
however, been issued in behalf of dogmatics from a different quarter, and in a differ- 
ent connexion, it being characterized as the " science of Church doctrines," in dis- 
tinction from doctrines of the faith. (Page 39.) Schweizer says: "The dogmatics of 
former times has been superseded by the doctrinal system of the evangelical Protes- 
tant faith, which, having been contained in the former- in a very subordinate and re- 
stricted character, has thrown off its dogmatic fetters, and become the system of faith 
in each separate state of development in the Evangelical Church." But this language 
is connected with the mus linguae referred to above. The wild cry, " No more dog- 
matics ! " which has been uttered in certain writings of a partisan character, can only 
impose upon persons who have no sympathy with anything that has been historically 
developed. We are able, on the other hand, to agree with Biedermann, who asserts (p. 
17) that "the science of mere ecclesiastical doctrines must be overcome by a true science 
of the Protestant faith." Upon this point he remarks, however, that this cannot be ac- 
complished by simply declaring that dogmatics is such a science of traditional doctrine. 

2 Darstellung, §§ 97, 196 5^5-. / Der christliche Glaube, vol. i, p. 1. 



DOGMATICS. 423 

With reference to this definition, the question has been properly 
asked, what is to be understood by "prevalent"? Schleiermacher 
responds, " That form of doctrine is prevalent which is employed 
in public transactions as representing the common piety," ^ or that 
" which is officially asserted and made known, without calling forth 
official contradiction."^ Upon this point he is obliged to concede, 
however, that "the boundaries must be extended or narrowed as 
time and circumstances may require." Since this definition requires 
that not what was formerly accepted should be pre- q, .^ ^^^^^ ^ 
sented, but what now prevails, it removes dogmatics Schieiermacii- 
to some extent from the strictly historical field. But 
Schleiermacher proceeds further still. He demands that dogmatics 
should not state the views of others simply, but also the personal 
views of the writer, and even ascribes to it a kind of sagacity that 
will detect the truth, since he defines its task to be the " purifying 
and perfecting of the doctrine."^ Further, he insists upon the appli- 
cation of critical processes, which, of course, applies also to history. 
He thereby elevates dogmatics into a science which is directed to- 
ward the future, and which teaches, to an equal degree, what 
must be accepted in the future, and what is authoritative now, 
or has been so in the past. By this method dogmatics is evi- 
dently lifted out from the framework of historical theology, and 
it is for this very reason that adherents of the school of Schleier- 
macher, and some other writers as well, have raised objections 
that are not w^holly unfounded against its incorporation with that 
branch.* . . 

^ Der christl. Glaube, vol. i, p. 1. 

' Darstellung, § 16, note. 

3 Christl. Glaube, vol. i, p. 130. Schleiermacher speaks with especial clearness in 
opposition to a mere empirically historical view respecting dogmatics and ethics, p. 9 : 
" We may, at all events, insist that every representation of Christian doctrine is his- 
torical, but it may not on that account cease to be systematic ; and, on the other 
hand, while every one is systematic, it must be not only systematic, but in every in- 
jstance also historical and systematic." 

■* Comp. the extract from Liicke, p. 721 of MS. Yon der Goltz says, in a similar 
-spirit: "If the designation of dogmatics as a historical department is designed to 
specify simply that it is not merel/ a speculative construction of Christianity, but that 
it is the positive truth of the Christian faith as the common possession of the Church, 
with its internal combinations wrought into intelligible form, there can be no objec- 
tion to the idea. But the designation 'historical' is nevertheless misleadinsr. Its 
originator, Schleiermacher, adds to it the feature that systematic theology is only to 
present the historically given matter, without laying claim to the right of presenting 
authoritative truth. This is* an error. Dogmatics has always striven to report not 
only what the Church teaches, or has taught, but what it should teach. Dogmatics 
aims to furnish authoritatively what constitutes the normal statement of the truth in 
28 



424 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

It does not follow that the historical character of dogmatics is 
thereby denied. This is in any case to be retained, unless dog- 
matics is to become equivalent to the philosophy of religion. The 
material of dogmatics is certainly historical, but it is required to 
pass throuo^h the philosophical process of reflection. 

Dogmatics to ^ , ^ . . 

pass through Dogmatics has to do not simply with the abstract relig- 
re ecioD. -^^^^ consciousness, but with the consciousness of the 

Church, and with revelations addressed by God to man which have 
been historically transmitted. It is only necessary that the divine, 
in so far as it may be apprehended by the human mind, be cognized 
with human certainty, and be received into the scientific conscious- 
ness of the present. In this way scientific knowledge and syste- 
matic philosophical thought will interpenetrate each other in the 
treatment of the system of belief. "A reference of religion in it- 
self to religion, as it appears in Christianity and in the manifestation 
of the latter through the evangelical Church, is established," as 
Hase correctly shows.' In his later editions he presents the idea 
with greater deliniteness, " of the relation of the Christian religion 
in itself to the religious spirit."^ Schenkel likewise holds that, 

the domain of Chi'istian belief. This is in harmony with the proper meaning of the 
word dogma ; for dogma is an established term, attested by the Church, to designate 
a truth belonging to the Christian faith." 

^ Evangel. Dogmatik, I, § 2. The definition of De Wette (Dogm., I, § 60) may be 
made to agree with that of Hase : " The representing of Christianity as related to the 
culture of an age is dogmatics." Other definitions are very obscure, e. g., those of 
Reinhard, Wegscheider, and Tzschirner, that of the latter being: "Dogmatics is the 
iScience of the Christian belief, or the scientific presentation of the doctrine of God 
and divine things contained in Christianity." Biedermann teaches, that dogmatics is 
both a positive and a speculative science (but observe not a "mixture of both"!), 
-while Rothe terms speculative dogmatics a " wooden iron." It is evident that much 
•confusion respecting the scientific nomenclature still prevails upon this point. 

^ The 5th ed., for instance, says, " Dogmatics is the systematic presentation of the 
Christian religion in so far as it has taken definite shape in the form of dogmas, and 
as it stands related to the religious spirit." Comp. § 11 (in the older editions): "As 
philosophical dogmatics, when not connected with historical references, is a mere ab- 
straction, so the historical presentation of biblical, ecclesiastical, and comparative- 
symbolical dogmatics can only become actual science by its union with philosophical 
dogmatics — a science which embraces the consciousness of Christianity in its primitive 
form, the self-consciousness of the Church, and a comprehension of the different 
forms in which the Christian spirit, affected by human errors, has found expression. 
While each of these is, in its own way, important, it is yet but an isolated view of 
Chri'itianity, for whose complete recognition dogmatics is required, which apprehends 
the Christian faith in the whole of its development, and teaches how to become ac- 
quainted with the nature of the religious spirit." The recent Protestantism of France, 
contrasting with the former abstract view of dogmatics, likewise recognizes the co- 
operation of various factors m it — the religious, the historical, and the scientific. 
Comp. the pamphlet, M. Scherer, ses disciples et ses adversaries, Par., 1854. p. 3. 



DOGMATICS. 425 

" Christian dogmatics is the scientifically connected presentation of 
the saving truths of Christianity, as founded upon personal convic- 
tions, and as historically conditioned in the form of the common 
consciousness of Christians."^ It follows that a genuine dogmatist 
must receive into himself all the stages of theological culture, and 
not only control the entire field of theological knowledge intellec- 
tually, but also demonstrate with his personal character that he 
represents the Church in his teaching, and that the consciousness 
of Christians generally finds a living and concrete illustration in 
his own — the highest duty assigned to the theologian! He must 
be firmly grounded on the basis of the word of God in Necessity of a 
the Scriptures, but have at the same time taken into vure and well 

^ /. 1 1 • ' j« J • endowed per- 

himself the entire progress of the history ot doctrines, sonai cbarao 

have wrought out all contrasts, have reduced every t®^- 
thing to clearness and certainty in his own consciousness, and be 
able to render to himself an account of the internal and external 
character of every doctrine. The human spirit, with its capacities 
for religion, and its needs and strivings, must, as well as the Scrip- 
tures, with their profound teachings, be open to his eyes. He must 
be acquainted with the present and with the past, and he must 
make use of both to carry forward the development for future 
times and the preparation for new developments f " following the 
age, but not subservient to it." ^ 

SECTION m. 

APOLOGETICS AND ITS EELATION TO DOGMATICS. 

Schleiermacher, § 33-42. Comp. the article by Heubner, In Ersch und Gruber's Encyklop., 
vol. 4 ; Schinid, iiber christl. Apologetik, in the antagonistic serial on Theol. und Philos., 1829 ; 
* Lechler, iiber den Begriff der Apologetik, ein Mstor. Beitrag zur Bestimmung der Ausgabe, 
Methode und Stellung dieser Wissenschaft, in the Stud. u. Krit., 1839 ; Hanell, die Apologetik 
als die Wissenschaft von dem der Kirche und der Theologie gemeinsamen Grunde, in the Stud. 
u. Krit., 1843 ; J. Hirzel, uber die christl, Apologetik, (Vortrag an die Ziirlcher Synode,) Zurich, 
1S43 ; Kienlen, die Stellung der Apologetik und der Polemik in der theologischen Encyklop., 
(Stud. u. Krit., 1846.) See Hagenbach's article in Herzog's Realencykl., I. 

Hgiherington, Apologetics of the Christian Faith, N. Y., 1867. 

The presentation of the Christian faith presumes the truth of 
that faith as a whole, or regards the fact of Christianity as a divine 
fact. It is the oftice of science, however, to justify that presump- 
tion to the religious sense. Hence, apologetical investigation must 

^ Christliche Dogmatik, p. 1. 

* Hase distinguishes five functions of the dogmatist : first, the philosophical unfold- 
ing of the religious belief ; second, historico-critical apprehension ; third, systematic 
arrangement; fourth, ascertaining and estimating its religious value; fifth, organic 
further development of the Christian system. 

^ Kling, ubi supra, p. 11. 



426 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

precede the purely dogmatical. In its formal aspect, apologetics, 
Apologetics like dogmatics, is a philosophical and historical science, 
d'ogmatic'^^S- ^^^* ^^'^ proofs are drawn both from within and with- 
ence. out — from reason and conscience, and from history. 

With regard to its contents, the relation it sustains toward dog- 
matics is that of elemental and constitutive to the systematically 
developed, or of the keynote to its scale. It is, accordingly, pos- 
sible to separate the tw^o branches from each other, yet not abso- 
lutely, but only relatively. 

Schleiermacher, who assigns dogmatics to the department of his- 
Apoiogetics and torical theology, has, nevertheless, erected a separate 
tion to dogmat department of philosophical theology, and given it the 
^^^- first place. It is subdivided into apologetics and po- 

lemics. Hence these branches thus come to occupy the position of 
outposts, though in a somewhat lost and isolated state, being far 
removed from the main body of theological forces, and separated 
by the interposition of other departments, such as exegesis and 
Church history; we, therefore, consider it advisable to call in these 
outposts and incorporate them with the main body. They are cer- 
tainly included in dogmatics, and constitute the organs through 
w^hose exercise it makes itself understood by outside observers. 
The life of dogmatics beats in them; they constitute the two poles 
at which the electric flash that passes through dogmatics is dis- 
charged both positively and negatively. At every step taken by 
the system of Christian belief it is obliged to defend its just claim 
to be so regarded against the attacks of unbelief, and it is also 
obliged to assert its determinate character as a particular form of 
belief, as the Protestant, in distinction from other similar beliefs, 
such as the Roman Catholic.^ Dogmatics itself thus adopts the 
apologetical mode of procedure at one time, and the polemical at 
another, in its teaching, provided the latter has a living aim. It 
becomes apologetic when it purposes to bring into prominence, in 
connexion with the statement of every doctrine, the underlying 

^ The apologetic or the polemical interest will predominate at different times. The 
latter was uppermost in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; while dogmatics, 
without a persistently apologetic character, is inconceivable at the present day, though 
the newly awakened strife of confessions has considerably repressed quiet and un. 
prejudiced apologetic expositions. Ullraann, in his Preface to the 6th German edi- 
tion of his Sinlessness of Jesus, p. v, justly complains that " many contemporaries, 
even of the younger class, are so involved in the formulas of ready finished doctrines, 
whether framed in the interests of belief or unbelief, as to reject every attempt to 
establish the faith at the outset ; in the one case because they will not think of an 
authentication that must be constantly renewed, in the other because they refuse to 
know the faith itself." 



APOLOGETICS AND ITS RELATION TO DOGMATICS. 427 

principle of Christianity as radically different from every other 
religion, and thus to fasten the conviction that Christianity, as a 
whole, is true and divine by opening up to view each separate ele- 
ment. It is polemical in so far as it rejects all that is improper or 
that obscures, defaces, or works injury to the dogma, and as it pro- 
tects the view held by the Church against the non-ecclesiastical and 
pseudo-churchly ideas which may exist. 

This does not forbid the separate treatment of apologetics and 
polemics.^ The former, especially, has established its right to such 
treatment. But it must not be allowed to remove to a distance 
from dogmatics. On the contrary, " while defending the ground " 
of the latter,'* it must go before it and prepare the way, as the Bap- 
tist before Christ, either by way of introduction to dose- i , 

' ... . Apologetics an 

matics, or independently. It will in either case act in introciucrion to 
the service of dogmatics, and with reference to its needs, ^smatics. 
The leading place at the head of dogmatics must, accordingly, be 
given to apologetics, though not the first place in the entire course 
of theological study, as Schleiermacher decides. It may be said, 
indeed, that exegesis and ecclesiastical history also cannot be re- 
garded as sciences belonging to Christian theology in their inmost 
nature, unless a previous understanding of the nature of Christian- 
ity in general be secured. But such an understanding is attainable 
only upon the ground of history — unless it is to be based on the 
air — so that we again are forced to the conclusion that Remote begin- 
no department has an absolute beginning. Certain ^^menf^^^^' 
apologetical assumptions must be necessarily taken for theology, 
granted in the study of exegesis and Church history, though with 
the understanding that they are to receive thorough investigation 
in the proper place. This procedure approves itself as correct on 
the grounds of methodology also. An apologetical course at the 
very beginning of theological study would, assuredly, be pf little 
service to the student whose interest for apologetics needs to be 
awakened, and who for that end requires exegetical and historical 
studies, particularly the life of Jesus and the history of the king- 



^ Sack, in his Polemik, has conceived the distinction on this wise : " Dogmatics is 
Christian doctrine as adapted to Christian thinkers, implying friendhness on their 
part ; apologetics is Christian doctrine in a form adapted to heathen thinkers, and 
presumes hostility on their part ; and polemics adapts the doctrine to the state of 
heretical Christian thinkers, proceeding on the supposition of dissatisfaction on their 
part." These different functions frequently run into each other, however. What 
dogmatics, for instance, does not afford evidence of such dissatisfaction in this age, 
which is dissatisfied in so many regards ? 

' Zyro, in Stud, u Krit., 1837, 8. 



438 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

dom of God. But after the theologian has arrived at dogmatics 
he can no longer dispense with apologetics as a science which deals 
with the principles of the former. 

Ko absolute reply can be given to the question whether a sepa- 
Apoiogetics in ^^^^ chair should be devoted to its service, or whether 
the schools. [i should be taught in connexion with dogmatics. De- 
partments should not be multiplied unnecessarily, and experience 
has probably demonstrated that, while, in the field of authorship, 
special apologetical works are much to be desired, since they call 
forth a thorough discussion of the vital question upon whose solu- 
tion the whole of dogmatics depends, the Apologetica in schools 
come to occupy a somewhat isolated position when not connected 
w^ith some other department.^ In former days apologetics was con- 
nected with introduction to the books of the Bible, because the dem- 
onstration of the genuineness of such writings, and the discussion 
of revelation and inspiration, were lield to constitute the substance 
of its task. But it has been correctly shown, in more recent times, 
that it is not the particular features, but rather the Christian relig- 
Entire Chris- ion, in the whole of its manifestations, that must consti- 
jecf%*apo'i^ tute the object upon which the line of apologetical 
getics. j)roof is directed.^ The latter will proceed upon a two- 

fold basis and become a " demonstration of the Spirit and of power " 
(1 Cor. ii, 4). This was formerly restricted to the ground of merely 
prophecy and miracles. But we would prefer to say that the 
demonstration of the Spirit lies in the inward justifying of Chris- 
tianity to the Spirit, in that it demonstrates itself as religion, while 
the demonstration of the power consists in its being apprehended 
as a definite historical fact, as an effective actualization of religion, 
as that religion which is endorsed by the world's historical expe- 
rience. 

The task of apologetics may, accordingly, be, with Lechler,^ con- 
The task of sidered as a twofold one, viz.: (1) To show that Chris- 
apoiogetics. tianity is a religion, and (2) That it is the true religion, 
or unmodified religion.'' It thus connects itself on the one hand 

^ Noesselt already decided against the separate treatment of apologetics, and also 
Tholuck, Yerm. Schriften, part i, p. 376, and Literar. Anzeiger, 1831. But compare 
Nitzsch Protest, Beantwortung von Strauss' Philo. Dogmatik, in Stud. u. Krit., 1842, 
No. 3. Are not lectures on apologetics generally delivered as an introduction to dog- 
matics at the present time ? 

^ Lechler, uhi supra. 

5 Ibid., p. 605. 

■* " The Christian religion forms the subject, and absolute religion the predicate ; 
while apologetics itself forms the copula ; for it is simply the scientific process through 
which Christianity is shown to be the absolute religion." — Ibid., p. 608. 



APOLOGETICS AND ITS RELATION TO DOGMATICS. 429 

with the philosophy of religion, and on the other with the results 
obtained by exegesis and Church history. It forms this connexion 
with the former because its office is to determine the nature of re- 
ligion in general, w^hile apologetics applies this general notion of 
religion to Christianity, and shows its concrete realization in this 
form; with the latter, because the entire development of the divine 
wisdom in revelation, and, first of all, the manifestation of Christ 
and the existence of the Church, form the basis upon w^iich their 
evidences rest. In other words, the demonstration of the absolute 
purpose of Christianity to become the religion for all peoples and 
times, the religion for the individual and the race, is in scientific 
form precisely what the popular definition seeks to express when it 
declares it to be the task of apologetics to prove the truth and di- 
vine character of Christianity. 

This has too often been understood to mean that the divine ele- 
ment is merely another predicate superadded to the Divinity and 
truth, and its existence has, from the standpoint of the yoived^n each 
older supernaturalism, been looked for exclusively in other. 
the extraordinary features of revelation, its inspiration, prophecies, 
and miracles;^ whereas the divinity is already involved in the 
truth, and the truth in the divinity. This is not intended to signify 
that the divine element in Christianity consists simply in its gener- 
ally acknowledged moral truths and its abstract correspondence 
with the laws of reason, though even this is something, and affords 
a field of apologetic effort even to the rationalist; but that the truth 
of Christianity is of a peculiar kind, having been born with Chris- 
tianity, and therefore revealed; for what "eye hath not seen nor 
ear heard, and what hath not entered into the heart of man . . . 
God hath prepared for them that love him, and hath revealed it 
unto us by his Spirit" (1 Cor. ii, 9, 10). But this specifically pecul- 
iar divine truth is certainly required to establish and approve itself 
to the inner consciousness as involving the human element also, 
that is, as a truth for man.^ For this reason it must first render 
the negative proof that it contains nothing which conflicts wdth the 

^ The erection of such entrenchments, without any direct connexion with the con- 
tents of the Gospel, caused that " hateful ditch " concerning which Lessing declared 
that he could not pass over it, Comp,« Hirzel, p. 22 sqq. The divine nature of 
Christianity does not appear in the absence of natural factors in the development of 
human affairs. If this were so Christ and Christianity would, of course, be fables, and 
not the subject of history. It manifests itself through the renewing might of the 
Spirit in the living consciousness of believers." — Bunsen, Hippolytus i (Pref.). 

2 " Were the eye unlike the sim 

How could it bear His lisht?" — Goethe. 



430 - SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

nature and the mission of man, and hence that contradicts the abso* 
lute reason, but that its definiteness constitutes at the same time a 
reasonable character.^ 

SECTION IV. 
THE HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. 

The necessity of defending Christianity in general — the faith and 
morals of Christendom — against attack, was apparent at an early 
day. The earliest form of apologetics was the juridical, in the 
character of a defence against unjust charges before the tribunals 
of heathen authority. This form of necessary resistance was soon 
joined with theological apologetics in the stricter sense, so that the 
defensive element soon became the offensive, and apologetics took 
The field of ^^ ^ polemical character. The earliest Christian apolo- 
eariiest apoio- gists represented heathenism in its emptiness, Judaism 
^^ ^^' in its insufficiency, and Christianity in its greatness and 

unique character. The first apologies, by Aristides and Quadratus, 
and also those by Melito of Sardis, Miltiades, and Claudius Apolli- 
naris, are either lost or exist only in the fragments we find in Euse- 
bius. The oldest in our possession are the two apologies by Justin 
Martyr, about the middle of the second century, and those of Tatian, 
Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, and Hermas. The Alexan- 
ciement and <irian divines, Clement and Origen, defended Christian- 
origen. j^y — tj^g former against the Greeks generally in his Ad- 

monitory Treatise, and the latter against the attacks of Celsus, in 
which undertaking they, like their predecessors, made ample use of 
Grecian philosophy. In the African Church, Tertullian became the 
attorney of Christianity through the publication of his writings — 
The Apologist, Against the Gentiles, and Against the Jews. He 

^ The term " apologetical " may, however, *' be applied in instances where it is being 
demonstrated that the decisive feature cannot be properly introduced into the demon- 
stration at this point. It follows that an apologetical significance is to be ascribed 
to the little work by Lavater entitled "Nathanael, or the Certain but Unprovable 
Divinity of Christianity." Hirzel says : " Apologetics can only remove hinderances 
from the way of the thinking reason, in part, and in part bring an already existent 
belief into harmony or into a clearly apprehended relation with the entire sum of 
knowledge and of life." " No syllogistic method of proving the truth of Christianity 
is incontrovertible. But no human ingenuity has as yet succeeded in putting to . 
shame the demonstration of the Spirit and of power." — Schenkel, Der ethische Char- 
akter das Christenthums, in Prot, Monatsbl., 185Y, p. 115. Melanchthon, too, remarks 
concerning the truths of Christianity : " Georaetrica pingi et oculis subjici possunt ; 
haec vero, de quibus hie dicimus, non ita pingi et oculis subjici possunt, sed attenta 
consideration e paulatim magis intelligentur." — Loci Communes (in Bretschneider, 
Corpus Reform, xxi, p. 646). 



THE HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. 431 

was subsequently joined by Minucius Felix, Cyprian, Arnobius 
(about A. D. 303), and Lactantius (died about 325). 

The fathers of the second period, though directing their efforts 
more especially upon internal affairs, likewise continued the work 
of apologetics; for example, Athanasius, in his Treatise against the 
Greeks, Cyril of Alexandria (died 444), who wrote the books 
ascainst Julian, and still other writers. 

After ancient heathenism had been overcome it was necessary to 
defend Christianity against the continued attacks of the Jews, and, 
after the appearance of Mohammed, against the followers of Islam. 
A number of apologetical works of this character originated during 
the Middle Ages. We may mention those by Agobard, of Lyons, 
in his Insolence of the Jews, 822; by Abelard, in his Dialogue be- 
tween the Philosopher, the Jew, and the Christian; and by Thomas 
Aquinas, in his Truth of the Catholic Faith against the Gentiles. 

A kind of uncertainty respecting the foundations of Christianity 
■•began, moreover, to manifest itself within the pale of conflict be- 
the Church itself. Philosophy and Christianity came phyTnrchS- 
into conflict, and in this way the apologetic writers tianity. 
came to regard internal conditions, especially after the restoration 
of the sciences in the fifteenth century. The truths of Christianity 
were protected against philosophical scepticism by Marsilius Ficinus 
in his Christian Religion and Piety of Faith (0pp. Par., 1641, tom. i, 
pp. 1-73), and against the intellectual scepticism by Savonarola in 
his Triumph of the Cross. 

The period of the Reformation was more particularly engaged in 
prosecuting the conflicts that arose within the Church; but the 
claims of apologetics soon afterward came again into notice. In 
1627 Grotius composed the work. Truth of the Christian Religion,* 
primarily for mariners who came into contact with non-Christian 
peoples, in order to furnish them with a cable that should save them 
from Mohammedanism and heathenism. But the work was suited to 
the learned class rather than the unlearned, and has long Qrotius and 
maintained its reputation among them. The Arminian Limborch. 
Limborch subsequently walked in the path of Grotius, in his Truth 
of the Christian Religion. He had for his object the defeat of the 
Spanish Jew, Orobio, and the Portuguese deistical Jew, Acosta. The 
rise of freethinkers of England furnished the impulse for apologet- 
ical authorship in that country, where it was even promoted by the 
institution of prizes. Mention must be made of Locke (1695-1733), 
Samuel Clarke (1704), Lardner, in his Credibility of the Gospel 
History (1764-67, iv), Addison, in his Evidences of the Christian 

^ Frequently edited. A good edition is Le Clerc and Madan's, Lond., 1814. 



433 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Religion, Stackhouse, in his Worth of the Christian Religion, and 
Butler, in his Analogy of Natural and Revealed Religion. 

In the Roman Catholic Church of France, Pascal, in his Thoughts 
(1668), and Astie (1857), and Havet, have defended Christianity 
against the objections raised by sceptical thinkers. The same work 
was performed in the Reformed Church by Abbadie (died in Ire- 
land, 1727), Jacquelot (died 1725), and G. A. Turretin (died 1687), 
in his Treatise on the Truth of the Christian Religiono 

The German apologists of the last century largely followed the 
German apoio- English at the first; but the Wolfenbiittel Fragments, 
sies. since 1777, were chiefly influential in calling forth apol- 

ogetical works. A measure of uncertainty was soon apparent, how- 
ever, in the fact that people were not agreed with reference to the 
condition of the defence itself. What should have been maintained 
was often given up, and other matters were insisted on which 
might have been conceded, or which, at least, in the form in which 
they had been held, were untenable.* The apologists were divided 
into two camps — that of the strictly orthodox, and that of the lati- 
tudinarians. The prominent names at this point are Lilienthal, 
The Good Cause of Revelation (Konigsb., 1750-78, in 16 vols.), 
Euler,^ Haller, A. F. W. Sack, Jerusalem, Noesselt, Less, Spalding, 
and Klenker. Chateaubriand defended the genius of Christianity 
and proved its greatness by the history of its martyrs (The Genius 
of Christianity; or, the Beauty of the Christian Religion, Par., 1802), 
from the position occupied by modern culture in France, and from 
that of 88sthetical Roman Catholicism as well. The progress of 
development in theology in Germany gave rise to the conflict be- 
tween Rationalism and Supernaturalism, by which means apolo- 
getics was transformed into polemics. The question concerning 
principles generally was at stake. Most of the works mentioned 
above were called into being by practical and temporary conditions 
rather than by scientific considerations. This is true in recent 
times also of Stirm; but the attempt to establish apologetics upon 
a strictly scientific basis was now made by Karl Sack, at Bonn, who 
was inspired thereto by Schleiermacher. The same effort was made 

' Lessing says, Avith reference to the apologetical literature of his day, " It often 
appeared to me as if the gentlemen had exchanged their weapons, like those which 
are presented in the fable of Death and Love. The more forcibly one attempted to 
prove Christianity to me the more did I become inclined to doubt. The more reck- 
lessly and triumphantly another sought to tread it under foot the more assuredly was 
I conscious of maintaining it, at least in my heart." See C. Schwarz, Lessing als 
Theolog, Halle, 1854, p. 35. 

2 Comp. Hagenbach, Leonhard Euler, als Apologet des Christenthums, Basle, 1851, 4. 



HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. 433 

in the Roman Catholic Church by Drey (comp. Pelt, p. 398 sq.). 
Apologetics thus came to be clearly distinguished from Apoioffeticsnot 
apology; but it lias not yet succeeded in attaining to an yet a separate 
assured position as a separate science. Nothing has ^"®'^*^*^- 
been gained by assigning to it a place under Practical Theology, as 
has been done in recent times, for theology can only be practically 
applied after its foundations have been theoretically established. 

In the English-speaking world the ground on which the defense 
of Christianity is made has been during the present century greatly 
broadeuL'd. The evidence writers of the eighteenth century rested 
their case almost exclusively on the testimony of miracles and 
prophecy. Since their time the internal evidences have received 
fuller recognition ; more stress has been laid upon the capability of 
Christianity to witness of itself in the human soul. The evangelical 
revival, which has called attention to the fact that Christianity is 
above all else a life, has aided in the development of this line of 
argument. In addition to the emphasis laid upon the self-witness- 
ing power of Christianity, the character of Christ, as a testimony 
to the truth of his religion, has received the attention which it 
deserves. Doctor Bushnell's " The Character of Christ " forbids his 
possible classification with men. Alexander's *' Christ and Chris- 
tianity," and the many lives of Jesus, which are a feature of the 
theological literature of our time, have here done good service. 
Along with them has gone the vindication of the gospels as history, 
against the assaults of Strauss and Baur and -their followers. The 
triumphant defense of the Gospel of John, through the unexpected 
discovery of long-lost ancient documents, is one of the events of 
our age. This broadening of apologetics is well represented in the 
summary of Coleridge, himself a leader in the change which differ- 
ences the Apology of the nineteenth from that of the eighteenth cen- 
tury : " (1) Its consistency with right reason I consider as the outer 
court of the Temple, the common area within which it stands. (2) 
The miracles, with and through which the religion was first revealed 
and attested, I regard as the steps, the vestibule, and the portal of 
the Temple. (3) The sense, the inward feeling in the soul of each 
believer of its exceeding desirableness — the experience that he needs 
something, joined with the strong foretokening that the redemption 
and the graces propounded to us in Christ are what he needs — this 
I hold to be the true foundation of the spiritual edifice. But (4) it 
is the experience derived from a practical conformity to the con- 
ditions of the Gospel — it is the opening eye; the dawning light; 
the terrors and the promises of spiritual growth; the blessedness 
of loving God as God, the nascent sense of sin hated as sin, and 
28 



434' SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

of the incapability of attaining to either without Christ; it is the 
sorrow that still rises up from beneath, and the consolation that 
meets it from above ; the bosom treacheries of the principal in the 
warfare, and the exceeding faithfulness and longsuifering of the 
disinterested ally; in a word, it is the actual trial of Faith in 
Christ, with its accompaniments and results, that must form the 
arched roof, and Faith itself must be the completing keystone." ^ 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF APOLOGETICS. 

Addison, Joseph. On the Evidences of the Christian Rehgion. London, 1730, 
et "passim. 

Aids to Faith. A Series of Theological Essays by Several Writers. 8vo, pp. 469. 
London, 1861. 

Allen, Alex. V. G. The Continnity of Cliristian Thought. The Bohlen Lectures for 
1883. 12mo, pp. xviii, 438. Boston, 1884. 

Bamp ton Lectures. 114 vols. London, 1 780-1893. 

Barnes, Albert. Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity in the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury. The Ely Lectures for 1867. 12nio, pp. 451. New York, 1868. 

Bremen Lectures (The). On Fundamental, Living Religious Questions, by various 
Eminent European Divines. Translated by Rev, D. Heagle. 12mo, pp. 308. 
Boston, 1871. 

Bruce, Alexander Balmain. The Chief End of Revelation, 12mo, pp. 278. New 
York, 1885. (Emphasizes the witness of a spiritualized consciousness to the 
Christian scheme.) 

Bruce, Alexander Bahnain. Apologetics ; or, Christianity Defensively Stated. 8vo. 
New York, 1893, 

Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural as together Constituting the One 
System of God. 12mo, pp. xii, 528. New York, 1867. (Chapter X is the 
strongest cliapter of the book.) 

Chambers, T, W. The Psalter : A Witness to the Divine Origin of the Bible. Yedder 
Lectures for 1876. 12 mo, pp. 200. New York, 1876. 

Christianity and Agnosticism : A Controversy Consisting of Papers by Henry Wace, 
Thomas H, Huxley, Bishop Magee, W. H. Mallock, and Mrs. Humphrey Ward. 
12mo, pp. 329. New York, 1889. (These papers have excited much interest in 
England.) 

Christlieb, Theodore. Modern Doubt and Christian Belief: a Series of Apologetic 
Lectures Addressed to Earnest Seekers after Truth. From the German. 8vo, 
pp. XX, 549. New York, 1874. (This excellent work deals with recent un- 
belief. The student will find in it an outline of the causes of skeptical thought 
in this century and its outcome.) 

Cocker, B, F. Lectures on the Truth of the Christian Religion. 8vo, pp. 265. 
Detroit, 1873. 

Cook, Joseph. Boston Monday Lectures. With Preludes on Current Events. 12mo, 
9 vols. Boston, 1877-81. 

Dodge, Ebenezer. The Evidences of Christianity. Willi an Introduction on the Ex- 
istence of God and the Immortality of the Soul. 12mo, pp. xlv, 244. Boston, 1869. 

Ebrard, J. H. A. Apologetics ; or. The Scientific Vindication of Christianity. Trans- 

^ Biographia Literaria, chap, xxlv. 



LITERATURE OF APOLOGETICS. 435 

lated by William Stuart and John Macplierson. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. xix, 407; viii, 
423 ; vii, 406. Edinburgh, 1887. (Part I treats of the external contents of 
Christianity ; Part II, of Christianity as an historical fact, in its organic con- 
nexion with the general history of religion. Under Part II Ebrard undertakes 
to give some account of all the known religions of the world.) 

Edersheim, Alfred. Prophecy and History in Relation to the Messiah. The War- 
burton Lectures for 1880-1884, with Two Appendices on tlie Arrangement, 
Analysis, and Recent Criticism of the Pentateuch, 8vo, pp. 400. New York, 
1884. 

Erskine, Thomas. Remarks on the Internal Evidence for the Truth of Revealed Re- 
ligion. Third American from the fifth Edinburgh edition. 16mo. Andover. 
(A work originally published early in this century and much read.) 

Everest, Harvey W. The Divine Demonstration : a Text-book of Christian Evidence. 
12mo, pp. 401. St. Louis, 1884. 

Fisher, George P. Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity, with Special 
Reference to the Theories of Renan, Strauss, and the Tiibingeii School. 8vo, pp. 
620. New York, 1870. (Dr. Fisher's treatment of his subject is comprehen- 
sive. Some of the topics discussed are, The Genuineness of the Fourth Gospel, 
Baur on Parties in the Apostolic Church, Baur and Strauss on the Conversion 
of Paul, The Nature and Fiuiction of the Christian Miracles, etc.) 

Foster, Randolph S. Studies in Theology — Evidences of Christianity. 8vo, pp. 
xiv, 430. New York, 1889. (The successive chapters discuss the Argumenis 
from Prophecy, Miracles, Internal Evidence, Character of the Writers, Success- 
ful Propagation of Christianity, its Adaptation to Human Nature and from Ex- 
perience. An appendix of one hundred pa^es contains valuable passages from 
other Apologetic writers.) 

Godet, F. Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith. Translated by W. H. Lyt- 
tleton. 12mo, pp. 320. New York, 1881. 

Grant, James. The Religious Tendencies of the Times. 16mo, 2 vols. London, 18G9. 

Greenleaf, Smion. The Testimony of the Evangelists Examined by the Rules of 
Evidence Administered in Courts of Justice. 8vo, pp. 613. New York, 1876. 
(Contains an appendix on the history of the MSS. of the New Testament by C. 
Tischendorff; also, A Review of the Trial of Jesus.) 

Gregory, 0. G. Evidences, Doctrines, and Duties of the Christian Religion. 8vo. 
London, 1866. 

Hetherington, W. M. The Apologetics of the Christian Faith. 8vo, pp. 581. New 
York, 1867. 

Larduer, Nathaniel. The Credibility of the Gospel History; or. The Facts Occa- 
sionally Mentioned in the New Testament Confirmed by Passages of Ancient 
Authors who were Contemporary with Our Saviour or His Apostles or Lived 
Near Their Time. London, Part I, 1727, 2 vols., 8vo ; Part II, 1733-1755, 12 
vols., 8vo. Also 8vo, 10 vols. London, 1838. (This great work, from which 
other writers have drawn supplies, is considered to be one of the masterpieces 
of Apologetics. Thomas Hartwell Home, the author of the "Introduction," 
acknowledges his many obligations to Dr. Lardner.) 

Leathes, Stanley. - Characteristics of Christianity. Pp. c, 197. London, 1884. (The 
six lectures treat of the characteristics of Christianity as follows : The long prep- 
aration for it, the historical forces producing it (meaning chiefly the conversion 
and labors of the apostle Paul), Christianity a book religion, identified with a 
Person, jDreserved by a Spirit, the hope and refuge of mankind.) 

Leathes, S. The Grounds of Christian Hope. 8vo. Loudon, 1877, 



436 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Lclaiid, Jolui. The Divine Authority of the Old and Xew Testaments Asserted, 
8vo. London, 1831. 

Liddon, Heniy P. Some Elements of Religion. Second edition. 12mo, pp. xxiv> 
243. London, 1873. 

Luthardt, C. E. Apologetic Lectures. 8vo, 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1865-13. 

Mair, Alexander. Studies in the Christian Evidences. 8vo. Edinburgh, New York, 
1883. (The author finds no possible conflict between science and religion.) 

McCosh, James. The Supernatiu-al in Relation to the Natural. 12mo, pp. xii, 369. 
New York, 1862. 

McTlvaine, Charles P. Tue Evidences of Christianity in the External or Historical 
Division : Exliibited in a Course of Lecture-;. Ninth edition. 12mo, pp. 526. 
New York. (The authenticity of the Gospel history and the truth of miracles 
and prophecy are fully discussed.) 

Morrison, Charles R. The Proofs of Christ's Resurrection, from a Lawyer's Stand- 
point. 8vo, pp. 155. Andover, 1882. 

Naville, Ernest. Modern Atlieisra ; or, The Heavenly Father. Translated by Rev. 
Henry Downton. Second edition. 12mo. London, 1884, First edition, 12mo. 
pp. ix, 375. Boston, 1867. 

Paley, Williani, A Yiew of the Evidences of Christianity, 16mo, pp. xiii, 262. 
Philadelphia, and very many editions. (This book has been since its publication 
extensivel}'' used, both in Great Britain and America, as a text-book on the 
Christian evidences. The material is drawn largel}'' from Lardner, but is pre- 
sented in a most perspicuous and winning style.) 

Pascal, 31aise, Thoughts of. Preceded by a Sketch of His Life. 12nao. pp. vi, 384. 
Boston, 1849. (Part II of tliis book contains his Apology for the Cliristian Relig- 
ion, given in detached thoughts, indeed, but wonderfully suggestive.) 

Paterson, H, Sinclair, The Fourfold Life: Its Antecedents and Consequences, 
London, 1885. (A vindication of the historical truth of the four evangelists 
against the objections of modern unbelief.) 

Pierson, A, T. Many Infallible Proofs : Chapters on the Evidences of Christianity ; 
or the Written and Living Word of God. 12mo, Chicago and New York, 1886, 

Pitts Street Chapel Lectures (The). Dehvered in Boston in 1858 by Clergymen of 
Six Different Denominations. 8vo, pp. 366. Boston, 1858. 

Redford, R. A. The Christian's Plea Against Modern Unbelief: a Handbook of 
Christian Evidence. ]2mo. London, 1881. (A concise survey of both sides of 
the controversy.) 

Replies to " Essays and Reviews," by Goulburn, Rose, Heurtley, Irons, Morrison, Had- 
dan, Wordsworth. 12mo, pp. 438. New York, 1862. 

Robbins, Sanderson. A Defence of the Faith. 8vo, pp. 222. London, 1862. 

Rogers, Henry. The Eclipse of Faith; or, A Yisit to a Religious Skeptic. 12mo, pp. 
ix, 452. 

Rogers, Henry. Reason and Faith, and Otlier Essays. Svo, pp. 458. Boston, 1853. 
(The essay on Reason and Faith, their claims and conflicts, occupies the space 
from page 339 to page 458. It is well written.) 

Rogers, Henry. A Defence of the Eclipse of Faith, by its Author. Being a Rejoin- 
der to Professor Newman's Reply. Also "The Reply to the Eclipse of Faith," 
by Francis William Newman, together with his Cliapter on the Moral Perfection 
of Jesus. 12mo, pp. vi, 208. Boston, 1854. (The attack by Francis William 
Newman on the Moral Perfection of Jesus gave great offence at the time of its 
appearance ; the reply of Mr. Rogers is very vigorou;s.) 

Rogers, Henry. The Superhuman Origin of the -Bible, Inferred from Itself. 8vo, 



LITERATURE OF APOLOGETICS. 437 

pp. X, 465. New York, 1 874. (This volume consists of a scries of Lectures. The 
eighth, on " The Exceptional Position of the Bible in the World," is especially 
valuable.) 

Row, C. A. Ciiiistitin Evidences Viewed in Relation to Modern Thought. The 
Bampton Lectures for 1877. 8vo, pp. xvi, 480. London, 1877. 

Schaff, Philip, and Roussel, Napoleon. Romance of M. Renan and the Christ of 
the Gospels. 18mo, pp. 239. New York, 1868. 

Snaith, Henry B. Apologetics: A Coiu'se of Lectures. Edited by William S. Karr, 
D.D. With Two Appendices by Professor Smith, entitled. Sketch of tlie His- 
tory of Apologetics, and Recent German AVorks on Apologetics. 16mo, pp. 194. 
New York, 1882, (Mainly an outline.) 

Smith, Henry B. Introduction to Christian Theology. Lectures on Apologetics. 
Edited by William S. Karr, I).D. Two volumes in one. 12mo. New York, 1885. 

Storrs, Richard S. The Divine Oiigin of Cliristianity Indicated by its Historical 
Effects. 8vo, pp. 674. New York, 1885. 

The Faith of Catholics ; Confirmed by Scripture and Attested bj^ the Fathers of the 
First Five Centuries of the Church. With an Introduction by the Right Reverend 
Monsignor Capel, D.D. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. 468, 505, 491. New York and Cincin- 
nati, 1885. (An apology for the doctrinal system of the Catholic Clnirch.) 

Thomson, Edward. Evidences of Revealed Religion. 12mo, pp. 327. Cincinnati, 
1872. 

Townsend, L T. Credo. 12mo, pp. 444. Boston, 1869. 

Wace, Henrj'. Student's Manual of the Evidences of Christianity. 8vo. London, 
1892. 

Watson, Fred. The Ante-Nicene Apologies: their Character and Yalue. 12mo, pp. 
205. Cambridge, 1870. 

Watson, R. An Apology for the Bible. 18mo. Passim^ e# New York, 1837. 

Whately, R. Lectures on Christiiin Evidences. Edited by T. Arden. 12mo. 
London, 1868. 

Wright, G. Frederick. The Logic of Christian Evidences. 16mo, pp. 328. Andover, 
1884. 

Wright, G. Frederick. The Divine Authority of tlio Bible. 12mo, pp.241. Boston, 
1884. 

SECTION V. 
POLEMICS AND lEEXICS. 

Comp. Schleierraacher, §§ 52-62; Pelt in Herzog's EncyklopaBdia, vii, p. 60, and xi, p. 791 ; 
M'CUntock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, articles Irenics and Polemical Theology, vols. Iv and viii. 

While dogmatics is governed by apologetical motives on the one 
hand, its entire substance is pervaded by ]3oleraical considerations 
on the other. That is to say, it has continually to recognise confes- 
sional contrasts, as historically revealed by symbolics, and to bring 
into view what is peculiar in the confession which it professes to 
support. It thus receives the confessional stamp, without which it 
would cease to be the dogmatics of a particular Church. It has, 
moreover, to reprove what is erroneous and morbid in the Church 
itself, and to present the unimpaired rule of doctrine in opposition 
to dogmatical perversions. This polemical feature does not, how- 



438 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

ever, exclude tlie irenical, whose aim it is to discover the measure 
Polemics and of truth in the keeping of opposing parties, and to point 
arate^^ d^epart ^^^ *^^ conditions upon which a gradual understanding, 
merits. and ultimately a true and lasting reconciliation, of ex- 

isting contrasts, may be brought about. Neither polemics or irenics 
is therefore to be regarded as a separate branch of theological study, 
but simply as a special side of the department of dogmatics. 

The older divines already distinguished between the acroamatic 
and elenchical theology. But symbolics had not yet received its 
present scientific form. If we assume that the distinctive doctrines 
have already been discussed in symbolics in so far as they are avail- 
able as historical material, there will be nothing more for the dog- 
matic theologian to do than simply to move about on this historical 
ground with freedom and security, and to know how to strike chiv- 
alrous blows for his Church. But if it is not possible that he should 
be allowed to escape such service, it is not easy to understand why 
polemics should become a distinct branch.^ Each depends for its 
life upon the other; polemics becoming empty disputation w^hen it 
has no dogmatic basis, and simple dogmatics without polemical salt 
being an insipid hash. Dogmatics derives its confessional charac- 
ter, as Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, and other types, from 
the polemical tendency it manifests, just as it is shown to be Christ- 
ian dogmatics by the apologetic exposition with which it is intro- 
duced. A dogmatics that is Christian without any qualifying fea- 
ture, to be satisfactory to both Roman Catholics and Protestants in 
a scientific point of view, is, in the present condition of affairs, 
wholly inconceivable.^ If the attention were even confined alto- 
gether to biblical dogmatics, the latter would assume a very differ- 
ent form under Roman Catholic from that under Protestant treat- 

T^ *. V ^T, ment. But, as has been shown in a former section. 
Dogmatics both ... . . 

biblical and ec- dogmatics is not simply a statement of Bible doctrine, 
ciesiasticai. -j^^^^ -^ assumes both that and ecclesiastical doctrines. 

The features added by the dogmatic theologian can only amount 
to a closer specification of the relation sustained by himself, or rather 
by his age — in so far as he has apprehended the latter and received 

' " Peaceable minds are also, against their will, swept into the stream of polemics, 
and faithful adherence to denominational belief excites the feeling of resistance to the 
uninterrupted assaults upon his views in proportion to its strength." — Schenkel, Ges- 
prache, etc., i, Vonede iv. 

2 Comp. Schleiermacher, § 197, note. The task of dogmatics is, nevertheless, not 
cut short thereby, as Biedermann asserts (Dogmatik, p. 9) — the task, namely, passing 
beyond the acknowledged existence of diverse views, " of following the confessional 
branchwork down to its root, the real principle of Christianity, and of basing its judg- 
ments of confessional differences upon that foundation." 



POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 439 

it into himself — to the Bible and the Church, and thus open the way 
in which the doctrine is to move in the progress of its further 
development. But how can this be accomplished in the absence of 
confessional determinateness? Since, however, the ultimate goal of 
our efforts cannot be division, but unification, the dogmatic theo- 
locrian will not be authorized to clinp; to the letter of the doctrines 
of his Church, as hitherto received, with a tenacity that makes all 
approximation toward other confessional views impossible. To 
defend lo the death what is untenable and merely peculiar to the 
stage of development attained by any particular age, influenced 
simply by obstinacy and party interest, is bad polemics. 

Every judicious dogmatist must be intent upon eventually com- 
promising and harmonizing such contrasts as may exist.' ^^^^ judicious 
But such harmonizing is not to be accomplished by an dogmatist a 
overhasty obliteration of differences, or by forcibly 
breaking off their points and grinding their edges, so as to reduce 
every thing to indefiniteness and imbecility. This is false irenics. 
It is necessary, on the contrary, that the contrasts be sharply appre- 
hended and followed down to their last details. This honest mode 
of procedure is less liable than any other to the danger of misrepre- 
senting the views of opponents. For the more earnest the effort 
to understand the peculiarities of even an antagonistic doctrine, the 
more will such doctrine display characteristics which afford a ground 
upon which reconciliation is possible. The understanding of a dis- 
ease is the only guide to a right selection of remedies for its cure, 
while palliatives can only harm. This has been shown by the his- 
tory of the latest times in the case of two of the leading confes- 
sions of Protestantism — the Evangelical Union of the Lutheran and 
Reformed Confessions of Prussia, introduced by King Frederick 

William III., in 1817. An external union has certainly ^ ,. , 

. ^ ^ / Evangelical 

been established, but it could not be made effective in union of Prus- 
all quarters, because the internal differences had not ^^^* 
yet been wholly overcome; the result being that they were only 
made more prominent. The conflict, however, if it only be con- 
ducted in the interests of truth, and without the intervention of 
blind passion, may, and will, result in demonstrating that the 
several evangelical modes under which Protestantism comes into 

^ It is most of all necessary that a false consequential spirit be avoided, as it consti- 
tutes a mortal principle to the sciences. A French writer has some capital remarks upon 
this point : Man is not a system which is divisible like a thread. He is not a mechan- 
ical force which prolongs itself infinitely. Fanaticism in all things is the reduction 
of intelligence by passion under the yoke of an exclusive idea. — Remusat, De la Re- 
form et du Protestantism, p. 52 f. 
29 



440 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

notice are equally justified in the forum of science and before the 
pious consciouisness, and that each serves to complement the other, 
though neither may be absorbed into the other.^ 

The reconciliation of Roman Catholicism and Protestantism ap- 
pears in a more difficult light up to this time, and the work of the 
dogmatic theoL^gian will, for the present, be obliged to retain a 
polemical character in this field rather than assume an irenical na- 
ture. The agreement has been carried so far, however, as to admit 
of the recognition that the differences between Roman Catholicism 
and Protestantism, which have, upon the whole, remained unchanged, 
Modiflcation of are to be very differently defined by science from what 
uc™nd protes- ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ *^^ beginning of the struggle. The re- 
tant polemics, lation between Scripture and tradition, for instance, is 
presented by the later theology of Protestantism in a form mate- 
rially modified from that of former days. The same is true of justi- 
fication and sanctification. The doctrine of the Church, also, is now, 
for the first time, approaching its thorough development and elab- 
oration. In the Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, the 
contrast between the Romish and the more independent principle is 
steadily becoming more prominent. In proportion as the purely 
evangelical element shall attain to clearness, and be distinguished 
from vague liberalism through the efforts of the nobler spirits in 
that Church, will agreement, if not unification, upon the common 
ground of Christianity become possible.^ 

The idea of polemics is not exhausted, however, when justice has 
been done to confessional interest. For, while every thing that 
savours of conflict is termed polemics, it is also true that every 
science has its polemical side. Apologetics is polemical in one 
point of view,^ and polemics, in the strict sense, involves an apolo- 
getical element. We see illustrations of this in Melanchthon's Apol- 
ogy and similar writings.* Schleiermacher distinguishes between 
apologetics and polemics, so as to conceive the former as facing 
outwardly and the latter as turning its attention within, and then 

^ " Many Lutherans have long since become Calvinists, and many Calvinists Luther- 
ans ; it only remains necessary that the right methods of promoting and expressing 
this already existing unity be discovered." — Henry at the "Kirchentag" at Berlin 
(Verhandlungen, p. 34). 

2 An attempt of this kind, as is well known, was recently made by Doellinger, the 
best representative of Old Catholicism. 

3 " It is self-evident that no defence that should be simply defensive and not also 
offensive, and that should not especially lay positive foundations, is possible on scien- 
tific grounds.'" — Lechler, ubi supra, p. 59Y. Comp. Hirzel, ubi sup7'a, p. 13. 

4 Schleiermacher, § 52. Each one of the parties is obliged to defend itself against 
the charge of anarchy or corruption. 



POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 441 

proceeds to regard polemics more generally as having to do with 
the repressing of morbid appearances in the Church at schieiermach- 

larffe, as we call indifferentism and separation/ But ^r's definition 
^ ' 1 T 1 J ^^ relations of 

it is hardly necessary to establish a separate depart- apologetics 
ment for either this work or the restraining or partial and ^^'^ polemics, 
perverted tendencies in the science generally. Such morbid tend- 
encies ^ are either to be dealt with theoretically, by dogmatics and 
ethics, or combated in a practical way, in the field of clerical work 
and that of general Church activities. But, in the latter case, the 
canon by which the contest must be regulated, the dXr]{^evecv kv 
dydnri (Eph. iv, 15), is likewise ethical. Both polemics and irenics 
have, for this reason, a place under practical theology. In con- 
nexion with dogmatics it is better to regard them in the light of 
" applied dogmatics.'" 

SECTION VI. 

THE HISTORY OF POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 

Christianity was born for conflict. Christ said that he came not 
to bring peace, but a sword. Christian polemics, accordingly, be- 
gan with the beginning. Paul and John opposed false teachers. 
The fathers trod in their footsteps — Irenaeus, with his work against 
a false Gnosis, and Tertullian, with his work on Prescription against 
Heretics, being especially prominent as fighters of heresy. The 
entire body of Church doctrine passed through the Patristic po- 
surges of conflict. Irenics sometimes went hand in lemics. 
hand with polemics; but such ill-timed attempts to promote unity 
served only to increase the intensity and confusion of the struggle. 

The separation of the Western Church from that of the East, pro- 
fessedly on account of the filioque controversy, introduced a long 
polemical contest between the two bodies, and also, since the begin- 
ning of the eleventh century, many attempts to bring about a 
reunion. Strict polemics begins with the division between the 

^ Sack has carried these categories still further ; Indifferentism (divided into Natur- 
alism and Mythologism) ; Literalism (into Ergism and Orthodoxy) ; Spiritualism (into 
Rationalism and Gnosticism) ; Separatism (into Mysticism and Pietism) ; and Theoc- 
ratism (into Hierarchism and Csesaro-Papism). H. Steffensen (in Theol. Mitarbeiten, 
Kiel, 1841, pp. 3-32) leads back these morbid forms to two fundamental states, ac- 
cording as they obscure " the piety of the Church (the substantial life of the Church) 
or pious ecclesiasticism (the formal life of the Church "). 

2 The attention is, of course, not to be fixed simply upon the appearances, but, as 
Sack says, they are to be " traced back to the inward dispositions from which doc- 
trinal differences are developed, as from their root." 

^ This is done by J. P. Lange in connexion with Dogmatic Statistics and General 
Therapeutics. 



442 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Churches in the Reformation, and the number of the controversial 
works called forth by circumstances during that period is legion. 

But similar works continued to issue from both camps in the 
Church in later times. In the Romish Church the Spanish Fran- 
ciscan Alphonso de Castro (died 1558 at Brussels) wrote, in the 
reign of Philip II., Against all Heresies (libri xiv, Paris, 1534); the 
Jesuit Francis Coster issued a Controversial Manual (1585); and 
Gregory de Valentia wrote on Controversial Matters of Faith in this 
Time (1591). Special prominence attaches to ^ellarmine (died 
1621) and his work, Disputations on the Controversies of Christian 
Faith and also to Martin Becanus (died 1624, having been the con- 
fessor of the Emperor Ferdinand II.), the author of a Manual of 
Controversies of this Period. This Church found a skilful and 
somewhat peaceably disposed defender in Bossuet, the Bishop of 
Meaux, who wrote an Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic 
Church on Controverted Matters (Paris, 1671). Among Lutherans 
the following deserve mention: Chemnitz, Examination of the 
Council of Trent (1565); Nic. Hunnius (died 1643), Examination of 
the Fundamental Dissent of Lutheran and Calvinistic Doctrine (Vit., 
1616) ; Conrad Schlusselburg, superintendent at Stralsund, Catalogue 
of Heretics (1597-99) ; and Abr. Calov, Synopsis of Controversies, 
Other dogmatical writers also mingled a large measure of polemics 
with the dogmatical material in their works. 

Among Reformed theologians we may mention Hospinian, Con- 
Reformed writ- cordia Discordant (Zurich, 1 607), replied to by Hutter in 
ers. his Concord Concordant (Vit., 1614); Daniel Chamier 

(at Montauban), The Whole Catholic Army (1626); Joh. Hoorn- 
beck. Sum of Controversies (1653); Fr. Turretin, Institutes of The- 
ological Summary (1681-85); and Fr. Spanheim, the elder (died 
1649), and the younger (died 1701), in a number of works. 

The irenical tendency occasionally progressed side by side with 
the polemical, or took its place when polemical zeal had spent its 
force. Thus, Nicolas de Cusa wrote, in the fifteenth century, his 
Dialogue on the Peace or Concord of Faith (ed. by Semler, 1787). 
The irenical tendency was represented in the Protestant Church by 
G. Calixtus, whose efforts led to the Syncretistic controversies. An 
Introduction to Polemical Divinity was written, in 1752, by J. G. 
Walch, of Jena. 

The zeal for polemics diminished after the middle of the eight- 
eenth century, and particularly toward its close, and writings and 
maunderings were composed about unity, generally emanating from 
the position of indifferentism. The newly awakened confessional 
zeal of Protestantism in the nineteenth century, however, called 



THE HISTORY OF POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 443 

forth a large number of controversial writings in the conflict 
against Ultramontanisra and Jesuitism ; but the purely scientific 
interest was often subordinated by the fervour of the combatants to 
the practical questions of the hour. The scientific treatment of 
polemics was even relegated to the more peaceable field of symbol- 
ics ; and it is quite recently that Hase has restored polemics to 
lionour as a science in the strict sense, and has again incorporated 
it with the circle of theological studies/ The scientific status of 
irenics, on the other hand, is altogether of recent date, scientific status 
and its system is not yet developed to any considerable of irenics. 
extent. It secured a foothold as a factor in the domain of practical 
life, but often served only to provide new material for polemics; 
Thus the union which was consummated in Prussia and elsewhere, 
in the course of the second decade of the century, called forth a 
multitude of works and counter-works. We may mention J. Schu- 
deroff, on the General Union of the Christian Confessions (Neust., 
1829); H. Steifens, What Lutheranism is to Me (Breslau, 1831) ; 
Rudelbach, Reformation, Lutheranism, and the Union (Leipz., 1839); 
K. F. Gaupp, Union of the German Church (Breslau, 1843); J. A. G. 
Woltersdorif, The Ecclesiastical Union (Stendal, 1851) ; and Jul. 
Mueller, The Evangelical Union (Berlin, 1854). Of historical works 
are the following : Nitzsch, Archives of the Evangelical Union 
(Berlin, 1853); R. Stier, Unlutheran Theses (Brunsw., 1854) ; and 
Carl Schulz, The Union : An Inquiry into its History and Doctrine 
(Gotha, 1868). 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 

Earnum, S. "W. Romanism As It Is : an Exposition of the Roman Catholic System, 
For the Use of the American People. New edition. 8vo, pp. sviii, 753. Hart- 
ford, Conn., 1876. 

Brown, Bishop, and Joseph Baylee. A. Controversy on the Infallibility of the Church 
of Rome and the Doctrine of Article YI of the Church of England. 12 mo, 
pp. 410. London, 1852. 

Butler, William Archer. Letters on Romanism, in Reply to Dr. Newman's Essay on 
Development. Edited by Thomas Woodward. Second Edition. Revised by 
Archdeacon Hardwick. 8vo. Loudon, 1858. 

Dixon, A. C. The True and the False. 12rao, pp. 173. Baltimore, 1890. (A dis- 
cussion of Romanism.) 

Edgar, Samuel. The Variations of Popery. 8vo, pp. xxiv, 606. New York, 1852". 
(A strongly polemic work, but competently written. The Preface is an historical 
review of the controversy between Protestantism and Rome.) 

Ford, David B. Studies on the Baptismal Question ; including a Review of Dr. 
Dale's "Inquiry into the Usage of Baptizo." 8vo, pp. 416. Boston and New 
York. (The production of a scholarly Baptist.) 

* It is true, indeed, that Schlelermacher already assigned to it an honorary place among 
such studies, and that Sack wrote, in A. D. 1838, a textbook of this science ; but the example 
produced no lasting consequences. 



444 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Gault, Robert. Popery the Man of Sin and the Son of Perdition ; bein^: a Prize 

Essay of the Evangelical Alliance. 12mo, pp. xi, 449. New York, 1855. 
Hare, Julius Charles. The Contest with Rome: a Charge to the Clergy. 8vo, pp. 

vi, 346. London, 1852. 
Howitt, W. History of Priestcraft. New edition. ]2mo. London, 1846. 
Hughey, G. W. Political Romanism ; or, The Secular Policy of the Papal Church. 

12mo, pp. 281. Cincinnati, 1872. 
Maurice, F. D. The Religion of Rome and its Influence on Modt rn Civilization. 8vo. 

London, 1855. 
Michelet, J. Priests, Women, and Families. Translated by G. H. Smith. 8vo, pp. 

iv, 66. London, 1846. (Michelet writes as a Frenchman, who longs lo see his 

country delivered from the domination of the priest.) 
Roussell, Napoleon. Catholic and Protestant Nations Compared in their Tlireefold 

Relations to Wealth, Knowledge, and Morality. 8vo, pp. 330. Boston, 1855. 
Thompson, R. W. The Papacy and the Civil Power. 12mo, pp. 150. New York, 

1876. (A thorough discussion of the subject, with abundant historical citations.) 
Whately, Richard. Errors of Romanism Traced to their Origin in Human Nature. 

New edition. 8vo, pp. viii, 230. London, 1856. (The topics discussed are: 

Superstition ; Vicarious Religion ; Pious Frauds ; Undue Reliance on Human 

Authority ; Persecution ; Trust in Names and Privileges.) 

SECTION YIL 
THE METHOD OP DOGMATICS. 

The method of arranging and dividing the material of dogmatics 
is, beyond all question, dependent on the underlying dogmatical 
view, since it is no small question which doctrine shall control the 
others, or what relations the various articles of the creed are to 
sustain to each other, or what is their bearing upon the entiie body 
Theological ^^ Christian truth. The traditional method, byTheolog- 
Heads. {Qrjil Topics, or Heads, has, on that account, not only been 

variously modified, but has also been superseded to some extent by 
other modes of division, and in part combined with them. 

The question concerning the particular doctrine which is to be 
placed at the base, so to speak, the TTpcbrov klvovv of dogmatics, 
reaches back into apologetics. What is the essential feature of 
Christianity ? what is the principal subject of its teaching ? what are 
fundamental articles? Upon these questions w^ill depend the entire 
structure of dogmatics. If it be held that the doctrine about 
Dogmatics de- Christ is less important than what he taught, and that 
^^nce of ChrisI ^^^® essential thing in connexion with Christianity is 
tianity. that it has thrown light upon the doctrines relating to 

God and his attributes, and also those which concern human des- 
tiny, the entire system will assume a character different from what 
it would be if it be assumed that the central point of Christianity 

^ Excellent hints for the cultivation of Irenics are furnished in the work by Liicke : Ueber das 
Alter, den Verfasser, die urspriingliche Form und den wahren Sinn des kirchl. Friedensspruches : 
In necessariis unitas, in nou necessariis libertas, in utrisque caritas. Gott., 1850. 



THE METHOD OF DOGMATICS. 445 

lies in the personality of the God-man, or in the fact of redemption, 
or in the justification of the sinner before God by faith, or, finally, 
in the mystery of the Trinity. Each of these views will necessitate 
a plan on which to dispose of the separate doctrines within the gen- 
eral structure. 

The traditional method began with God and his attributes, pro- 
gressed through the creation until it arrived at man and his sin, 
passed through these to the Redeemer and his work, and then dis- 
cussed the Church and the sacraments, until it closed with an out- 
look into the future, or the last things. This has been The Local or 
denominated the Local or Topical method, from locus TopicaJ Method. 
or ro-no^, which corresponds to the terms caput or pars fidei, or 
articles of faith (ap^poi' r^^ r/areo)^-).' It is already found with 
John of Damascus and the scholastics, and it has been the usual 
method with Lutherans since Melanchthon, though the latter him- 
self had followed a different method in the first edition of his Loci 
Communes, which begins with man and his need of salvation. Dif- 
ferent principles of arrangement were attempted from time to time 
in the Reformed Church. Thus we may mention the Federal 
method (methodus foederalis) of Cocceius and Witsius in the 17th 
century,^ which was adopted among moderns by August! ; ^ and the 
division according to the Persons of the Trinity, by Melchior Ley- 
decker, in the same century,* which is followed by Marheinecke in 
his Dogmatik, Schirmer in his Biblical Dogmatics, and Rosenkranz 
in his Encyclopaedia. 

Schleiermacher's method is peculiarly founded on the contrast 
betv>'een sin and grace as constituting the turning point schieiermach- 
in the Christian conception of the world. His Dog- er's method, 
matics falls into two principal parts: 1. "The pious feeling of 
dependence, wdthout reference to the contrast between personal in- 
ability and imparted ability;" 2. With a substantial recognition of 
such contrast. Hase divides dogmatics into ontology and Chris- 
tology. Anthropology and theology are classed under the former 
head, and eschatology is discussed under anthropology, while the 
doctrines of the Holy Spirit, the Church, and the sacraments con- 

' See^ Bretschneider, Entwicklung der dogmatischen Begriffe, p. 191. The proof 
texts in Scripture were also termed loci dassicL loci probantia, dicta classica, sedes 
doctrinae, and the science which treated proof passages was termed topics. 

^ Foedus naturae et opentm and foedus gratiae with economies ante legem, mb legs, 
a.nd post legem. Comp. Al. Schweizer, Ref. Dogm., p. 103 sqq. 

3 1. Of the state of sin; 2. Of the state of grace ; 3. The facts of Christianity (which 
hobble along at quite a distance). 

^ Comp. Schweizer, ubi supra, p. 115 sqq. 



446 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

stitute a part of his ChristologyJ Like Schleiermacher, he places 
the Trinity, " as the sum and consummation of Christology," at the 
end. Kling argues that Christology is entitled to the first place. '^ 
He agrees with Hahn in considering the doctrine of Christ as the 
Son of God and of man, the Saviour of the world, the fundamental 
doctrine of the Christian religion, but, diverging from that scholar, 
prefers to begin with the doctrine of the person of Christ.^ 

It is more correct, however, to regard the person of Christ as 

_ . ' forming the certre of Christian dosrmatics, to which 

Chnsts person ® . . 

the centre of all our knowledge respectmg God and man refers in a 
dogmatics. prophetic way, and from which it again proceeds, as 
having been satisfied by Christ. While the character of" Christi- 
anity is the " divinely human," * it yet appears to be a more natural 
method to consider, first, God in his relations to man apart from 
the mediation of Christ, as the Creator, Lawgiver, and Judge ; next, 
man in his relations to God while unredeemed ; (a) as the creature 
and image of God, (b) as a sinner, and (c) Christ as the God-man 
and Kedeemer, the latter constituting the centre from which man- 
kind as redeemed by him, as glorified in him, but also as progress- 
ing toward its consummation in him, is discussed. In this way the 
separate doctrines of salvation, or soteriology, and of the Church, 
the sacraments, and eschatology will foim the comjDletion of anthro- 
pology, on the one hand, while, on the other, the doctrine of the 
Holy Spirit, which finds its proper place at this point, in connexion 
with the exaltation of Christ and his kingly ofiice, brings the doc- 
trine of God in the Trinity to a full completion. 

There is no propriety in discussing Christ before attention has 
been directed toward God and man, but it is not, on the other 
hand, possible to finish either the doctrine of God or of man with- 
out including Christ. The whole of the doctrine of the Trinity is 
left in the condition of an un comprehended speculative problem, if 
it be not prefaced by Christology, and eschatology comes under 
notice too far in advance when treated, as it is by Hase, before the 
doctrine of Christ. The topical method, as a whole, may, there- 
fore, be retained, but so that each topic shall find its completion 

' Evangel. Dogmatik, 2d ed., p. 46 sgq. 

^ Gestalt der evang. Dogmatik in Tiib. Zeitschrift for 1834, No. 4. 

' Hahn's division is as follows: 1. Theology, consummated in the Son of God; 
2. Anthropology, in the Son of man; 3. Soteriology, in the Redeemer; 4. The doc- 
trine of the Church, as founded, governed, and consummated by Christ, the promised 
and glorified King of truth, 

* Comp. Ebrard's Inaugural Address, Die Gottmenschlichkeit des Christenthums, 
Ziir., 1845. 



THE METHOD OF DOGMATICS. 447 

in the others, and that, for that reason, it shall not be brought to 
a conclusion without bringing the others into account. Retentiou of 
This is the meaning which underlies the federative tx)picai method, 
method, and, also, the arrangement of Schleiermacher. Both these 
methods seek to destroy the invariable and mechanical arrangement 
by which the articles succeed each other under regular rubrics, 
and to establish living relations among the various doctrines. We 
would not, therefore, argue in favour of the traditional method 
without modifications, as does Pelt,^ though we see no reason for 
rejecting the customary terminology, such as theology, anthro- 
pology, and the rest. 

The outlines of a system of dogmatics, such a,s we outline of dog- 

-, f. matical system. 

should prefer, would be as follows : 

1. God, and his relation to the world and to man as his creature. 
Natural, legal, and prophetical theology. 

2. Man, as related to God and the world, so long as they have 
not been brought together through the mediation of Christ. The 
doctrine of man's primeval state ; the destination of man, and 
sin. 

3. The doctrine of the personality of the God-man and his work 
for the redemption of mankind. Christology and objective soteri- 
ology — the heart of Christian dogmatics. 

4. Man as related to Christ, and through Christ to God. The 
doctrine of salvation, subjective soteriology, the ordo salutis. The 
doctrine of the Holy Spirit. 

5. Man as related to Christ, and through Christ to the world. 
Communion of believers, the Church, and sacraments. Hence, also, 
man's changed relation to nature — death, the resurrection, and the 
whole of eschatology. 

6. God, manifested in Christ, in his relation toward himself.^ The 
Christian doctrine of the Trinity in its immanent meaning. 

7. God in his relation to the world, viewed in connexion with the 
fact of redemption. 

The kernel of the whole, Christology, is thus inclosed within 
theology, and the interior connecting links will constitute the 
anthropology. 

The attributes of God need not, in this arrangement, be separ- 
ated from each other, as Schleiermacher's method requires. They 
may be placed under the first head, but would, of course, attain 
their full significance only at the end. 

A method that corresponds, in the main, to the above, and that 
commends itself to favour by its clearness, is that of Al. Schwei- 

* Encyklopaedie, p. 502. 



448 SYSTEMATIC THEOLO.GY. 

zer/ It possesses the additional advantage of having taken the so- 
Sehweizer's called prolegomena, generally constituting a separate part, 
method. [i^ which the fundamental elements are laid down, from its 
isolation, and bringing it into organic connexion with the remain- 
der of the system of belief. In this way he obtains the following 
division into three parts: 1. The laying of foundations, or the con- 
sciously realized faith of Christianity in the Evangelical Church as 
a whole; the apologetic, or better, the grounding part. 2. The 
elements contained in the pious Christian consciousness which do 
not involve the specifically peculiar character of Christianity — the 
elemental part. 3. The specifically Christian side or part. It is 
evident, of course, that the two former divisions will be more ab- 
breviated than the latter. 

SECTION VIII. 

THEOLOGY. 

Corap. Nitzsch, In Herzog, Encyklopaedie, s. v. Gott. 

Article Theology, in M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, vol. x. 

Theology is, in Christian dogmatics, used to designate the doc- 
trine relating to God, and more especially God as he has appeared 
Meanino- of ^^ man. Such theology has nothing in common with 
theology. scepticism, which everywhere professes to know nothing 
about God, nor with that false dogmatism which claims to know more 
about God than he has permitted man to know. In treating his 
nature and attributes it, accordingly, has respect not to metaphysi- 
cally ontological questions as it does to religious considerations, and 
is conscious of the figurative character of the language and modes 
of reference it must employ, as well as of the real and substantial 
basis upon which such language and modes rest. 

We may appropriate to ourselves the assertion of Feuerbach, 
that theology is, at bottom, merely anthropology, without accepting 
it in the sense of Feuerbach. In fact, his definition may even be 
employed against him. We concede that, in a certain sense, the- 
ology is anthropology, and that it must be anthropological through 
and through, if it be acknowledged, on the other hand, that anthro- 
pology is also modified by theology, or that the two are simply 
diverging members of a single body, which body is religion. The 
^ ^ ^ Bible everywhere teaches a human God, that is, a God 

God, human '' • z-i j 

and superhu- for man. This is the true anthropopathy. He is a God 
°^^^' who is likewise superhuman, but whatever of the su- 

perhuman is revealed always has reference to the human element. 

^ Christliehe Glaubenslehre nach Protestant. Grundsatzen, p. 86. Comp. the entire 
section, Methode der Glaubenslehre, p. 70 sqq. 



THEOLOGY. 449 

The entire Old Testament speaks of God as dwelling in the midst 
of his people; the entire New Testament describes him as mani- 
fested in Christ, and through Christ become the father of humanity. 
Even the creation of heaven and earth is narrated in a human 
method, that is, from a human point of view, and is adapted to the 
needs of man, whose home is in the earth. 

This constitutes religion, which dogmatics is to apprehend, in all 
wisdom and humility, as the religion that emanates from God, and 
is willed and ordered by him. It does not seek to comprehend God 
as he exists from eternity to eternity ; it is satisfied to know that 
he is. But it desires to know every thing respecting his nature that 
he has revealed to man, and also the relation into which he has en- 
tered with man, who is modelled after the image of God. Hence, 
all sound dogmatic theologians have, from the beginning, asserted 
the incomprehensibility of God as strongly as they have incomprehensi- 
taught that, with reference to our salvation, he is com- ^^^^ ^^ ^^<^- 
prehensible by us,^ and they have demonstrated, in the works of 
creation and redemption, the glories of his character which have 
been made known to us. Their position is at once that occupied 
by reason and the Scriptures. 

Dogmatics is not obliged to prove the existence of God. But it, 
nevertheless, takes that slender thread which runs through the 
history of the human race which inquires after God, and points out 
how the consciousness that he exists is manifested in connexion 
with the different forms of argument — the physico-theological, cos- 
mological, ontological, historical, moral, and the rest — and that the 
very fact that search for such proof is made, is, in this case, of itself 
a sufficient proof.^ It treats the attributes of God, not as coming 
upon him from without, and attaching themselves to him in an ex- 
ternal way, but as being the unfolding of his nature in behalf of 
our natural and moral consciousness. 

Here, then, is the place in which to discuss the relation of God to 
the world and the human spirit, but in an ethical and religious light, 

^ Comp. the citations from the Fathers in Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, § 27 
(Smith's ed.). 

^ " More than one hundred demonstrations in geometry have been made of the 
Pythagorean theorem, all of which accomplish the same object. Innumerable proofs 
of the existence of God have likewise been constructed, but they failed to accomplish 
what they promised to achieve. . . . God is not a right-angled triangle, and it is not 
possible to invent either numerous or striking evidences respecting him. There is but 
one proof for God, and this he wields himself." — Rosenkranz, Encyklopaedie, p. 6. 
Hamann, already, remarks that "if he is a fool who denies God, he is a much greater 
fool who attempts to prove his existence." Corap., however, G. A. Fricke, Argumenat 
pro Dei existentia exponuntur et judicantur. Lips., 1846. 
29 



450 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

rather than in that of pure speculation. The idea of the divine per- 
cod's relation sonality is here to be investigated in its religious bear- 
to the world, ings, and anthropomorphism and anthropopathy here find 
their psychological basis and theological corrective, the language of 
the Bible and the needs of the human heart being duly recognized,^ 

The doctrines of the creation and preservation of the world, of 
Providence and the government of the world, as well as of sin 
(theodicy), all depend on theology. Here, again, dogmatics is re- 
quired to fix a clear boundary between matters which belong to 
the religious conception of the world and those which are proper- 
ly cosmical in their character. The older dogmatic theologians, 
even John of Damascus, included physics, natural history, and 
astronomy. But the more recent science has properly thrown over 
all such ballast. Still, there is constant temptation to wander off 
into foreign fields, such as geological researches with reference to 
the narrative of the creation. Theology must content itself with 
the idea of creation as such. 

The doctrines of angels and of demons are usually connected 
ABgeioiogy and with that of creation, though the second one stands 
demonoiogy. more particularly related to the doctrine of the fall, 
and hence with that of sin. It is to be remembered, however, that 
the idea of angels was in existence when Christianity apf)eared, 
and that the latter adopted the existing views without formulating 
them into a distinct doctrine, or founding on them any material 
feature of revealed religion. Here, again, we meet the temptation 
of straying off into false metaphysics, of identifying, without quali- 
fication, the poetic with the didactic, and popular figurative notions 
with definite scientific statements, all of which are not easy to keep 
asunder in the given case. Or, we are exposed to the danger of a 
gross realism, by which the one element is mistaken for the other. 
Religious eie- It is, therefore, necessary to commend at this point that 
mentof a doc- ^^^^igious do^natical procedure which aims, first of all, 

tnne should be J * ^ i> j ' • 

prominent. to bring the religious element oi a doctrine into promi- 
nence, and thereby naturally preserve the true medium between 
coarse literalism and superficial negation.^ 



2 



* Comp. § 29. " Human forms of speech, anthropomorphisms, are most frequently- 
applied to God when piety is vital and communion with him is habitual; and the 
Bible leads in this direction ; so that, in this very matter, and even in expressions that 
are at first offensive to reason and exposed to ridicule, there is reason for admiring 
the high degree of pedagogical wisdom in religious things, however great the naivete, 
and for observing that even the pious naivete alone has the best of the argument." — 
Hirzel, in the Kirchenfreund, 18*73, No. 10, p. 154, article Zum Streit und Freiden. 

2 Comp. the article Engel, in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, iv, by Boehmer. It is not 



ANTHROPOLOGY. 451 

SECTION IX. 

ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Theological differs from physiological anthropology in that, al- 
though it proceeds upon the basis of man's natural condition, it does 
not regard him in his relation to nature, but as he stands related to 
God. It is divided into the two leading sections of a doctrine of 
man's original state prior to the fall, and a doctrine of the fall and 
of sin, which was thereby introduced into human nature, and has 
since perpetuated itself and been actualized in the experience of 
every individual. 

Theological anthropology of a scientific character is, of course, 
impossible apart from physiological anthropology; that Theological an- 
is, apart from all acquaintance with man as naturally thropoiogy. 
constituted. But the latter serves merely as a natural foundation. 
The most perfect familiarity with human nature in its anatomical 
and physiological, and even in its psychological, aspects, in so far as 
psychology restricts itself to psychological limits, will not be com- 
petent to disclose to our view the religious nature of man.^ It is 

allowable, of course, to find mere accommodation in the discourses of our Lord which 
relate to the world of angels and demons, which are not only based on a religious idea, 
but also on an earnest reality. The doctrine concerning Satan, for instance, rests on 
the fact of the power of evil, which reaches down into the deepest abysses of dark- 
ness (Daub's Ischarioth). It has been wittily said by Kougemont, with reference to 
this point : Men have pretended that all the deraonology of Jesus was only an accommo- 
dation to the prejudices of his people and his age. This is as much as to say that 
the battles of Alma and Inkerman are only an accommodation of Napoleon III. to the 
prejudices of the French against the Russians. What struggle has ever been more 
real, more terrible, more gigantic, than that of the Son of God and of Satan in the 
wilderness ?— Christ et ses Temoins, vol. i, p. 152. But this yields no stronger 
proof for the personality of Satan than for that of death, sin, or hell, which, likewise, 
are powers that were overcome by Christ in a real sense, and not figuratively only. 
The figurative designation of the thing is here interchanged with the thing itself, 
whose reality continues unchanged. Schenkel, following in the footsteps of Schleier- 
macher, has subjected the doctrine of the devil to the light of a rigorous criticism 
(Dogmatik, i, p. 247 sqq.). On the other hand, persons are not wanting who hold 
that effects are still produced, and persons possessed, by demons at the present time. 
1 The Remark of Rosenkranz (Encykl, p. 33), that "theological anthropology has 
nothing to do with the physical and intellectual nature of man," is too strong. But 
it is true that " it must turn over the consideration of that nature to philosophical an- 
thropology, and fix its attention on the relation in which man stands to God." Comp. 
Earless, in preface to his Ethik (4th ed.) : " I believe that our divines would do well 
by not restraining their interest in the field of physical research too far ; for it is only 
in the light of unjustifiable abstraction that the latter can seem to have nothing in 
common with the mind." Darwin's theory of the descent of man, tracing him back 



452 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

true that this religious nature of man may be apprehended to 
some extent by psychological inquiry, but, by this method, man 
appears only as an isolated specimen of his race ; and a penetrating 
observation of his nature is afforded only by the history of mankind 
in connexion with the revelations made by God. We, therefore, 
urge that, as in dogmatics, theology is required to be anthropolog- 
ical, so, in like manner, must anthropology be theological/ The 
questions which relate to body and soul, or body, soul, and spirit, 
and to the origin of the latter (pre-existence, traducianism, crea- 
tionism), are in place here only in so far as one theory or an- 
other becomes necessary for the understanding of man's religious 
nature. 

The proper course of dogmatical procedure will be to apprehend 
in their real spirit the few grand indications of the Scriptures upon 
such matters as the image of God, and to so ]3resent them to our 
spirit through the medium of exegesis, history, and philosophy, as 
The high idea to enable US to grasp the more exalted idea of human- 
of humanity, [^j beneath the figurative language by which it is ex- 
pressed. Upon the correct ajjprehension of that idea depends the 
correct view of sin, whether it is to be considered a mere negation, 
or natural deficiency, or a privation, depravation, and perversion of 
human nature. These are the terms that distinguish between the 
Protestant and the Roman Catholic views. 

The history of man's fall into sin is likewise involved in great 
difficulties when regarded as simple history. But the genesis of 
sin, as repeated daily, may, nevertheless, be demonstrated from the 
masterly and matchless narrative. It is impossible to deny that 
the consciousness of a common guilt, of which every individual par- 
takes, is profoundly religious in its nature, and attested by both 
Scripture and experience. Nowhere do psychological inquiry and 
The doctrine of the study of God's word, considered as the judge of 
sin. human thoughts, more fully complement, or rather ex- 

plain, each other than in the doctrine of sin. Does not Paul speak 
on this point (Rom. vii) with reference to his own experience, and 
from out of the depths of human nature as a whole ? The same 
holds true of Augustine and Luther. Abstract reason will, of 
course, ahvays incHne toward Pelagianism upon such doc^trines, 
since it affords a necessary corrective in many particular respects. 

to an ape, which has been so much discussed of late, will not at all disturb the scholar 
who knows how to distinguish between the domain of religion and that kind of nat- 
ural science which must often take a backward step ; but it will afford food for re'flec- 
tion and for profounder thought with respect to the limitations of our knowledge. 
^ Comp. Bunsen, Hippolytus i, p. 289 sqq. 



CHRISTOLOGY. 453 

But the mind derives no satisfaction from that course, inasmuch as 
it is continually reminded of a rupture that is more profound than 
reflection is able to perceive.^ 

SECTION X. 
CHRISTOLOGY. 

Comp. Kling, in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, s. v. ii, and article Christology, In M'Clintock and 

Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol. ii. 

Inasmuch as the religious relation subsisting between God and 
man finds its historical exemplification only, and in a peculiar man- 
ner, in the person of Jesus Christ, the God-man, Christology must 
constitute, not merely an essential part, but the very centre of a 

system of doo-matics. Its task will be to conceive Jesus ^^ . , , 
"^ . ^ . , Chnstologytne 

as sinless man, as free from error, in so far as this centre of dog- 
stands connected with sin, and, for that reason, as being °^^*^^^* 
the only-begotten Son of God, and God manifest in the flesh. It 
will be required to harmonize the qualities which Jesus possesses in 
common with the race, or human nature, with those which stamp 
him as unique, and exalt him above the race, and, therefore, of the 
divine nature, without, on that account, being authorized to set aside 
his real and complete humanity, or to obscure the greatness of his 
specific deity. 

The life of Jesus forms the historic basis of Christology. But 

the latter has to cultivate thoroughly a ground which ^., ^ ^ 

i=> J o ^ _ ^ Life of Jesus 

the former, in its character as a purely historical sci- the basis of 
ence, could not include within its territory.'^ There has ^^"^^^^o^^- 
been no lack, however, of theologians who assert that Christology 
is superfluous, and who thereby stab Christian dogmatics, consid- 
ered as specifically Christian, to the heart, ^ Their dogmatics is 

' Comp. Hundeshagen, Der Weg zu Christo, i, p. 136. 

2 Rothe, among others, points out the necessity of apprehending the divine nature 
of Christ from the study of the picture of his human life : " To speak of recognizing and 
acknowledging the divine element in Christ without having observed it shine forth 
from what is human in him, or having caught its reflection in the mirror of his hu- 
manity, is merely to bandy idle words. . . . Apart from the underlying oasis of hu- 
manity, the whole of the sacred life and work of Jesus by which redemption was 
effected becomes a magnificent phantasmagoria, an empty pageant, upon which no one 
may depend for comfort and for hope either in life or death. The unavoidable conse- 
quence, in short, is unmitigated Docetism." — In Schenkel's Zeitschrift, pp. 380, 383. 

3 Thus by Henke, in the preface to his Lincementa, p. 12: " Ut omnis haec in 
Christum religio ad religionem Christ! magis revocetur, omni opera contendendum 
est." Comp. Ruhr, Briefe iiber Rationalismus, p. 36 : " What supernaturalists term 
Christology in their dogmatics does not appear in my system as an integral part at all ; 
for, while it constitutes a religion which Jesus taught, it is not one whose object he 



454 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

confined altogether to theology and anthropology, and in the prog- 
ress of their works Christ appears simply as one theologian and an- 
thropologist among others, to whom an occasional appeal is made, 
but not as the '&edv^po)7Tog, who is himself the central feature of 
dogmatics. 

But objection against this very SedvT&QCJTrog idea has been raised 
from many quarters. The term, it is true, is not biblical, 
term "God- and cannot be found in the Bible Dictionary. But can all 
™^^' the terms with which the attributes of God are desig- 

nated, and others with which dogmatics has been enriched, be found 
in the Bible ? The term " God-man " may, no doubt, be so under- 
stood as to involve a contradiction. If the idea proceeds on the 
assumption of an un-human God and an un-divine man, who are to 
be joined together in an outward form, the one will necessarily ex- 
clude the other; in other words, the ancient ''finite is not capable 
of the infinite." But it has been correctly shown that the divinely 
human character of Christianity and the divine humanity of the 
Saviour condition each other. ^ It is only necessary to remember, 
in this matter, that language of this character is developed on the 
soil of religion, and not on that of abstract speculation. The entire 
doctrine of the person of Christ may be apprehended in a very irra- 
tional way, either as describing the mechanical contact of two dis- 
similar things, the two members of the Form of Concord, or as a 
mixture of divine and human elements, as we see in Apollinar- 
ism.^ In this way the one is disturbed and obscured by the other 
rather than modified and complemented by it. 

The doctrine of the Church itself has not always been free from 
Doctrine of the abstruse and confusing definitions, though it has, with 
pro^p^eriy de- correct judgment, continued to insist on the davyxvrcjg, 
fined. drpeTrrwf, d6LaiQeT(x)g, and dxo)gi-oro)g. The truth upon 

this subject cannot be intuitively understood, but may be appre- 
hended in its character as a truth to be accepted by faith; and 
while the truly wise niay arrive at an understanding with regard to 
it, a satisfactory agreement and a logical settlement upon its merits 
are utterly impossible to persons who are merely puffed up with 
their knowledge. 

The history of doctrines affords the most striking evidences of 

might be himself." The most recent rationalizing theology seems inclined to return 
to this Ebionitic view. Vide the " Schlussbetrachtung " in Strauss' Life of Jesus for 
the German People. 

' Ebrard, ubi supra. 

• Com p. the History of Doctrines. Guizot, however, still speaks of a " continual 
mixture of the divine and the human." 



SOTERIOLOGY. 455 

this fact. Whenever the attempt is made to bring Christology to 
a logical conclusion, and formulate it, the difficulty of avoiding 
Ebionitism or Docetism, Nestorianism or Monophysitism, which 
stand on either side like Scylla and Charybdis, will present itself, 
and the history of doctrines will require to defend itself against the 
attacks of various forms of heresy in the manner best suited to re- 
pel the antagonizing error. The reason for this fact does not, how- 
ever, lie in the doctrine itself, with its infinite significance, but in 
the human limitations which affect the dogmatics of each particular 
age.i 

SECTION XL 

SOTERIOLOGY. 

Most intimately connected with the doctrine of the Redeemer's 
person is the doctrine of the salvation which depends on him, and 
of the appropriation of this salvation on our part by faith. This is 
soteriology. Its objective side is found in the work of Christ, in 
the redemption and atonement wrought by him. Its subjective 
side is found in the work of the Holy Spirit upon the human heart, 

^ The merely complementary relation sustained by the two leading confessions of 
Protestantism to each other is pointed out by Schneckenburger, Vom doppelten 
Stande Christi, Pforzheim, 1848. Jul. Miiller beautifully observes that "at this point 
evangelical theology needs a new development out of the Holy Scriptures as the orio-. 
inal source of doctrinal life, and accompanied with a rejection of the entire ballast of 
formulas, which, in the dogmatics of former times, was connected with the idea of the 
communis naticrarum. In such development the leading object must be held to the 
preservation in doctrinal form of the evangelical picture of the life of Jesus Christ in 
its human truthfulness and comprehensibility, undeterred by monophysite, docetic, or 
Nestorian opinions, but accompanied by the declaration that this man Jesus Christ is 
the logos, in the flesh, God of God, born in eternity of the Father. . . . The thought 
that he who, as the eternal logos, is with the Father, is at the same time a true Son of 
man, contains such an inexhaustible fulness of knowledge respecting the common sal- 
vation, that every division based on the effort to definitely formulate the relation be- 
tween the divine and human natures in Christ becomes a sin committed against the 
God-man himself, to whom all profess a common allegiance. — Die evangel. Union, ihr 
Wesen und ihr Gottliches Recht, 1st ed., Berl, 1854, p. 316 sqq. Comp. also Rothe, 
nbi supra, p. 384 : " When this shall have become clear, that moral unity with God is 
to be conceived as not ideal only, but as real, as the result of a more thorough ac- 
quaintance with the interior nature of moral being, then shall we also, for the first 
time, have grasped the key to Christology, and behold a living Christ, in sharp and 
vivid outlines, before the eye of the mind — a Christ who is bone of our bone, and 
flesh of our flesh, and at the same time the only begotten of the Father, in whose pres- 
ence we are constrained to bow and exclaim with Thomas, ' My Lord and my God ! ' 
Then will the breathings of our faith be deep and joyous, when it has seen the dawn- 
ing of this bright light in the midst of darkness— it is faith in Christ, instead of unbe- 
lief, which has penetrated through the dogma." 
30 



436 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

the different gradations of which are denominated the order of sal- 
vation. The principal points to settle are, the relation of justifica- 
tion to sanctiiication, of divine grace to human freedom, and of 
faith to works. The confessional opposition between Protestantism 
and Roman Catholicism is more sharply defined in this field than 
in any other. 

The doctrine of Christ's person would, indeed, belong to the realm 
Christ the Me- ^^ ^^^^ Speculation if its only purpose were to conceive 
diator. Qf Jesus as an isolated marvel upon the page of history, 

or as a God man who appears and vanishes away like some meteor. 
But this is not its object. Christ, as being the Son of God and Son 
of man, becomes the Mediator between God and man. He atones 
and redeems. His death is made to appear as the crowning point 
of his redeeming work, and Christ himself is the basis of reconcilia- 
tion, the IXaoixoc:. In him the old dies, and the new attains to life. 
Death and resurrection are the pivots upon which his character 
turns for the history of his world. The dogma concerning the 
death of Jesus belongs, in one respect, to Christology, as having 
proceeded out from the person of Christ. But, in its results, that 
death forms the condition of salvation, and the doctrine, therefore, 
belongs to soteriology. To apprehend this death in its religious 
significance, not from the idea of mere abstract right, as a satisfac- 
tion, nor yet from the idea of mere moral influence, as an example, 
but rather as a free thought of love, executed under a divine neces- 
sity in harmony with God's eternal decree, and as therefore fraught 
with infinite consequences for the entire human race, constitutes one 
of the highest problems of Christian dogmatics. In the solution of 
it the religious spirit is required to participate, as well as the rea- 
ison, with its combining and analytical processes.^ 

But it is as improper to isolate the work of Christ as to isolate his 
person. The death of Jesus is most intimately and organically con- 
nected with his life previous to his death, and with the development; 
of the kingdom of God subsequent to his resurrection, and also with 
Subjective so- the regeneration of each individual. This is subjective 
terioiogy. soteriology, the order of salvation. The process which 

was regarded as dynamical by the Christianity of apostolic times, 
that is to say, the change wrought in man by the Spirit of God — 
repentance, regeneration, renewing of the spirit, and sanctification — 
was, in later days, classified under the heads of illumination, con- 
version, sanctification, and perseverance, and the whole made to 
tend toward the goal of a most intimate communion with God, a 

^ Comp. Hagenbach's articles on this subject in the Kirchenbl. f iir die Ref. Schweiz, 
1854, Nos. 7 and 9. 



SOTERIOLOGY, 457 

unio mystica cum, Deo, The two ideas which are chiefly important 
here, however, and which the Protestant doctrine, as distinct from 
the Roman Catholic, clearly distinguishes from each other, are justi- 
fication and sanctification. The former term is made justification and 
to denote the acquittal of the sinner on the part of sanctification. 
God, considered simply as a declaratory act, while the latter desig- 
nates the gracious process by which the personal life of an individ- 
ual is developed into the divine. Although it is difiicult to separate 
one from the other, their separation in the idea is required by the 
principle of evangelical Protestantism, that man is justified solely 
by the grace of God to the exclusion even of every consideration 
arising out of the good which God has wrought in man. This latter 
is simply a consequence resulting from the new relationship. 
• But the determining of the exact relation of the grace which 
makes man free to the will of man which thus attains to freedom — 
which must always enter into the account as a will, and, therefore, 
as relatively free — is among the most difficult of doctrinal problems, 
which so easily admit of a turning aside to either the right or left. 
Both the Scriptures and experience assert that, on the one hand, man 
is unable to perform any thing without the aid of God, and that, on 
the other, he possesses the power of choosing to obey the call of 
grace or to refuse its authority. The whole history of doctrines, shows 
that, in some periods of the Church, the greater emphasis was laid 
on the freedom of the will, while in others its fettered state was^ 
made more prominent. This is the point at which it becomes neces- 
sary to develop the idea of freedom into clearness, and here, espe- 
cially, the philosophy of religion and that of dogmatics flow into each 
other. 1 A profound study of the problem will always result in the 
inclination to set aside the contrast, and to distinguish between free- 
dom and license, between necessity and compulsion, and between 
what is done by God in man and man in God, and what is done by 
man without God and by God without man.*^ The letter of the 
symbolical definitions in the doctrine of the Protestant Church is 
often too harsh and unmanageable, and cannot be fully maintained 

^ In our arrangement the doctrine of freedom will come under notice twice in the 
system : first in connexion with the doctrine of sin, and next in connexion with that of 
grace. Anthropology, in general, will also fall into these two halves. 

"^ " The solution of the great problem is found by turning the attention away 
from an abstract consideration of man and his separation from God, and fixing 
it upon the constant divine influence by which man becomes a higher personality ; 
thus the possibility of a free self-determination even toward the good is always 
preserved. The idea of a separation between divine causality and the free activ- 
ity of man must be given up ; both are with and in each other," etc. — Kling, w6» 
supra^ p. 32. 



458 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

ill every feature of such definition. But the evangelical principle, 
which finds expression in that form, will eventually be recognized as 
the true and the only principle that can abide every test. 



SECTION XII. 
THE CHURCH AND THE SACRAMENTS. 

The salvation which proceeds from Christ reaches the individual 
through the medium of the religious community. The individual, 
however, enters into a living relation with that community only 
throuo^h faith in Christ. Thus the doctrine of Christ and the doc- 
trine of the Church condition each other. Dogmatics has to deal 
with the idea of the Church only on its interior or religious side, 
the external relation of the Church to the State and its political 
organization falling within the province of ecclesiastical law. Dog- 
matics, however, is obliged to furnish the governing ideas for the 
guidance of the latter. Its office with relation to the means of 
grace to be administered by the Church — the word of God and the 
sacraments — is, in like manner, to apprehend them in their religious 
significance, while the careful determination of the most appropriate 
mode of conducting the administration belongs to liturgies. 

"The importance of the doctrine of the Church," says Kostlin, 
" for the science of Christian teaching, while it has been remarkably 
misapprehended during an extended period, has more recently been 
recognized the more clearly and emphatically." ^ But many an 
error has been committed in the process, and what is outward has 
been made prominent to a degree that suggests danger, and in^ a 
manner that can hardly be reconciled with the spirit of the reformers, 
or even with that of Luther, the authority of whose example is in- 
voked.'^ Whether, as Schleiermacher states the contrast, the Ro- 

^ Luther's Lehre von der Kirche (Stuttg., 1853), p. 1. There is much conflict of 
opinion upon this doctrine at the present time ; " but so much is settled that Protes- 
tantism is divided among itself not so much with reference to the idea of the Church 
as concerning the relation of the phenomenon to the idea." — Schenkel, ubi supra, 
p. 589. The point at issue is whether the Church should be regarded in the light of 
a remedial institution in which persons are to be trained for citizenship in the king- 
dom of God, or in the light of an organized community, in which the kingdom of 
God is, however imperfectly, already apparent and actually present. 

2 " It is undeniable that, despite its blessings, a disagreeable element of darkness 
has, in most periods, attached to the Church through which the most exclusive church- 
men have, as a class, obtained the greatest prominence, namely, a passionate insisting 
on the correctness of received views, a mania for fastening the charge of heresy upon 
opponents, an exaggerated love for the form they represented. If this old ecclesias- 
tical Adam should ever be restored, a certain distinguished theologian (R. Rothe, in 



THE CHURCH AND THE SACRAMENTS. 459 

man Catholic view, that the individual must come to Christ through 
the Church, be maintained, or the Protestant, that he can come to 
the Church only through faith in Christ — the former is empirically- 
true, the latter ideally so — it is yet undeniable, from any point of 
view, .that the religious character of the doctrine of the Doctrine of 

Church can only be understood throusrh the doctrine of Christ neces- 

. _,, :; . t- 1 r^i 1 - ' 1 sary to under- 

Christ. The doctrine ol the Church is, m the next stand doctrine 

place, connected with the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, °^ church. 

in conformity with the expression of Irenaous, " Ubi ecclesia, ibi et 

Spiritus Sanctus; et ubi Spiritus Sanctus, ibi et ecclesia." Schleier- 

macher, therefore, brought the doctrines of the Holy Spirit and of 

the Church into the closest connexion, as the Apostles' Creed had 

also done at a much earlier period. 

The Protestant distinction between the visible and the invisible 
Church would assign the latter only to the province of dogmatics, 
as essential to the faith, while the former would belong to the do- 
main of politics; and questions relating to the constitution of the 
Church do, in point of fact, seem to be sadly out of place in a doc- 
trinal work, particularly a Protestant one. But inasmuch as the 
invisible cannot be absolutely separated from the visible, and inas- 
much as it does not manifest itself by the side of the visible, and as 
exterior to it, but rather in the visible, it will always be nectissary 
for dogmatics to recognize the vessel in which the spirit of the 
religious community manifests itself. The task of settling the fun- 
damental forms of ecclesiastical life, by which alone that life can 
maintain its ecclesiastical character, is thus devolved upon dogmat- 
ics. While pointing out the spiritual nature of the Church, dog- 
matics is required to guard the Church, as being holy, against 
degenerating into worldliness; against divisions and dismember- 
ment by insisting upon her unity; and against separatistic schisms 
by asserting her universal character. The purely external adminis- 
tration of the Church, as variously modified by conditions of time 
and place, is turned over to another department, that of ecclesiasti- 
cal politics and ecclesiastical law. 

The same reasoning which applies to the constitution of the 
Church applies also to Church worship. The order- Liturgies based 
ing of the latter devolves upon liturgies. But liturgies ^^ dogmatics, 
is based on dogmatics, and derives from it the instructions upon 
which it is to proceed. The fundamental, unchangeable, and 

his Theol. Ethik.) would be obliged to gain new adherents to the opinion that Chris- 
tianity can attain to itself and its real nature only by the process of completely strip- 
ping off its ecclesiastical envelopments." — A. Schweizer, Die Prot. Central Dogmen, 
voL i, p. 19. 



460 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY, 

divinely ordered types of Christian worship, the word and the sacra- 
ments, are most intimately connected with the life of believers, and 
thus constitute an essential part of dogmatics. Considered as 
means of grace, an adminicula gratim, they will stand connected 
with the doctrines of salvation and grace in general, while in their 
character as institutions of the Church they will need to be placed 
under the doctrine of the Church. 

The idea of a sacrament is not of scriptural origin,^ but was grad- 
ually developed in the consciousness of the Church. The institu- 
tion of the so-called sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper, 
however, is of biblical origin.^ The signification of these, ordinances 
is still the ground of much controversy between denominations and 
schools. Much depends upon a profound penetration into the nature 
of a religious symbol, so as to prevent it from degenerating into a 
merely arbitrary ceremony, and from becoming involved in the 
Faith the con- magical notion of a purely objective efficiency, an opus 
necting link. operatim%.^ The connecting medium is faith. But in 
the proportion in which misapprehension prevails on the part of the 
principal confessions of Protestantism themselves, should dogmatics 
be intent upon discovering a term which will be satisfying to the 
religious feeling, without doing offence to a simple apprehension of 
the pure word of Scripture and its sound interpretation. 



SECTION XIII. 

ESCHATOLOGY. 

Inasmuch as the kingdom of God, which manifests itself on earth 
under the form of a church community, is progressing toward 
an ultimate consummation, dogmatics groups the aggregate of 
the hopes dependent on Christianity into the prophetical doctrines 

^Calixtus saw and insisted upon this; Epit., p. 128 (Henke, Calixt. i, p. 299). 
Even Melanchthon objected to the term " sacramentum " at first, as being un-bibHcal 
(Loci Comm. of 1521, in Bretschneider, Corp., p. 210). Comp. Hagenbach, Hist. 
Doctr., § 258, note 2 (Smith's ed.). 

2 The institution of baptism has, of course, been questioned by the sort of criticism 
which remands everything to the realm of vision which the Gospels record concerning 
the risen Jesus. Such house-cleaning labours by the radical method will not cause 
any considerable damage, however, while a community of believers exists to whom 
the form of the risen Lord is more than a phantom. 

^Schenkel has emphasized the objective theological side of a sacrament on the 
Protestant view in opposition to the merely subjective anthropological conception. 
Comp. his Wesen des Protestantismus i, p. 395, and the preface, p. xi ; but comp. 
also his Dogmatik, and other writings of later date, in which a different view is advo- 
cated. 



ESCHATOLOGY. 4G1 

of death, the resurrection, the judgment of the world, and eternal 
life. These are denominated the last things, and the teaching in 
which they are presented is termed eschatology. 

The question whether the soul be immortal may be raised in con- 
nexion with the doctrine of the creation of man, or immortality not 
anthropology. But the question concerning immor- ^^urSatof- 
tality, in the most general acceptation, must not be ogy. 
confounded with the inquiry respecting the last things, which 'has 
less to do with the natural constitution of the soul and the destiny 
of individuals after death than with the world's development as a 
whole and the ultimate consummation of the kingdom of God. 
For this reason the position, in connexion with the doctrines of 
man and before the Church has come under notice, to which Hase 
assigned eschatology, is inappropriate. The most proper place for 
the doctrine respecting death is not, indeed, among the four last 
things; it may, more appropriately, be connected with the doctrine 
of sin. Its only claim to a place under eschatology lies in the 
teaching that death also shall be swallowed up in victory (1 Cor. 
XV, 54). The doctrines of the resurrection and the last judgment 
are characterized wholly by the scriptural mode of representation; 
the figurative form is unmistakable; but the vision is required to 
look beyond the figure to the eternal truth reflected in its imagery,^ 
even though it will not be possible to comprehend these several 
doctrines within a fully rounded circle of adequate conceptions.'* 

^See de Wette, Kirchliche Dogmatik, p. 213: "The difficulties can be obviated 
only by distinguishing the purely doctrinal elements from those which are symboli- 
cally historical. . . . But the two must be re-combined into a living hope which is not 
ruled merely by an obstinate concern for the destiny of individuals, but which, like- 
wise, has regard to the fate of the whole. The eternal and the temporal, which are 
always involved in and connected with each other, are thus conjoined." 

•^ Comp. the prophetical doctrines in Schleiermacher's Glaubenslehfe. The extra- 
scriptural chiliastic vagaries and fancies, together with the hypotheses of soul- 
sleeping, hades, etc., have, without exception, been able to maintain themselves only 
within the sphere of the most narrow^ formulations of doctrine. Such doctrines have, 
however, been discussed with greater confidence in recent than in the oldev theology. 
Rothe, in his Ethik, ii, pp. 154-169, 480 sqq., has sought, in a very peculiar manner, 
to open the way toward a more elevated solution of the problems of eschatology. 
Comp. also the labours of Auberlen and others. We cannot refrain, however, from 
directing attention to a statement by Palmer, which deserves consideration at this par- 
ticular juncture : " The Jewish scribes, before the manifestation of Christ, were unable 
to construct, from the prophecies of the Old Testament alone, a picture of the Mes- 
siah whose truthfulness might still be recognized after he had appeared, although 
every person who would use his eyes was, after his appearing, compelled to see that 
the Old Testament predictions were fulfilled in the person and work of Christ. So is 
it improbable that we should ever succeed in obtaining from the scriptural indications 



463 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

If this might be accomplished, hope would cease to be hope and 
Christian ho would become realization, and faith would be trans- 
oniy to be real- formed into sight. In opposition to a sentimental, and' 
often selfish, doctrine of immortahty, it becomes neces- 
sary to insist upon the truth that Christianity knows no other hopes 
than such as shall be realized in and through Christ; and that, con- 
sequently, it can return to the numerous questions which arise no 
other answer than that which is already contained in its christolog- 
ical creed — namely, that Christ himself is the resurrection and the 
life, and that in him all his children shall live.^ 



SECTION XIV. 

THE TBINITY AND PREDESTINATIOIS^. 

The doctrine of God in his tri-unity comprehends all theology. 
But this aggregation can only be brought to pass after the practical 
and religious signification of Father, Son, and Spirit has been as- 
certained in its connexion with the historical development of the 
kingdom of God. The whole is comprehended by this one doctrine, 
as constituting the sacred mystery of Christianity, and the doctrine 
^, ^. of election is most intimately connected with it. Both 

Election con- •^ 

nected with the the eternal nature of God as related to himself, and his 
nmy. eternal decree, lie outside of the relation of God to 

finite being, and consequently outside of the sphere of practical 
religion. They are, therefore, in the strictest sense, of a speculative 
nature, and move wholly within the realm of the absolute. 

The terms triad and trinity, together with the idea upon which 
they rest, are extra-biblical. But it does not follow that the idea 
is, on that account, unscriptural. The very contrary is true; for 
the whole of New Testament theology is erected upon a, mono- 
respecting the future and the consummation of the kingdom of God a harmonious and 
completely rounded tvhole which might deserve the name of a system, while we are 
equally certain and assured that the ultimate fulfilment will authenticate the prophecy 
as being entirely true and consistent with itself. In such matters, even a thirst for 
theological knowledge will do better to restrain itself to moderate bounds than to as- 
sume the air of knowing what, nevertheless, is not known, and to look contemptuously 
down from the height of such yvutnc upon the ipiXrj Triaric with which the Church has 
contented itself for well-digested reasons." It may also be well to recommend special 
care with regard to a phrase of Oetinger's that has recently been much used ajid 
much abused, namely, " that corporeity is the end of the ways of God," as it may lead 
into a religious materialism which may become as dangerous as the irreligious sort, 
because unconsciously promoting its designs, 

^ Comp. Hermann Schultz, Die Voraussetzungen der christlichen Lehre von der Un- 
sterblichkeit, Gottingen, 1861. 



THE TRINITY AND PREDESTINATION. 403 

theistic, but trinitarian, foundation, since God the Father chooses 
mankind in Christ. Christ, as the Son, has redeemed it, and the 
Spirit imparts the assurance of salvation to believers, and completes 
the work of sanctification. Neither work is conceivable apart from 
the others; and it is for this reason that believers are baptized in 
the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and that the sub- 
stance of the Christian doctrine of redemption is concentrated into 
a trinitarian formula in the apostolic benediction in 2 Cor. xiii, 14, 
and elsewhere. 

But it is equally certain that the Bible does not emphasize the 
relation subsisting between the Persons^ of the Trinity Trinity less em- 
so much as the relation sustained by God to man. ^^f}^^^ /J^^^ 

J Groa s relation 

When John opens his prologue with "In the beginning to man. 

was the Word," he yet turns at once to his principal theme, the 
theme upon which he makes all else to depend, Kal 6 Xoyog oag^ 
eyivero. He regards the manifestation of God in Christ as the 
most essential feature, and therefore emphasizes it again in his first 
epistle, where he asserts that the Son of God came into the flesh. 
The scriptural Triad is, consequently, predominantly a triad for 
purposes of revelation, while the relations immanent to it are, at 
most, simply alluded to. Nor should it be forgotten, that the 
Logos idea itself is not a new or strictly Christian thought, but was 
already present, as we see in Philo, in the speculative culture of the 
time. But inasmuch as God has manifested nothing except his 
nature, it will not be improper to retain the names of Father, Son 
and Spirit, not, with Sabellius, as mere names, but as " distinguish- 
ing hypostatical terms." ^ 

The salvation taught by dogmatics should not, however, be made 
to depend on such subtleties. We have every respect 
for the speculative doctrine of the Trinity ; but it is a dejTnSnt Z 
theological sanctuary which only anointed and approved ^^^leties. 
minds, with pure intentions, may seek to penetrate. The doctrine, 
has, moreover, been loaded with many absurdities from time to time, 
and even pantheistic infidelity has concealed itself behind such 
intricacies in order to attack historical Christianity from behind 
such cover. The same is true of the mystery of predestination. 
Who has ascertained God's decree? A religious faith, as con- 
trasted with the superficial creed of Pelagianism, is compelled to 

1 The word "Person" is likewise extra-biblical, and in many respects inappropriate. 
"The very terms 'Father' and 'Son' indicate that they have reference to the mani- 
festation of God, and not to his immanent and extra-mundane heins; " (p. 296). 

Kling considers this expression to observe the correct medium between the Sabel- 
lian and the Athanasian theories {ubi supra, p. 38). 



464 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

acknowledge that salvation is not the result of accident, and not 
wrought out primarily by ourselves, but that it is a salvation that is 
willed and decreed by God, based on a foreknowledge of character 
and works. The problem of God's foreknowledge, and rewards and 
punishments based on it, we may not solve. It is wiser and more 
edifying for us to recall continually to mind the narrow limits of 
the human understanding, and to stand reverently still, with the 
apostle, before the riches both of the knowledge and the grace ol 
God. 

SECTION XV. u 

ORTHODOXY AND HETEKODOXY. 

Schleiermacher, § 203 sqq., and the discussions on orthodoxy and orthodox views by Riickert, 
Krause, and Hase, in the Protest. Kirchenzeitung fur das Evangl. Deutschland for 1854 ; Pelt, 
in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, x, s. v. 

James F. Clarke, Orthodoxy : Its Truths and Errors. Boston, 1875. John W. Donaldson, 
Christian Orthodoxy Reconciled with the Conclusions of Modern Biblical Learning. Lond., 1857. 
Daniel Dorchester, Concessions of Liberalists to Orthodoxy. Boston, 1878. 

A dogmatical system is said to be orthodox in so far as it is in 
harmony with the doctrine of the Church, as contained in its sym- 
bols, and with the conclusions deduced from such doctrine. It is 
heterodox in so far as it departs from the accepted belief of the 
Church. This distinction should not be identified with that made 
between supernaturalism and rationalism, which has already been 
discussed, although it has many points of contact with the latter. 

The term orthodox is to be taken in its historical rather than its 
etymological meaning in this connexion, for it is to be presumed 
that every instructor will aim to teach the truth, and to be ortho- 
dox in this sense of the word. The conservative in ecclesiastical 
matters may, accordingly, be regarded as constituting the orthodox 
feature, while the mobile will characterize the heterodox. Ortho- 
orthodoxy not doxy, moreover, is not to be identified with super- 

In^tT^™" naturalism. The two ideas, to say the least, are not 
ea with super- ? ./ ^ 

naturalism. coextensive. A great number of heterodox notions had 
their origin in a period when supernaturalism was generally ac- 
cepted. Socinianism, for example, is, to the half at least, suj^ernat- 
uralistic, and yet heterodox ; and even altra-supernaturalist opinions 
may turn over into heterodoxy, as we see in patripassianism. The 
Church and its creed, rather than the Bible, though Bible-ortho- 
doxy is sometimes spoken of, constitute the measure of orthodoxy, 
in the strictly technical meaning of the word. It follows, that even 
the strictest supernaturalist will be heterodox, in so far as his rela- 
tion to his own Church is concerned, whenever he diverges from 
her doctrine — for instance, a Lutheran who should incline toward 



ORTHODOXY AND HETERODOXY. 465 

Roman Catholicism, or a member of a Calvinistic Church who should 
incline toward Lutheranism. Rationalism is, no doubt, a hetero- 
dox phenomenon, in all its tendencies. But as con- „ ^. 

^ , . ... Rationalism a 

trasted with the supernaturalist, the rationalist himself heterodox phe- 
might have the support of orthodoxy upon a given ^^'-^^^°^- 
question. He might, for instance, take ground with the Reformed 
Church upon the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, or with the Luther- 
an Church upon the question of predestination. Nor is it difficult 
to show that pietism, with all its biblical supernaturalism, includes 
many heterodox elements. Where, indeed, can a thoroughly ortho- 
dox person be found in our day, whose views shall be so correct 
as that the defenders of the old-time Lutheran or Reformed ortho- 
doxy will find no feature that is open to objections? 

The genuine dogmatic theologian should 23ursue no other purpose 
than to present the truths of the Christian faith in purity, and in 
harmony with the Bible and the results of historical development, 
recognizing the goal toward which such development tends, and 
the requirements of the j)resent age. He will obey the apostolic 
canon, " Prove all things ; hold fast that which is good." He will, 
accordingly, be both conservative and reformatory in his methods ; 
for *' the endeavour to retain, in the dogmatical development, mat- 
ters which have become wholly antiquated in the public promulga- 
tions of the Church, and which exercise no definite influence upon 
other questions in the process of scientific discussion, is a false 
orthodoxy. To antagonize such formulas as have a well-established 
support in the formularies of the Church, and whose scientific ex- 
pression is not confused by the relation sustained by them to other 
doctrines, is false heterodoxy." ^ 

^ Schenkel says : " No greater error and no more hurtful notion can be found than 
exist in the fancy that the work of the Reformation was accomplished, and even 
completed, three hundred years ago, and that every step beyond the original position 
of the reformers is apostasy from the Reformation itself; that to go back to the fin- 
ished theological system of Protestantism, as contained in confessional writings, and 
to settle down in them for all time to come, constitutes the chief duty of a believing 
theology and of a Church which has attained to greater freedom and independence." — 
Wesen des Protestantismus, iii, 1, Pref., p. iv. Similar language is employed by a 
French writer : " The Reformation is not the last word of Christianity, and the God 
who has revealed himself to us in his Gospel has yet many revelations to make to us 
on the thoughts, the concealed riches, and the infinite applications of the word of 
life. . . . Ignorance believes voluntarily in the absolute truth ; but education and expe- 
rience teach us to see shadows where we find contrasts, and simple differences where 
all seemed apparition." — Lettres a mon Cure, p. 47. Geneva, 1854. Hase remarks 
(Dogmatik, 5th ed., p. 9), with entire correctness : " Orthodoxy, as designating una- 
nimity Avith regard to the teaching of the Church as sustained by the written law, is 
authorized in the evangelical Church. But so, likewise, are individual divergences 
30 



466 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

SECTION XVI. 
THE HISTOKY OF DOGMATICS. 

Comp. Ch. G. Heinrich, Versuch einer Geschichte der verschiedenen Lehrarten der christ- 
Kchen Wahrheiten, etc., Lpz., 1790; J. H. Schickedanz, Vers, eiuer Gesch. d. christl. Glaubens- 
lehre, Braunschw., 1827 ; W. Herrmann, Gescliichle der prot. Dogmatik, von Melanchthon bis 
Schleiermacher, Lpz., 1842; J. P. Lange, Cliristl. Dogmatik, i, p. 56 ,sqq. ; W. Gass, Gescb. der 
prot. Dogmatik, etc. (vol. i, Construction of Basis and Dogmatism ; vol. ti, Syncretism, the For- 
mation of tbe Reformed School of Theology, Pietism ; vol. iii, tlie Transition Period ; vol. iv. En- 
lightenment and Rationalism. The Dogmatics of the Philosophical Schools. Schleiermacher 
and his Times), Berl., 1854-67 ; Heppe, Dogmatik des deutschen Protestantismus im 16. Jahrhun - 
dert (§ 76) ; *Dorner, Gresch. d. prot. Theologie, Munich, 1867 (Engl, translation by Robson and 
Taylor, 2 vols.,' Edinb., 1871) ; Miicke, Die Dogmatik des 19. Jahrhunderts, etc., Gotha, 1867. 
Hodge: Systematic Theology (3 vols.), N. Y. 1872. Introduction (in Vol. I), pp. 1-188. 

The earliest systematic collections of the doctrines of belief are 
found in the symbols and the confessions of faith. Origen, among 
the Church teachers of the first period, furnished a sketch of what 
we denominate a system of dogmatics, in his work on Principles. 
Of Augustine's works the following belong to this class : Manual 
Augustine's ^o Laurentius (on Faith, Hope, and Charity), on Chris- 
vrorks. ^ian Doctrine and the Kingdom of God (each of the 

latter but partially), on Faith and Symbol, and on the Doctrines of 
the Church. He was followed by Fulgentius of Ruspe, Gennadius, 
and Junilius. In the Greek Church were produced the Catecheses 
of Gregory of Nyssa (Larger Catechetical Treatise), and of Cyril 
of Jerusalem (Catechism for the Baptized and to be Baptized), 
though they were more particularly designed for practical uses. 
The first to construct a dogmatics, in the strict sense, that is, a sys- 
tem of doctrine, was John of Damascus (730), in the work. Precise 
Statement of the Orthodox Faith, though the compiler, Isidore of 
Seville (died 636) had led the way with his Statement (3 books). 

The dogmatics of the Middle Ages found its chief expression in 
Scholasticism scholasticism, which latter obtained a necessary comple- 
and mysticism, ment in mysticism. John Scotus Erigena (died about 
880) was eminent as a philosophical thinker of the 9th century. But 
his principal work, on the Division of Nature, is not a dogmatics in 
the strict meaning of the term. From the close of the 11th and 
the beginning of the 12th centuries downward, Anselm of Canter- 
bury, Roscellin, and Abelard aroused the dogmatic spirit from 

and variations, provided only that they maintain a Christian and Protestant character. 
They both are placed under the law of a higher orthodoxy, namely, the perfect truth 
of Christianity, and it is incumbent upon Christian charity that it preserve the feehng 
of unity in the midst of such differences, and even of dispute. Whatever antagonizes 
Christianity, however, must be excluded as heretical, even though it lay claim to the 
Christian character." On the distinction between heterodoxy and heresy, comp. 
Schenkel, Dogmatik, i, p. 186, and Martensen. 



THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 46T 

various directions, and sought to bring about a reconciliation be- 
tween knowledge and faith. But a properly systematic treatment 
in obedience to established rules dates back only to Peter Lombard, 
who died in 1164. The authors of such works, Robert Pulleyn, 
Peter of Poictiers, and others, were designated Sententiarii. The 
Victorines, on the other hand, sought to combine mysticism, which 
rises to the surface from out of the depths of religious feeling, 
with dialectics. 

An increased knowledge of Aristotle, after the Crusades, led to 
a still further development of scholasiicism. Alexander Hales 
(Doctor irrefragabilis, died 1245), Albert Magnus (died 1280), and 
Thomas Aquinas (died 1274), the head of an entire school 
which was represented by the order of Dominicans, 
composed so-called Suininoe. These were loosely constructed works, 
in which every proposition was subdivided into a number of ques- 
tions, distinctions, and the like — a gigantic labour of the mind. 
The scholastic spirit, however, soon degenerated into the invention 
of hollow subtleties, a tendency which was especially facilitated by 
the prevalence of nominalism. The school of Thomists soon came 
to be opposed by the mystical school of Bonaventura (Doctor seraph- 
icus, died 1274), and also by the dialectic school of Duns Scotus 
(Doctor subtilis, died 1308), both of which originated with the order 
of Franciscan monks. The dispute between the schools became at 
the same time a quarrel of the orders. The Summae were now 
superseded by so-called Quodlibets; the number of the Degeneration of 
various questions approached infinity, and dogmatics dogmatics. 
was ultimately left without substance and worth. Tlie free-think- 
ing but sceptical William Occam (died 1347) was succeeded by the 
last of the scholastics, Gabriel Biel (died 1495), while mysticism, 
Avhich had made progress in the practical field in the persons of 
Master Eckart, Tauler, Ruysbroek, and Suso, received scientific 
form at the hands of Gerson (Doctor christianissimus, died 1429). 

The cultivation of humanistic studies gave to dogmaacs a many- 
sided spirit, but left it, at the first, without fixed princi- Meianchtnon 
pies for its control. The regeneration of doamatics does ^^^^^^^ of 

JPr O t6 S t 3- u t 

not begin earlier than the Reformation. Luther was a dogmatics. 
^preacher rather than a dogmatic theologian. The foundation for 
evangelical dogmatics as a science was laid by Melanchthon, the 
Prgeceptor Germanise, in his Commonplaces (Loci Communes, 
Viteb., 1521; afterward Loci Praecipui Theologici). He was fol- 
lowed, in the Lutheran Church, by Martin Chemnitz (Theological 
Syllabus), Aegidius (died 1603), Nic. Hunnius (died 1643), and the 
rigidly zealous Leonh. Hutter (Lutherus Redivivus; died 1616). 



468 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

whose work (Loci, 1619) was directed especially against the milder 
school of Melanchthon. Twesten published Hutter^s Compendium 
in a second edition in 1863. A work of leading importance, Theo- 
logical Commonplaces (Loci Theol., Jen., 1610-25, ix vols. 4to, edited 
Lutheran clog- hy Cotta, Tub., 1772-81, XX vols. 4to, su|)plemented by 
matic writers. Q jj. Midler, vols. xxi and xxii, 1788-89; latest edition 
E. Preuss, 1863-70, vols, i-viii, unfinished), was published by J. 
Gerhard (died 1637); and the works by Quenstedt (died 1688), 
Konig, Calov, Hollaz, Baier, and others are also deserving of men- 
tion. A new scholasticism unfolded itself in these works, which 
was counterbalanced by a new mystical tendency in J. Boehme, 
Weigel, Arndt, and others. 

In the Reformed Church exegetical studies were prosecuted with 

^. ,.^ more enerp-y than dogmatical, and the latter were more 

Dogmatic liter- ^'' o ' ^ 

atureintheRe- dependent on the former than in the Lutheran Church, 
orme urc . ]|3g(3g^^gg ^j^g letter of the symbol was less authoritative 
in its influence over them. Zwingli's dogmatical labours (Brief and 
Pious Introduction to Protestant Doctrine, 1523; Commentary on 
the True and False Religion, 1525; Brief and Clear Exposition of 
the Christian Faith, 1536, et al.) are deserving of attention. 

But Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion (Basle, 1535) 
Calvin and his is a work of the first importance, and comparable with 
successors. j^j^g Loci of Melanchthon. His successors were Bullin- 
ger, Musculus, Peter Martyr, Hyperius; and, in the seventeenth 
century, Keckermann, Polanus of Polansdorf, Alsted, Alting, Wol- 
leb, Burmann, Heidanus, F, Heidegger, and others. The synthet- 
ical method having been usefully followed in the Lutheran Church 
after Melanchthon, Cocceius (died 1669) and Leydecker now began 
to attempt different methods; for example, the Federal Theology 
and the CEconoraical, in the order of the three persons of the Trin- 
ity. But a new method, the analytical, was introduced into the 
Lutheran Church by Calixtus. It begins with the end or final 
cause, the " final method," toward which the entire system of belief 
must tend. Many, including some of the writers already men- 
tioned, followed in his track, the strictest of all being Dannhauer 
(died 1668) in his Christian Introduction, 1649. 

A milder tendency, diverging from rigid orthodoxy, began to 
assert itself in Germany at the opening of the eighteenth century, 
toward whose introduction various phenomena in th6 spheres of 
both religion and philosophy contributed. This we see in Spener 
and Pietism, and in the Cartesian, Leibnitzian, and Wolfian philos- 
ophies. In the Reformed Church the Arminian tendency, repre- 
sented by Limborch (died 1712; Christian Theology, 1686), gained 



THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 469 

a continually increasing number of adherents to its milder views, as 
did also the related tendency which went out from the school of 
Saumur. In the Lutheran Church a method increasingly controlled 
by the influence of the new period was introduced by Pfaff, in his 
Institutes (1*720); Buddseus, in his Institutes of Doctrinal Theology 
(1723, 1741); Reinbeck (1731-41, 4 vols.), continued by J. G. Conz, 
(1743-47, 5-9 vols.); Carpov, (1737-65); Rambach (1744), and, un- 
der the determinate influence of the Wolfian philosophy, by Jac. 
Siegm. B.iumnarten, in his System of Doctrine, published by Semler 
(1759 and 1760, 3 vols.). This tendency was also commended, with 
more or less fulness, by Semler, in his Institutes (1774), and Attempt 
at a Free Theological Method of Teaching (1777); and by Michaelis 
(1760, 1784), Teller (1764, 1782), Toellner (1775), Do- Transition to 
ederlein, Morus, and others, who tiiereby brought about rationalism. 
the transition into rationalistic modes of thought, though they 
guarded themselves with many qualifications. 

After Gruner and Eckermann had prepared the way, Hencke 
compressed dogmatics, which had once extended over forests of 
folios, into a few " lineaments," in which process he threw over- 
board " Christolatry and Bibliolatry^ as being; mere „ 

J ^ •^' o , Reactionary 

remnants of an old-time superstition." Kant intro- tendency of 
duced a new era, and was joined, more or less fully, by ^^"^^ ^^^' 
Tieftrunk, Staudlin, and Ammon. Storr and Reinhard held fast 
the orthodox system, but rather with respect to its formal super- 
naturalism than as a rigid conformity to ecclesiastical tradition. 
Augusti, on the other hand, sought to restore the ancient system . 
of doctrine, whose consistency even Lessing had conceded, to its 
place of honour, but without laying a deep foundation for it in 
philosophy, or bringing logical discrimination to bear on the ques- 
tion. The latter was much more efficiently done by De Wette, the 
former by Daub and Marheineke. 

In opposition to this reactionary movement of dogmatics, as 
understood by rationalism, the latter, with entire consistency, took 
separate ground, finding its most adequate expression in Wegs- 
cheider's work, which must be regarded as the Corpus Doctrinss of " 
the tendency. Bretschneider pursued an intermediate course, 
thouirh starting out with the fundamental ideas of rationalism. 
He also furnished a serviceable historical apparatus. Dogmatics 
thus seemed likely to be resolved into speculation in the one direc- 
tion, or to sink beneath the mass of historical matter with which 
it was loaded down, or, finally, to be evaporated in the schieiermach- 
crucible of rationalistic hypercriticism. At this point er's dogmatics. 
Schleiermacher appeared with his System of Doctrines, in which he 



> 



470 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

(lid not base dogmatics upon either historical authority or philo- 
sophical speculation, but regarded it as representing the conscious- 
ness by which the Church is animated. From him dates a new 
period in the treatment of this science generally, though many con- 
tinued even afterward to move in the ancient ruts. Knapp, Hahn, 
and Steudel, for instance, simply attached themselves to the older 
biblical and ecclesiastical system, while Hase, proceeding upon the 
basis of the doctrine of the Church as historically developed, strove 
to brino; about its reconciliation with the advanced culture of the 
day, accomplishing the task with spirit and taste under the influ- 
ence of modern philosophy, beginning with that of Schelling. 

The spirit of Schleiermacher made itself positively felt, however, 
Twesten and pre-eminently through Twesten and Nitzsch, each of 
Nitzsch. whom contributed, in his own way, to the securing of 

friends for the revealed faith of Christianity, which rationalism had 
given up as lost, even among the younger generation of theolo- 
gians.^ Other w^riters have sought to open newer paths, e. g., Tob. 
Beck, who sought to comprehend the substance of Bible teaching 
in a corresponding system with a specially prepared terminology, 
while avoiding the road which had been trodden hard by the 
schools. In opposition to serious efforts of this character arose the 
system of Strauss, which assumed the foi'm of a dialectical process 
for the annihilation of dogma, but which, after it had reached its 
culmination in Feuerbach, could only lead to a new and thorough 
investigation of the dogma, based on a recognition of the inde- 
structible basis upon which the life of the Christian faith is estab- 
lished. 

The more important works which have since been issued afford 

the happiest evidence of this fact, and prove that Christian dog- 

^. matics has not yet reached its final from, but that it is 
Prosrrsss of 
most recent rather passing through a metamorphosis, from which it 

dogmatics. ^^^^^ ^^^^ iovih. with its youth renewed, and with ^ re- 
newed disposition to clothe doctrine with fresh and appropriate 
forms, that shall prove to be more perfectly adapted to the deep- 
est needs of our age. The dogmatics of the Reformed Church 

' On Nitzsch comp. the Biography by Be3^schkg, p. lYO. Nitzsch's " crowded, Heracli- 
tian style, which never presents more than the half-opened bud of the thought," does 
seem not only to present difficulties which " all feeble or ease-loving minds " will dread 
to surmount, but also to place frequent obstacles in the way of those who do not seek to 
avoid the labour needed to penetrate into such a depth of thought. The forceful ele- 
ments in the works of Nitzsch are an exalted earnestness and a cool criticism, which 
enable him to be just toward a more independent mode of thought, while standing 
firmly upon the positive foundations of Christianity. 



THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 471 

has found a well-informed and capable interpreter in Schweizer, 
who has been joined in the free exercise of thought by Schenkel. 
In the Reformed Church, Ebrard represents the confessional point 
of view, while Vilmar, Thomasius, Philippi, and Kahnis repre- 
sent the Lutheran. The masterly work of A. Ritzschl aims at 
a positive remodelling of the orthodox system on a biblical basis. 
The dogmatic works of Biedermann and Lipsius represent the so- 
called liberal theology. One of the most important of the recent 
doctrinal systems is the System of Christian Doctrine (Glaubens- 
lehre) of Sulzberger, published in Bremen in 1877. He is Professor 
of Theology in the Theological Seminary of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church at Frankfort-on-Main, and his work is a terse and 
skilful presentation of the doctrinal system , of his communion. 
The Roman Catholic Church, whose older dogmatic theologians, 
Bellarmine, Canisius, Maldonat, Becanus, and others, had, to a 
great extent, conformed to the scholastic method, was Roman catho- 
likewise unable to avoid being influenced by the intel- ^^ dogmatists, 
lectual revolution of the times. A more simple and independent 
doctrinal method, from which the mass of scholastic and Jesuitical 
rubbish was eliminated, was introduced as early as the time of 
Noel (Natalis Alexander, died 1724). 

Among German dogmatists the older method was followed by 
Kliipfel (died 1811), Stattler, Gmeiner, Schnappinger, Zimmer, 
Dobmaier, Buchner, Liebermann, and others. A new movement 
was begun by Georg Hermes (died 1831), in his Introduction to 
tlije Christian Catholic Theology (Munster, 1834). He, while fidly 
regarding doubt as the necessary condition for the determinino- of 
truth, sought to press through it into orthodox Catholicism, as con- 
stituting the ultimate goal of a really profound speculation. Ikit 
by that very effort he came into formal conflict with Roman Ca- 
tholicism and its cardinal principle of ecclesiastical authority. A 
similar process was passed through by the system of Gtinther. 
Franz Baader, influenced by Schelling's IsTatural Philosophy, was 
more speculative than any of his compeers. But a similar tendency 
had been previously apparent in Schwarz (died 1794), and Cajetan 
Weiler (died 1826). Among later Roman Catholic theologians, 
Brenner, Thanner, Klee, Staudenmaier, and others, appear also to 
be similarly inclined. 

In England, some of the leading doctrinal systems have been 

translations from the Continental writers. Among the Scotch, 

whose theological type has been Reformed, Calvin's Institutes has 

always been recognized as the standard. The Independents and 

Presbyterians of England have exhibited a similar attachment. In 
31 



473 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

the Church of England, Pearson on the Creed and Burnet on the 
Thirty-nine Articles, old as they are, liave largely supplied the 
dogmatic treatment. Among the Wesleyans, Wesley's Sermons, 
which are mostly of doctrinal character, have held the foremost 
place. The first Methodist writer of a full doctrinal system was 
Richard Watson, whose Institutes (Lond., 1823) have been the 
standard for the last half centuiy. Pope, in his Compendium of 
Christian Theology (3 vols.. New York, 1880), is the first British 
Wesleyan writer of a dogmatic system at all comparable with 
Watson. 

In the United States -there has been large dependence on the 
German sources, the works of the German dogmatists being trans- 
lated and freely read. Knapp's Theology has had a wide accept- 
ance. This has been succeeded by Storr and Flatt's Elementary 
Course of Biblical Theology (1836), Nitzsch's System of Christian 
Doctrine (1849), the Christian Dogmatics of the Danish Martensen, 
the Christian Dogmatics of the Dutch Van Oosterzee, and Schmid's 
Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. But 
American theology has not been without its original writers in the 
dogmatic department. Even during the colonial period there were 
vigorous doctrinal authors, Avhose works have had an important 
bearing on the whole later course of theological belief. Each Church 
has had its own dogmatic system. Dwight's Theology, originally 
delivered as sermons, has had large endorsement among Congrega- 
liionalists and still wider circles. Hodge, in his Systematic Theol- 
ogy, represents the doctrinal system of the Presbyterian Church. 
Tliis work is the j)roduct of a lifetime of reverent study, of broad 
scholarship, terse and exact style, and of just recognition of the 
native and foreign literature of the department. Raymond's Sys- 
tematic Theology embodies the Methodist dogmatics, and is marked 
by careful thought, a rich and warm diction, and a most attractive 
perspicuity and vigour of style. Both these works, as well as A. A. 
Hodge's Outlines of Theology, and Ralston's Elements of Divinity, 
indicate a disposition of the American theological mind to lean no 
longer on Continental authorities for doctrinal statement. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF DOGMATICS. 

1. General. 
Armiuius, James, The Works of. From the Latin, in 3 vols. 8vo, pp. 669, 538, 

565. Auburn and Buffalo, 1853, 
Binney, Amos, and Steele, Daniel. Theological Compend: Improved. 12mo, pp. 195. 

New York, 1815. 
Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion, 8vo, 3 vols., pp. cxvi, 542, 630, 
662. Edinburgh, 1846. 



LITERATURE OF DOGMATICS. 473 

Dick, John. Lectures on Tlieology; witli a Preface, Memoir, etc., by the Ameri- 
can Editor. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xxii, 532, 559. New York, 1850. 

Dorner, J. A. A System of Christian Doctrine. Translated by Rev. Alfred Cave, 
B.A., and Rev. J. S. Banks. Svo, 4 vols., pp. 465, 405, 429, 451. Edinburgh, 
1880-82. 

Dwiglit, Timothy. Theology: Explained and Defended in a Series of Sermons. 
Svo, 4 vols., pp. 576, 558, 560, 552. New York, 1846. 

Hodge, A. A. Outlines of Theology. Svo, pp. 678. New York, 1878. 

Hodge, A. A. Questions on the Text of the Systematic Theology of Dr. Charles 
Hodge; together with an exhibiiion of various schemes illustrating the princi- 
ples of Theological Construction. New York, 1885. 

Hodge, Charles. Systematic Theology. 4 vols. (vol. iv being an Index.) 8vo, pp. 
xiii, 648; xi, 732; viii, 880; 81. New York, 1873. 

Hovej", Alvah. Outlines of Christian Tlieology. Svo. Providence, 1870. 

Field, Benjamin. The Student's Handbook of Christian Theology. Edited with Bio- 
graphical Sketch by Rev. John C. Sjmons. Tenth edition. Svo, pp. xxiv, 311. 
London, 1876. 

Foster, Randolph S. Studies in Theology. Prolegomena. Svo, pp. viii, 344. New 
York, 1889. 

Foster, Randolph S. Studies in Theology. Theism. Svo, pp. xii, 450. New York, 
1889. 

Knapp, George C. Lectures on Christian Theology. Translated by Leonard "Woods, 
Jun. Svo, pp. 572. London, 1831. 

Litton, E. A. Introduction to Dogmatic Theology, on the Basis of the XXXIX Arti- 
cles of the Church of England. Large 12mo, pp. 295. London, 18S2. (This 
work includes : The Rule of Faith ; Christian Theism and the Holy Trinity ; Man 
Before and After the Fall; the Angels; Person and Work of Christ.) 

Martensen, H. Christian Dogmatics. Svo, pp. vi, 501. Edinburgh, 1866. 

Miley, John. Systematic Theology. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xvi, 532. (Vol. II, in press.) 
New York, 1893-94. 

Mulford, Elisha. The Republic of God. An Institute of Theology. Svo, pp. 26L 
Boston, 1881. (The titles of the chapters are: Tlie Being of God; The Person- 
ahty of God; The Precedent Relations of Rehgion and Philosophy to the Reve- 
lation of God; The Revelation of G<xi ; The Revelation of God in Christ; The 
Conviction of the "World; The Revelation of Heaven to the World; The Justifi- 
cation of the World ; The Redemption of the World ; The Life of the Spirit.) 

Nitzsch, Carl. A System of Christian Doctrine. Translated from the Fifth German 
Edition by Rev. Robert Montgomery and John Hennen, D.D. Svo, pp. xv, 
408. Edinburgh, 1849. 

Pendleton, J. W. Christian Doctrines : a Compendium of Theology. 12mo, pp. 
426. Philadelphia, 1878. 

Pond, Enoch. Lectures on Christian Theology. Svo, pp. 785. Boston, 1867. 

Pope, William B. A Compendium of Christian Theology. Svo, 3 vols., pp. viii, 
456 ; vii, 451 ; vii, 493. New York, 1880. 

Raymond, Miner. Systematic Theology. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 534, 530. Cincinnati and 
New York, 1877. (The statement of the atonement is especially good, and the 
entire work is characterized by sound sense.) 

Schmid, Heinrich. The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. 
Svo, pp. 696. Philadelphia, 1846. 

Shedd, W. G. T. Dogmatic Theology. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 546, 803. New York, 
1888. 



474 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Smitli, Henry B. Introduction to Christian Theology. Edited by William S. Karr, 
D.D. 12mo, pp. 237. New York. (Includes discussions of the Idea and 
Sources of Christian Theology ; the Being of God ; Revelation ; the Evidences 
of Christianity and of the Cauonicity, Authority, and inspiration of the Word 
of God.) 

Strong, Augustus H. Systematic Theology ; - arComp endi uirrtrnd- Commonplaoo Book - 
Designed for the Use of Theological Students. 8vo, pp.-xxi*y-?-&8'. Rochester, 
N. Y., 1886. a.<Vj7^^^/^- -'-'^ 

Summers, T. 0. Systematic Theology. A Complete Body of Wesleyan Arminiau 
Divinity, Consisting of Lectures on the Twenty-five Articles of Religion. Ar- 
ranged and Eevised by John J. Tygert. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 552, 519. Glossary, 
52. Nashville, Tenn., 1888. 

Tyler, Bennett. Lectures on Theology, witlt a M^moir-by-Jfr-Gftlev 8v€y-p^r-3^o-. 
Boston, 1859. it^'.V- ^^ 

Yan Oosterzee, J. J." Christian Dogmatics. From the Dutch. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 388, 
430. New York, 1874. (On the function of the Christian consciousness this 
author is very clear.) 

Yeuema, Herman. Institutes of Theology. Edite4-by A. W. Brown. Svo, pp. 536. 
EdinbttPgb, 1850. 

Watson, Richard. Theological Institutes. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xci, 642, 688. New York, 
1836. 

2. Special Dogmatics. 

1. Tlie Divine Nature. 

Breckenridge, Robert J. !Ifee Knowledge of God O bjootivcl^ CuiiiJldUl ' UiI, Ijyliig ' th e 

First Part of Theology Considered as a Science^ of P'^tttve' TruthTTotFT Indn(?-~ 

tive and Deductive. 8vo, pp^ xv, 530ii Npw XGri^l858. 
Charnock, Stephen. Diseourses upon the Existence and Attributes of God. 8vo. 

2 vols. New York, 1874; also 1 vol., pp. viii, 768, London, 1849. 
Harris, Samuel. A%e Self-Revelation of God. 8vo, pp. x, 570. New York, 1887. 
Jukes, Andrew, ^e Names of God in Holy ScripttrrT' : arSerefetton-trf-his-Nri tu re ~ 

a«4-R^attonships. lr2^mo, pp. 2^26p, 1888. i^sys ^'^' 
Macculloch, John. P4»ais-ifiii~I:Hristt"ai^£2SJ3f.the of God, fc©Bft4he-Fa<3ts 

and_.La5st&-of-tbe Physical Universe. Being the Foundation of Revealed Religron. 

8vo, 3 vols., pp. 608, 575, 512. London, 1843. 
M'Cabe, L. D. ^e Foreknowledge of God, aii€h€ug'i)JUe ThtiUies. 12mo, pp. 454. 

Cincin«at-i, 1878. 
M'Cabe, L. D. Divine Nescience of- Fu l n ig Cou t mgoncioa . 12mo, pp. 306. Njsw 

Y^, 1882. 

2, Christology. 

Bickersteth, Edward H. The Rock of Ages ; or, SerrptTtre Testimony to the TJne" 
Eternal Godhead of the Father, and of tbe Son, and of the Holy GrTRyst. 12mo. 
New York, 1861. 

Bruce, Alex. B. The Humiliation of Christ in its Physical, Ethical, and Official As- 
pects. The Sixth Series of the Cunningham Lectures. Second edition. Revised 
and enlarged. 8vo, pp. 455. Edinburgh, 1881. (The best English history 
and criticism of the doctrine of the Kenosis.) 

Couhn, Frank. The Son of Man : Discourses on the Humanity of Jesus Christ. 
12mo. Philadelphia, 1869. 

Dale, R. W. Christ and the Controversies of Christendom. With an Introduction 
by L. W. Bancroft, D.D. 12mo. New York, 1874. 



LITERATURE OF DOGMATICS. 475 

Dorner, J. A. History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ. 

8vo, 5 vols., pp. xviii, 467 ; viii, 544 ; 456 ; viii, 462 ; xxviii, 502. Edinburgh, 

1878. 
Ecce Deus. Essays on the Life and Doctrine of Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. 363. 

Boston, 1869. 
Fairbaivn, A. M. The Place of Christ in Modern Theology. 8vo, pp. xxiii, 556. 

Xew York, 1893. (One of the most original of recent works on theology.) 
Oess, W. P. The Scripture Doctrine of the Person of Christ. 12mo. Andover, 1870. 
Glover, Octavius. Doctrine of the Person of Christ. An Historical Sketch. 8vo. 

London, 1867. 
Hengstenberg, E. W. Christology of the Old Testament. Translated from the Ger- 
man by T. Meyer. 8vo, 4 vols. Edinburgh, 1865. 
Hengstenberg, E. W. The Parousia. A Critical Inquiry into the New Testament 

Doctrine of our Lord's Second Coming. 12mo, pp. 394. London, 1878. 
Liddon, Henry Parry. The Divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. 8vo, 

pp. xix, 776. London, 1867. 
Pope, AV. B. The Person of Christ. Tlic Second Fernley Lecture, 1871. 8vo, pp. 

168. London, 1871. (The object is to " concentrate attention on the unity and 

the indivisibility of the Saviour's Incarnate Person.") 
Reubelt, J. A. The Scripture Doctrine of the Person of Clirist. Freely translated 

from tlie German, by W. F. Gess. 12mo, pp. 456. Andover, 1870. 
Sartorius", Ernest. The Person and Work of Christ. ISmo, pp. xvi, 161. Boston 

1848. 
Smith, John Pye. The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah. Fifth edition. 8vo, 

2 vols., pp. xxviii, 472; xii, 810. Edinburgh, 1868. 
Tiiompson, Joseph P. The Theology of Christ from His Own "Words. 12mo, pp 

309. New York, 1871. 
Turnbull, Robert. Theophany; or, The Manifestation of God in the Life, Character, 

and Mission of Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. 239, Hartford, 1849. 
Uhlhorn, G. ?4ie Modern Repr©se«t?rttoTre of the Life of Jesus. -TfanstetednByi^ 

E^-GnnneH. 12 mo, pp. 164. Boston, 1868. 
Ullmann, Carl. The Sinlessness of Jesus : ai^Ev4denee-for-t)iirigtiamty. 12mo, pp, 

331. Edinburgh, 1858. New edition, 1870. 
Van Oosterzee, J. J. • The Image of Christ as Presented in Scripture. 8vo. London 

1874. 
Wilberforce, Robert I. The Doctrine of the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ, 

12mo, pp. XV, 411. Philadelphia, 1849. 
Young, John. The Christ of History. A«- ArguuiBnt -Grounded on the Facts of His 

'Liifi-OB-EaFth. Seventh edition. London. (An argument for Christ's divinity.) 

3. The Holy Spirit 

Beet, J. A. Holiness as Understood by the Writers of the Bible. A Bible Study. 
12mo, pp. 70. New York, 1889. 

Boynton, J. Sanctification Practical. A Book for the Times. 16mo, pp. 142. New 
York, 1867. 

Buchanan, James. On the Office and Work of the Holy Spirit. 8vo. Edinburgh, 
1856. 

Davies, E. The Gift of the Holy Ghost the Believer's Privilege. 12mo, pp. 108. 
Reading, Mass., 1874. 

Dixon, A. C. The Person and Ministry of the Holy Spirit. 12 mo, pp. 187. Balti- 
more, 1890. 



476 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Dunn, L. R. The Mission of the Spirit. Second edition. 12mo, pp. 315. New 
York, ISn. 

Hare, Julius Charles. The Mission of the Comforter. Third edition. 12mo. Lon- 
don, 1816; also Boston, 1854. 

Parker, Joseph. The Paraclete. An Essay on the Personality and Ministry of the 
Holy Gliost. 8vo, pp. 416. New York, 1875. 

Piatt, S. H. The Gift of Power. 12mo, pp. 277. New York, 1856. 

Smeaton, George. Tlie Doctrine of the Holy Spirit : the Ninth Series of tlie Cun- 
ningham Lectures. 8vo, pp. 368. Edinburgh, 1882. (Includes sketch of tho 
history of the doctrine and views held by various branches of the Christian 
Church from the time of the apostles.) 

Stowell, William H. The Work of the Spirit. Svo, pp. xx, 468. London, 1849. 

Thompson, Joseph P. The Holy Comforter: His Person and His Work. 12mo, 
pp. 210. New York, 1848. 

Walker, James B. The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit; or, Philosophy of the Divine 
Operation in the Redemption of Man. New edition. 12mo, pp. 225. Cincin- 
nati, 1880. 

4. Atonement 

Atonement, The. Discourses and Treatises by Edwards, Smalley, Maxey, Emmons, 
GrifiBn, Burge, and Weeks. With an Introductory Essay by Edwards A. Park. 
Tliird edition. Svo, pp. Ixxx, 596. Boston, 1863. 

Barnes, Albert. The Atonement in its Relations to Law and Moral Government. 
12rao, pp. 358. Philadelphia, 1859. 

Beecher, Charles. Redeemer and Redeemed. 12mo, pp.369. Boston, 1864. 

Browne, Edward H. Sermons on the Atonement, and Other Subjects. 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1859. 

Buruey, S. G. Atonement and Law Reviewed: Soteriology, the Sacrificial in 
Contrast with the Penal, Substitutional, and merely Moral or Exemplary 
Themes of Atonement. 8vo, pp. 239. Nashville, Tenn., 1888. (Cumberland 
Presbyterian.) 

Bushnell, Horace. Forgiveness and Law, Grounded in Principles Interpreted by 
Human Analogies. 12mo, pp. 256. Now York, 1874. 

Bushnell, Horace. The Vicarious Sacrifice. 8vo, pp. 552. New York, 18G6. 

Campbell, John M. The Nature of the Atonement. Fourth edition. 8vo, pp. 392. 
London, 1873. 

Candlish, Robert S. The Atonement : Its Reality, Completeness, and Extent. Svo, 
2 vols. London, 1867. 

Cone, Orello. Salvation. 16mo, pp. 101. Boston, 1889. (Universalist. Discusses 
scriptural salvation; secular salvation ; the factors; probation and morals; uni- 
versality.) 

Crawford, Thomas J. The Doctrine of Holy Scripture Respecting the Atonement. 
Svo, pp. X, 538. Edinburgh, 1875. 

Dale, R. W. The Atonement: being the Congregational Union Lecture for 1875. 
Third edition. 12mo, pp. xii, 503. New York, 1876. 

Freemantle, W. H. The World as the Subject of Redemption. Barapton Lectures 
for 1883. Svo, pp. 443. New York, 1885. 

Magee, William. Discourses and Dissertations on the Scripture Doctrine of Atone- 
ment and Sacrifice. From the fifth London edition. 2 vols. New York, 1S39. 
New edition. Svo, pp. 236. London, 1861. 

Malcolm, Howard. The Extent and Efficacy of the Atonement. 16mo. Philadel- 
phia, 1870. 



LITERATURE OF DOGMATICS. 47": 

Martin, Hugh. The Atonement: in its Relntion to tlie Covenant, the Priesthood, 
and ilie Intercession of our Lord. 12mo, p[). xii, 288. Philadelphia, 1871. 

Maurice, Frederick Deiiison. The Doctrine of Sa Tifiee Deduced from the Scriptures. 
8vo, pp. H14. Cambridge, 1854. 

Medd, Peter Goldsmith. The One Mediator: The Operation of the Son of God in 
Nature and in Grace. Eight Lectures Delivered Before the University of Ox- 
ford in the Year 1882, on the Foundation of the Late Rev. John Banipton, DT) . 
Canon of Salisburj'. 8vo, pp. xxiii, 524. New York, 1884. (The doctrine set 
fortli is that to the Logos exclusively is assigned the function of mediating be- 
tween God and the universe as the one personal word of ihe Father.) 

Miley, John. Tlie Atonement in Christ. 12mo, pp. 351. New York, 1879. 

Oxeuliam, IL N. The Catholic Doctrine of tlie Atonement. 8vo. London, 1869. 

Raudles, Marshall. Substitution; A Treatise on the Atonement. 8vo, pp. 255. 
London, 187 7. 

Rigg, James H. Modern Anglican Theology. Chapters on Coleridge, Hare. Maurice, 
Kingsley, and Jowett, and on the Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atonement. Third 
edition, revised, to which is prefixed a Memoir of Canon Kingsley, with Per- 
sonal Reminiscences. 8vo, pp. 552. London. 

Smeaton, George. The Doctrine of the Atonement as Taught by Christ Himself. 
E<linburgh, 1868. 

Smeaton, George. The Doctrine of the Atonement as Taught by the Apostles. 
Edinburgh, 1870. 

Symington, William. On the Atonement and Intercession of Jesus Christ. Third 
edition. 12mo. pp. 808. New York, 1849. 

Wardlaw, Ralph. Discourses on the Nature and Extent of the Atonement. New 
edition. 12mo. Glasgow, 18|4. 

5. Jastification. 
Buchanan, James. The Doctrine of Justification. 8vo, pp. 526. Edinburgh, 1867. 
Davies, R. N. A Treatise on Justification. 16mo, pp. 250. Cincinnati, 1878. 
Faber, G. S. The Primitive Doctrine of Justification. Second edition. 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1839. 
Hare, Edv/ard. A Treatise on the Scriptural Doctrine of Justification; with a 

Preface by Thomas Jackson. 16mo, pp. 253. New York, no date. 
Heurtley, Charles A. Justification. Bampton Lecture for 1845. 8vo, pp. xv, 343. 

London, 1846. 
Kenrick, F. P. The Catholic Doctrine on Justification Explained and Vindicated. 

12mo, pp. 255. Philadelphia, 1841. 
Mcllvaine, diaries P. Justification by Faith: A Cliarge Delivered Before the Clergy 

of the Protestant Episcopal Churcli in the Diocese of Ohio, September 13, 1839. 

16mo, pp. 15G. Columbus, 1840. 
Newman, John H. Lectures on the Doctrine of Justification. 12rao, pp. xvi, 404. 

London, 1874. 

6. Evil^ Origin of. 

Flower, J. W. Adam's Disobedience, and its results in relation to mankind as 

shown in Scripture. Second edition. Svo, pp. 823. London, 1871. (I. Deaih. 

n. Imputation. III. Results Attributed to Imputation.) 
James, Henry. Nature of i<]vil Considered, in a Letter to Rev. Edward Beecher, 

12mo. New York, 1855. 
Lovett, H, Thoughts on the Causes of Evil, Physical and Moral. 12mo. London, 

1810. 



478 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Naville, Ernest. The Problem of Evil. 12rao, pp. 330. New York, 1872. 
Young, JoJm. Evil Not iroin God. 12mo, pp. 343. New York, 1858. 

7. The Church. 

Abbey, R. An Inquiry into the Ecclesiastical Constitution, the Oi-igin and Charac- 
ter of the Church of Christ, and the Gospel Ministry. Edited by T. 0, Sntninefs. 
12mo, pp. 432. Nashville, 1856. (Part I discusses the Prinaitive Church.) 

Arnold, Thomas. Miscellaneous Works: The Church. Pp. 9-72. New York, 1845. 

Augustine, St. The City of God. Edited by Marcus Dods. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xvi, 
557 ; vi, 574. Edinburgh, 1881. 

Bauuerman, James. The Church of Christ. 8vo, 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1868. 

Barnes, Albert. An Inquiry into the Organization and Government of the Apos- 
tolic Church, Particularly with Reference to the Claims of the Episcopacy. 
16mo, pp.252. Philadelphia, 1855. (Chapicr IV is entitled "The Constitu- 
tion of the Church as Estabhshed by the Saviour and the Apostles." The 
rest of the book is confined to a discussion of Episcopacy.) 

Barrows, W. The Church and Her Children. 12mo, pp. 340. Boston, 1875. 

Binnie, William. The Church. 12mo, pp. 152. Edinburgh, 1882. (Discusses I. 
What is the Church? II. Christ and the Church. III. The Chief End of the 
Church. lY. The Christian Ordinances. Y. The Polity of the Church.) 

Candlish, James S. The Kingdom of God Bibhcally and Historically Considered. 
The Tenth Series of the Cunningham Lectures. 8vo, pp. x, 423. Edinburgh, 1884. 

Chapin, A. B. A view of the Organization and Order of the Primitive Church. 
Containing a Scriptural Plan of the Apostolic Church. ]2mo, pp. 408. New 
Haven, 1842. (An attempt to establish apostolic succession. The argument 
is largely patristic.) 

Coleman, Lyman. The Apostolic and Primitive Church, Popular in its Government 
and Simple in its Worship. 12mo, pp. 413. Philadelphia, 1869. 

Cunningliam, William. Discussion on Church Principles: Popish, Erastian, and 
Presbyterian. 8vo, pp. 584. Edinburgh, 1863. 

Ffoulkes, E. S. Primitive Consecration of the Eucharistic Oblation, with an Earnest 
Appeal for its Revival. London, 1885. (An attempt to prove that the invoca- 
tion of the Holy Ghost constituted vahd consecration of the eucharist in the 
eai'ly Church.) 

Freemantle, W. H. The World the Subject of Redemption. Being an Attempt to 
set forth the Functions of the Churcli as designed to embrace the whole Race of 
Mankind. (Bampton Lecture.) 8vo, pp. 443. London, 1885. 

Garratt, W. A. An Inquiry into the Scriptural Yiew of the Constitution of a 
Christian Church, and its Relation to the Church Universal. ]2mo, pp.419. 
London, 1846. (Written by a lawyer, and shows a careful study of patristics.) 

Harris, Samuel. The Kingdom of Christ on Earth. Twelve Lectures Delivered be- 
fore the Students of the Theological Seminary, Andover. 8vo, pp. viii, 255. 
Andover, 1884. 

Hatch, E. The Organization of the Early Christian Churches. Pp. xxviii, 216. 
London, 1881. (The second lecture, on Bishops and Deacons, is an attempt to 
[)rove that hniaKOTroL were nothing more originally than the treasurers and 
managers of funds of various clubs and municipalities.) 

Jacob, G. A. The Ecclesiastical Polity of the New Testament. A Study for the 
Present Crisis in the Church of England. 12mo, pp. viii, 424. New York, 
1872. (Takes the low Church view of the Constitution of the Christian 
Church.) 



LITERATURE OF DOGMATICS. 479 

Ladd, Georgo T. Tlie Principles of Church Polity. 8vo. Xew York, 1882. 
(In the historic growth ol Congregationalism tlio author finds the funda- 
mental elements of aU true ecclesiastical life ilhistrated. The discussion 
is historical only in so far as these elements of Church lile are made clear by 
history.) 

Lilton, Ed. Arthur. The Church of Christ in its Idea, Attributes, and Ministry. 
8vo, pp. 4G8. Philadelphia and New York, 1856. 

Maurice, Frederick D. The Kingdom of Clirist. 8vo, pp. 595. New York, 1843. 

M'Klhinney, Jolm J. Doctrine of tlie Church, with a Bibliography of the Subject. 
8vo, pp. xvi, 464. Philadelphia, 1871. 

Morris, Edward D. Ecclesiology. A Treatise on the Church and Kingdom of God 
on Earth. 8vo, pp. iv, 187. New York, 1885. 

Palmer, William. A Treatise on the Church of Christ. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 529, 557. 
New York, 1841, 

Sawyer, L. A. Orij^anic Cliristianities, or the Church of God, with its Officers and 
Government and its Divisions and Variations, Both in Ancient, Mediaeval, and 
Mt;dern Times. 12mo, pp.455. Boston, 1854. (Part I discusses the polity 
of the Christian Church under Christ and his apostles.) 

Whately, Richard. The Kingdom of Christ. 12mo, pp. 210. New Y^ork, 1843. 

8. Eschatology. 

Bush, George. Anastasis; or, The Doctrine of the Resurrection of the Body. 12mo. 
New York, 1845. 

Davidson, Samuel. The Doctrine of Last Things Contained in the New Testament, 
Compared with the Notions of the Jews and the Statements of Church Creeds. 
Pp. 170. London, 1882. (Denies that " any harmonious, homogeneous view 
of the last things " is to be found in the New Testament.) 

Emerson, George H. The Doctrine of Probation Examined with Reference to Cur- 
rent Discussions. 12mo, pp. 175. Boston, 1883. (In opposition to the doc- 
trines of the limitation of probation to this life and to eternal punishment. 

Farrar, F. W. Eternal Hope. 12mo, pp. Ivii, 225. New York, 1878. 

Greene, J. M. The Blessed Dead. 16mo, pp. 89. Boston, 1888, (Five sermons 
concerning death and the life beyond the grave.) 

Ilalcy, John W. Supplicium Sternum, The Hereafter of Sin ; What it Will 
Be; with Answers to Certain Questions and Objections. 16mo, pp. 152. An- 
dover, 1881. (Maintains the endless punishment and increasing suffering of 
the lost soul.) 

TIanna, William. The Resurrection of the Dead. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1872. 

AVestcott, Brooke Foss. The Gospel of the Resurrection. 12mo, London, 1869. 

Jukes, Andrew, The Second Death and the Restitution of All Things. Eighth 
edition. 12mo, pp. xii, 194. New York, no date. 

Luckock, Herbert Mortimer. After Death : an Exnmination of the Testimony of 
Primitive Times Respecting the State of the Faithful Dead, and their Relation- 
ship to the Living. Fourth edition. 8vo, London, 1882. (An investigation 
of the testimony of the early Christians concerning their belief, touching 
the state of the dead, and the value of prayers of the living for the dead, and 
the dead for the living.) 

Mann, Cameron. Five Discourses on Future Punishment: Preached in Grace Church, 
Kansas City, Mo, 12mo, pp.183. New York, 1888. 

Mead, Charles M. The Soul Here and Hereafter : A Biblical Study. 1 2mo, pp. 462. 
Boston. 



480 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Patterson, Robert M. Paradise : The Place and State of Saved Souls between Death 
and the Resurrection. Philadelpliia. (Makes a distniction between ''paradse,'' 
slieol^ and hades, identifying the first with the abode of redeemed souls before 
and after the resurrection of the body.) 

Peters, George N. H. The Theocratic Kingdom of Our Lord Jesus, the Christ as 
Covenanted in the Old Testament, and Presented m the New Testament. 8vo, 
3 vols., pp. 701, 780, 694. With full Indexes of Scripture, Authors and Books, 
and Subjects. New York, 1885. (An elaborate treatment of the eschatological 
problem from the pre-millenarian view.) 

Plumptre, E. H. The Spirits in Prison, and other Studies on the Life after Death. 
8vo, pp. xii, 416. London. (Expresses belief in the possibility of repentance 
in a future state.) 

Rcimensuyder, Junius B. Doom Eternal : The Bible and Church Doctrine of Ever- 
lasting Puni.shnient. With an Introduction by C. P. Krautli, S.T.D., LL.D. 
12mo, pp. H84. Philadelphia, 1884. 

Schaff, Pliilip. Studies in Eschatology. Pp. 21. Presbyterian Bevieio, 1883, p. 
723. 

Smyth, Newman. Dorner on the Future State, being a translation of the Section 
of his System of Christian Doctrine, Comprising the Doctrine of tlie Last 
Things, with an Introduction and Notes. 12mo, pp. 155. New York, 1SC3. 
(Begins with section 151 of Dorner's work and concludes with section 154.) 

Warren, Israel P. Tlie Parousia, A Critical Study of the Scripture Doctrines of 
Christ's Second Coming; His Reign as King; the Resurrection of the Dead ; 
and the General Judgment. Second edition. 12mo, pp. 394. Portland, 
1884. 

West, Nathaniel. Studies in Eschatology ; or, The Thousand Years ni Both Testa- 
ments. With Supplementary Discussions upon Symbolical Numbers, the Devel- 
opment of Prophecy and its Interpretation concerning Israel, the Nations, the 
Church, and the Kingdom as Seen in the Apocalypses of Isaiah, Ezekiel, Dan- 
iel, Christ, and John. 12ino, pp. 515. New York, 1889. 

Wright, G. Frederick. An Inquiry Concerning the Relation of Death to Probntion. 
16mo, pp. 114. Boston, 1882. (The chief value of the work consists in the 
author's clear statement of the fact that between the moral effect of a doubt 
concerning this doctrine and the moral effect of a positive disbelief in it there 
is little difference.) 

9. The Descent of Christ into Hell. 

[Anon.] A Brief Answer unto Certaine Objections and Reasons against the Descen- 

sion of Christ into Hell. 4to. Oxford, 1604. 
Barrow, Isaac. Sermons on the Apostles' Creed. Sermon XXYITT. Works, \o\. 

ii, pp. 475. New York edition, 1845. (Barrow wholly discards most of tlie 

senses attached to this pas5?age of the Apostles' Creed.) 
Brougliton, Hugh. An Explication of the Article of Christ's Descent into Hell. 

Works, pp. 727-840. London, 1662. 
Horsley, Samuel. Hosea. Translated from the Hebrew. With Notes. Second 

edition. With a Sermon now first published on Christ's Descent into Hell. 

4to, pp. 1, 226, 18. London. 1804 
Huidekoper, Frederic. The Belief of the First Three Centuries concerning Christ's 

Mission to the Under World. 12mo, pp. xii, 187. Boston, 1854. 
Pearson, John. An Exposition of the Creed, Article Y, " He Descended into Hell." 

8vo, pp. 341-404. New York and Philadelphia, 1850. (This is a learned 



CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 481 

exposition of tlie senses in whicli the words of Article V have been interpreted 

by the Church in various ages.) 
Seiss, Joseph A. Christ's Descent into Hell. 12mo. London, 1887. 
Smith, Richard. A Letter to Dr. Henry Hammond Concerning the Sense of that 

Article in the Creed, "He Descended into Hell ; " together with Dr. Hammond's 

Answer. 8vo, London, 1684. 
[Willett, Andrew.] Limbo-Mastix, that is a Canvise of Limbus Patrum. Sliewing 

that Christ descended not iu Soule to Hell to deliver the Fathers from thence. 

4to. London, 1604. 

SECTIO^^ XYIL 
CHKISTIAN ETHICS. 

The theological ethics of Christianity, called by the elder writers 
Theologia Moralis and Ethica Cliristiana, describes the tlieory of 
the moral life as it should find expression m a Christian feeling, 
which is produced by a living faitli, and approves itself in a Christian 
life. It occupies, in common with dogmatics, the ground of posi- 
tive Christianity, and, therefoi-e, derives its fundamental principles 
from Christianity. In another direction, however, it piace of chris- 
stands connected with the general or philosophical ethics ^^^^ Etwcs. 
of human origin; and wliile it differs from tlie latter with regard to 
its scientific form, and its starting points and motives, their sub- 
stance can never be contradictory to each other. 

This science has been erroneously called practical theology by 
some writers, who contrasted it with dogmatics, and i-egai'ded the 
latter as a theoretical department, dogmatics being held to deal 
with things to be believed, and practical theology with things to be 
done. For, although ethics has to do more particularly with man's 
powers of action and volition, while dogmatics is concerned with 
his powers of perception and cognition, it would yet be highly un- 
scientific to regard ethics as a mere collection of practical rules. It 
is even true that, in certain respects, ethics may be called a theory 
with more propriety than dogmatics, since every theory requires a 
corresponding practice.^ Ethics is certainly employed upon the 

* This holds true of practical theology properly so called. A word here with re- 
gard to the designation of this science. Dorner, uhi sujjva, decides in favour of 
ethics, as compared with " morals." " Mos, mores (whence comes moral discipline) 
refers more especially to the outward appearance than to the interior source, and does 
not, by far, approach the meaning of the Greek ^d'og. Mores describes character, in- 
deed, but not its unifying sonrce. ^HjJof, originally the Ionic form of £i?of, involves, 
on the other hand, what is customary, the moral as generally accepted ; not only em- 
pirical manners (mos), which may be bad, but also what has been sanctioned, and is 
accorduig to method and rule." Comp. Ersch and G-ruber, Encykl. s. v. p]tlios. Nor 
will it escape the notice of any who may study the usage of our time, that, while the 
word morality was formerly of universal application, it is now held to be more refined 
to lay stress upon " the ethical." 
31 



483 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

practical side of the dogmatical system, but it is requisite that the 
practical side itself be theoretically, and, therefore, scientifically, 
apprehended, and it was for this reason that the necessity for a sep- 
arate treatment of ethics, apart from dogmatics, was acknowledged 
in a former connexion.^ Such a separation does not by any means 
involve a division by which ethics becomes independent of dogmat- 
ics. For even as faith and works are most intimately connected in 
the practical sphere of Christianity, so that works become the fruit- 
age of faith, so is Christian ethics everywhere based upon dog- 
T.*r, matics. The absence from a system of Christian morals 

Christian Eth- ... . "^ . . 

ics based on of indications which everywhere give evidence of the 
dogmatics. doctrinal views of its author, is always a bad sign.'^ As 
dogmatics, moreover, reaches back with its most general ideas into 
the philosophy of religion, so must Christian ethics join hands, in 
its scientific expression, with philosophical ethics;^ and it will even 
resemble it more closely in outward appearance than dogmatics can 
resemble the philosophy of religion. This results from the fact that 
the features which are peculiar to a positive religion are more clear- 
ly apparent in its doctrinal statements than in its moral precepts. 

Every historical religion, nevertheless, possesses definite moral 
convictions, through which it governs peoples and times — a fact 
which may be traced down through all the subdivisions of Protes- 
tantism and Roman Catholicism." It will, therefore, be necessary 
for philosophical ethics to descend to the level occupied by the his- 
torical phenomena of the moral life which come under the influence 
of positive religions, in order that it may derive life for the general 
from particulars — unless it should prefer to move about in the 
midst of dead abstractions. But its work will consist in utilizing 
•whatever is gained in this way in the determining of the character 
of universal morality, while Christian ethics is concerned to dis- 
cover the concrete and historically defined, and especially the char- 
acteristically Christian features, for their own sake. Its task is. 
Christian Eth- therefore, as de Wette has shown,' analytical in its na- 
ics analytical; ^^ while that of philosophical ethics is synthetical. 

philosophical, ' , . , . i . ^^t - 

synthetical. The differences which exist between the two may, ac- 
cordingly, be stated as follows; 

' Section 1, Part 1. 

2 Schleiermacher, § 229. Comp. also ibid., Christliche Sitte, p. 3 sqg. 

3 It will, doubtless, be apparent that one philosophical system cannot possess au- 
thority in Philosophical and a different one in Christian ethics.— Schleiermacher, § 221. 

4 Comp. Schleiermacher, § 228, note ; Marheineke, System des Katholicismus, iii, 
pp. 20-29. 

^ Lehrbuch der Sittenlehre, § 3. 



CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 483 

1. Philosophical ethics has to do with the determining of man 
toward morality as a whole,' while Christian ethics represents the 
manifestation of the divinely human life in the person of Christ as 
constituting the ideal of morality, and, consequently, requires of 
each individual that he should become like Christ. This forms the 
Christian doctrine of the highest good.' 

2. The startingpoint of philosophical ethics lies, necessarily, in 
the moral self-determination of man, which involves the evidence 
of its own truth, in opposition to any determination on the part of 
nature, while Christian ethics regards the Spirit of God as the de- 
termining power through the effectual working of his grace in the 
believer's heart. This is the Christian doctrine of virtue which re- 
sults, without the slightest modification, from the teachings of 
Christian dogmatics. 

3. Philosophical ethics regards man in the relations which he 
sustains toward the world, and determines his duties by that rule; 
Christian ethics has regard primarily to the relations sustained by 
him toward the kingdom of God. This is the Christian system of 
duties. 

The above distinctions should not give rise to the misapprehen- 
sion that a philosophical and a Christian morality, which could con- 
flict with each other, may exist, or that a thing may be moral 
according to the principles of the one and not so according to the 
principles of the other. The truth is, that the one serves merely to 
confirm the other. Morality, w^hich presents to view the Harmony of 
human element, can no more be contradictory to that andChristSi 
which involves the Christian element than the ideas man etbics. 
and Christ can contradict each other. Even Christian morality is 

^ The obligations of Christian ethics are binding only upon Christians ; philosoph- 
ical ethics puts forth a universal claim, for its object is to secure the control of every 
person who is able to comprehend the philosophical principles from which it is de- 
duced." Schleiermacher, Christliche Sitte, p. 2; comp. p. 7 sqq. ; de Wette, uhi 
supra. Rothe likewise agrees with this view at bottom (Theol. Ethik., p. 35), although 
he does not distinguish Christian so much as theological ethics from philosophical. 
" The latter begins with the moral consciousness considered simply in that character, 
while the theological proceeds from that consciousness as it exists in the individual, 
under the determinate religious form assumed through the influence of the particular 
Christian Church to which he may belong, and also from the historical ideal of moral- 
ity as found in the Redeemer's person, of which the former is but a reflection." But 
Christian and philosophical ethics do not come into contrast with each other on his 
view, because philosophical ethics and philosophy in general are essentially Christian 
within the bounds of Christendom. Rothe concedes a relative contrast, however, in 
so far as mankind have not been altogether penetrated by the influence of Chris- 
tianity. 

2 See Schleiermacher, uhi aupra^ p. 36. 



484 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

required to adapt itself to the conditions of mankind generally,' 
and the philosophical must tend toward the Christian as its goal. 
The foremost principle of the one, in each instance, is the ultimate 
aim of the other. Religion, when regarded from the standpoint of 
philosophical ethics, constitutes the crown and beauty of the moral 
life, while from that of Christian ethics it forms its root. In the 
view of philosophical morality, the Christian community is but one 
society beside others, in the State, in behalf of which certain duties 
are doubtless to be performed ; but the human society of the State, 
as being the most general form of a moral organism, is the under- 
lying idea. 

Christian ethics, oii the other hand, starts out from the idea of 
the Christian community as a distinctively religious organism, and, 
^ spreading outward in constantly expanding circles, it comes to in- 
clude at last the duties which men owe to the State. Brotherly 
love {(pUadeXcjyla), which has its origin in love to Christ, is by it 
extended into universal love. The. supreme law in philosophical 
ethics, on the contrary, is respect for the dignity of human nature in 
other people, from which most general conception it afterward de- 
scends to the level of the several conditions of actual life, in which 
righteousness becomes spiritualized, and transformed into the prin- 
ciple of love. The latter result would, of course, be beyond its 
powers of attainment^ did not Christianity itself afford it a clearly 
defined embodiment of the idea; for "it is able," in its character 
as philosophical ethics, "to do no more than set up pattern speci- 
mens of the moral life in general outline, while Christian ethics sets 
forth in detailed examples and precepts the problems which have 
actually been solved in the pages of Revelation." ' Christian ethics, 

' De Wette, § 9 : " Christian ethics is required to be human, to adapt itself to 
human capabilities and needs, since it could not, on the contrary principle, bring an 
effective influence to bear on man." Bruch, p. 19 : " The more thoroughly the ethics 
of Christianity is apprehended, and the spirit by which it is animated is understood 
in its purity, the more will the conviction grow that it is nothing else than the truest 
reflection of the legislation which is woven into the nature of the human mind, and 
which, asserting itself in living power in the mind, is designed to lead man toward the 
goal of his destination." Pelt, Encyklopaedie, p. 520 : " True reason is always one, 
and finds its highest and purest mode of expression in Christianity; the cask remains 
the same." 

2 De Wette, § 4; or, in other words, Pelt, Encykl., p. 520: "The process of the 
unification of nature and reason is only indicated in the philosophical realm, while it 
is accomplished in the Christian." But comp. Dorner, ubi supra, p, 190: "The sep: 
aration of the two branches of philosophical and theological ethics, which must con- 
tinue at least as long as philosophical ethics may desire, causes conflict. This, how- 
ever, is beneficial, not only to the end that reason, outside the pale of Christianity, 
may recognise with increasing clearness that its truth and purity are attainable only 



CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 485 

therefore, passes beyond the philosophical. To the former be- 
long the recognition of moral conditions and an abun- d^^stian etmcs 
dance of moral forces which are in thorough harmony transcend phii- 
Avith human nature, though imparted to it rather than °^°^ 
originating in it. It may be said, accordingly, that to this extent 
philosophical ethics has to do simply with the moral nature of man, 
while Christian ethics is engaged upon the positive and Divine 
qualities which have been introduced into that nature, Avith grace 
and its salutary effects. It is, of course, necessary that a correct 
idea be obtained of this positive element, and of its relation to the 
natural man. It is the task of dogmatics to secure this idea. 

SECTION XVIII. 
Christ's work the basis of ethics. 

The positive element of Christian ethics does not consist in any 
authoritative letter of either the Old or the New Tes- T^jepogitj^eeie. 
tament, but in a course of life which was introduced ment of christ- 
into human conditions, and typically actualized, by 
Christ, and which, through the influence of his Spirit, is to be con- 
tinued in the community of believers, and to approve itself as a 
moral force upon the outside world. 

It was long customary to so conceive the positive feature of 
Christian ethics, and the characteristics by which it is distinguished 
from philosophical ethics, as to warrant the statement that the lat- , 
ter acknowledges the authority of reason only, the former that of 
the Bible. Two entirely different authorities were thus opposed to 
each other in a form altogether outward, it beinp: assumed that the 
Bible contains a collection of Divine commands, which were even 
characterized as "arbitrary," as contrasting with the autonomous 
requirements of reason.^ The idea bears only against a false and 
merely formal supernaturalism, which assumes that the Bible is 
simply a code of faith and morals, and grounds the positively re- 
vealed ethics in the good pleasure of God. The Old Testament may 

through the religion of the incarnated 2,6yog, but also on account of the non-Christian 
elements in Christian theology itself, which afford a partial endorsement of the ethics 
of the general human reason as against theological ethics, until the ethical self-con- 
sciousness of the Church, which coincides with the ideal process by which the first 
and the second nature interpenetrate each other, is complete." Comp. also Gelzer's 
Monatsbi., ubi stipra. 

^ Ernesti, Vindiciae arbitrii divini in religione constituenda (Opusc. theol. i, p. 171 
sq.). Per contra^ Toellner, Disquisitio, utrum Deus ex mero arbitris potestatem suam 
legislatoi'iam exerceat, etc., Lugd. Bat, 1770; de Wette, ubi supra, p. 4. Comp. 
Dorner, ubi supra, d. 188, against this false positivism. 



486 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

possibly correspond to such an idea, and the Decalogue, although 
it might with but little difficulty be traced back to the general 
foundations of morality, has, in point of fact, been long compelled 
to serve as a framework for Christian ethics. 

But it is also true that they who have correctly regarded the 
leaching of Jesus as the regulative feature, have too constantly 
considered it as merely statutory, without sufficiently remembering 
Jesus not a that the profound significance of that teaching can only 
Sid^^stSutory ^^ Comprehended in connexion with the life of Jesus 
teacher. and with the entire work of salvation. Jesus did not 

aim to enunciate disconnected moral maxims, like Epictetus, nor is 
his example, to which appeal is made, mere superadded example ; 
and it cannot, in many circumstances, be example even for us.^ For 
a Christian disposition does not consist in the imitation of his ex- 
ample in special matters, but in the imitating or appropriating of 
his spirit (Phil, ii, 5). As dogmatics builds upon the foundation 
laid by apologetics, whose work is to prove that Christianity is a 
religion, and indeed the absolute religion, so is ethics required to 
begin with taking its stand upon the apologetical result that Christ 
is the sinless One, the actualized moral ideal for humanity, and 
that, therefore, Christianity is not simply a general sort of moral 

phenomenon, but the universal moral power which rules 
Christianity tbe ^ , ■, \ o t i • -rr 

universaimorai over the whole 01 modern history. Hence its positive 

1 feature is not a letter, but an act — the revelation of 

God through Christ incarnated in human nature. Its question, 
therefore, will not be merely, " What is written ? " but rather, 
"What is in harmony with the spirit of Christ?" Likewise, as 
dogmatics already entertains ideas which are not expressly con- 
tained in the Bible— for example, the Trinity — so is Christian ethics, 
in the course of its development, imperatively required to pass be- 
yond the letter of the Bible, and is, therefore, required to engage 
in the exact definition of moral ideas. The most blessed fruits of 
Christianity are fruits of which but the germ exists in the Bible— 
for example, the idea of a Christian State, of Christian marriage 
and all that it involves, of the abolition of slavery, of respect for 

' The situation that one comes to occupy when he demands for every particular act 
a warrant from the moral deportment of Christ, may be learned from the example of 
Thomas a Kempis, who deduced the duty of writing books from John viii, 6. Vide 
Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, ii, p. 161. Schleiermacher's words re- 
lating to the individual bearings of Christian ethics (Die christliche Sitte, p. 48 sgq.) 
arc very significant in this connexion. The setting up of a pattern in the field of 
morals is always a questionable procedure. An ideal, such as that to which we seek 
to attain, is more than a pattern which we strive to copy. 



DIVISION OF ETHICS. 487 

individual life, and of religious services on the Christian Sabbath. 
These have been freely developed in the course of human life, with- 
out any direct command or statute in the Scriptures imposing the 
duty. Hence, as dogmatics presupposes the history of doctrines, so 
does Christian ethics have regard to the entire development of the 
Christian life, in which connexion such malformations as Montanism, 
Pantheism, Gnosticism, Asceticism, Jesuitism, Quietism, also come 
under notice, as marks of warning, similar to the study of heresies 
in dogmatics. 

SECTION XIX. 

DIVISION OF ETHICS. 

Christian, like philosophical, ethics falls into general principles 
and particular or applied ethics. The former is concerned with the 
settling of the moral principle, or, better, of the objects (.tjj.jgtiajj g^^,. 
and motives of moral action, and hence, with the mves- ics general and 
tigation of man's moral nature and capacities, the cor- ^^^^^^ * 
rect bounding of the ideas of good and evil, of sin and imputation, 
and of grace and freedom. It also has to do with the work of set- 
ting forth the goal of all moral effort, with the doctrine of the 
highest good, all of which leads back again into the profoundest 
depths of the doctrines of the faith. Special ethics, on the other 
hand, has to do with the particular manifestations and expressions 
of the moral life in given circumstances, and is subdivided into the 
particular doctrines of virtue and of duty. 

The division into general and special ethics is, of course, only 
relative. Rothe's observation, in opposition to this view, that it is 
"merely external and formal, in a thoroughly abstract way,"^ is 
correct if the division be taken as an absolute one, and if it be car- 
ried out in an abstract and lifeless manner. But an examination 
of Rothe's work itself will show at once that the first two volumes 
contain general ethics, together with matter that is usually includ- 
ed under dogmatics, and that the third is devoted to special morals, 
although the author, at this point, in connexion with the doctrine 
of duties, again distinguishes between the general and the par- 
ticular. He justly declares, that, with reference to general ethics, 
the discussion relating to a "supreme moral principle" fp th 

is confusing and without result. He demands, instead, Hariess, and 
a threefold object, which he disposes into the doctrines ^ ®^** 
of good, of virtue, and of duties. Other writers have preferred a 
different division. Hariess sets forth the following three parts: 

» Theol. Ethik, i, p. 199. 
32 



488 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

the good, the possession, and the preservation, of salvation. The 
last named of these has to do with *' the concrete manifestation of 
Christian virtue in the fundamental relations of human life," and 
hence coincides, in this regard, with special ethics. Pelt likewise 
divides ethics into three parts :^ (1) The actualizing of the highest 
good upon earth in the form of the kingdom of God ; (2) Of the will 
of the indiA'idual, to be developed in conformity with the doctrine 
of duties; and (3) The realizing of the highest good in the habitual 
character of individual Christians, or the doctrine of virtue. Rosen- 
kranz, following the antithetical method of the Hegelian school, di- 
vides the whole of ethics into the two diverging ideas of good and 
evil, and of human freedom.^ By this method the first and second 
form the general, and the third the special, part.^ 

Schleiermacher's division is in harmony with his fundamental 
views of Christianity.^ The end of Christianity is held to be bless- 
schieiermach- edness in God, which, however, has been disturbed by 
er's method. ^^le consciousness of sin. This fact gives rise to a feel- 
ing of disinclination, out of which comes an impulse to act in the 
direction of restoring the idea, now violated, of the relation between 
the higher and the lower potencies of life, or, in other words, of 
restoring human nature to its normal condition. This is restorative 
action. Over against such disinclination, moreover, is an inclination, 
or voluntary desire, to yield to the authority of the higher require- 
ment, and this gives rise to expansive or extensive action. But, 
in addition, there are elements of satisfaction, intermediate between 
the inclination and the disinclination, which do not, indeed, corre- 
spond to absolute blessedness, but yet are a relative blessedness; 
.and these originate action, designed, not to introduce changes, but, 
while remaining without any proper efficiency, to serve as an ex- 
|)ression of the individual's inward state. This is descriptive action, 
whose only object is to recommend the personal experience of the 
individual to the favour of others. Its general expression compre- 
hends everything which we are accustomed to include under the 
name of Christian worship. 

Whatever may be the method, however, by which it is intended 
to formally connect theological ethics with dogmatics, on the one 
hand, anrl, on the other, to combine or isolate philosophical ethics 
from dogmatics, and whatever may be the mode by which we seek 
to distribute the proper tasks of philosophical ethics over different 
departments, and to trace the various radii from the centre to the 

^ Encyklopaedie, p. 519. ^ Ibid., p. 57. 

2 Other methods of dividing are given in Pelt, p. 523. 
* Christliche Sitte, p. 44 sqq. 



DIVISION OF ETHICS. 489 

circumference of life, everything will depend upon the discovery 
of the centre itself, in order to trace, in the spirit of the Gospel, 
"the main outlines toward a thorough regeneration of the moral 
life in both State and Church." ' 

Asceticism and pedagogics are sometimes regarded as special 
subdivisions of ethics, the former as teaching man how Asceticism and 
to train himself for morality, the latter as showing how pedagogics. 
he may train others. But since every exercise of moral power re- 
acts upon the moral disposition, while the good cannot be secured 
without conflict, it follows that asceticism is already conditioned in 
morality. Many forms of exercise occur in the practice of godli- 
ness {yvfivaGla, 1 Tim. iv, Y, 8), being at times largely negative, and 
aiming to avert the evil by reacting against the power of sensual 
allurements, as we see in the mediaeval asceticism, fasting, mortifi- 
cations, voluntary abstinence, and in other abnormal forms. Then, 
again, they are largely positive, stimulating the good by meditat- 
ing upon the supreme good itself, and by absorbing the emotions 
in the divine ideals. All of this, however, finds a place in moral- 
ity itself. According to Schleiermacher's division, the former would 
belong to the class of restorative actions, and the latter to that of 
descriptive actions. 

The moral principles involved in education must likewise be dis- 
cussed in ethics, and more especially under the head of expansive 
actions.^ The art of training, however, the technics of education, 
forms a distinct science, which is properly termed pedagogics, but 
which is not a theological, but a philosophical, science, in so far as 
it deals with man as a whole. It belongs to practical theology in 
so far as it is concerned with a training for ecclesiastical life. 

Casuistry, too, has been treated as a distinct branch. It has to 
do with cases in which duties come into conflict with 
each other (de casibus conscientiae). Kant designated 
it as the "dialectics of conscience." It is, however, merely the 
outgrowth from a scholastic and Jesuitical morality, and, as such, 
is to be banished from a sound system of ethics, inasmuch as it does 
not present actual cases of conflict to view, and merely resolves 
apparent cases by a higher law. 

' Gelzer, Protest. Monatsbl. fiir innere Zeitgeschichte, 1854, Preface to vol. iv. 
The author includes among the most indispensable prerequisites for such a work, a 
profound understanding of modern history from the Reformation to our times, and 
incessant energetic investigation of original sources, and inquiry into the original 
meaning of Christianity, and also into the laws of its transformations in the field of 
secular and ecclesiastical history. 

2 See Schleiermacher, uhi supra^ p. 53 ; Rothe, iii, p. 6Y9 sqq. 



490 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

SECTION XX. 

THE HISTORY OF ETHICS. 

E. Feuerlein, Die Slttenlehre des Christenthums in ihren geschichtlichen Hauptfonnen, Tiib., 
1855 ; A. Neander, Vorlessungen uber die Geschiclite der cliri8tlichen Ethik, pub. by Erdmann, 
Berl., 1864; C. S. Wake, Evolution of Morality; being a History of the Development of Mora' 
Culture, 2 vols., Lond., 1878; A. Thoma, Geschichte des cbristlicben Sittenlehre in der Zeit des 
N. Test., Haarlem (Lpz.), 1879 ; Wuttke, Christian Ethics, 2 vols., N. Y., 1873, treats the History 
in vol. I. 

The Bible presents to our notice neither a system of morality nor 
one of doctrines; but it has a wealth of moral precepts, all of which 
are animated by, and borne Upon, the spirit of the theocracy, and 
which are interwoven with the history of God's kingdom, like pearls 
in a diadem. ISTor did the apostolic fathers refrain from moral ad- 
Ethicai labours monitions. In the progress of the conflict with the 
of the Fathers, heathen, or antique, conception of the world, the more 
rigid view of Montanism soon came to occupy a place beside the 
milder tendency. In another direction, mistaken views of Christian 
liberty, on the part of the Gnostics, led into the dangerous errors, 
of the Carpocratians, and the later pantheistic sects of the Middle 
Ages. It thus became the task of Christian theology to more ex- 
actly determine and regulate Christian morality. Certain prelimi- 
nary labours had already been performed by the apostolic fathers 
and the apologists. We see this especially in Clement of Rome 
and the Shepherd of Hermas. Clement of Alexandria followed, 
giving many moral precepts, carried down to particulars in the 
pedagogics, and treating in his Miscellaneous works the moral law 
and virtue as the chief good. 

A considerable number of treatises of a moral nature are found 
in the works of Tertullian, which must be divided into classes, ac- 
cording as they were written before or after his conversion to 
Montanism, e, g., On Theatricals, Idolatry, The Soldier's Crown, 
The Pallium, Patience, Veiled Virgins, Exhortation to Chastity, 
Monogamy, Modesty, and other works. In a similar spirit Cyprian 
wrote an Exhortation on Martyrdom, on Good, on Patience, and on 
Works and Alms. The preachers Macarius, Basil the Great, the 
two Gregories, Chrysostom, Ephraim Syrus, and Cyril of Jerusalem 
made extended use of moral references, and many of their sermons 
are purely moral. Ambrose, too, in his w^orks on Virgins, and on 
the Duties of Ministers of the Church, and Augustine, in his works 
on the Morals of the Catholic Church and on Continence, furnished 
Ethical works of moral and ascetic treatises. Jerome rendered profit- 
early writers, able service, especially to monastic asceticism, in his 
polemical conflict with Jovinian and Vigilantius, and his Morals of 



THE HISTORY OP ETHICS. 491 

Gregory the Great (died 604), in his work on Job, indicate the na- 
ture of their contents by their title. In this department, as in dog- 
matics, the work of compilation preceded that of systematic ar- 
rangement, as we see in several of the works of John of Damascus. 

The dogmatical works of scholasticism include ethics also, it be- 
ing largely controlled by the " four cardinal and three theological 
virtues" of Aristotle. Casuistry, also, was developed under its in- 
fluence, Raymond de Pennaforte (died 1275) obtaining special celeb- 
rity by his Summary on Penitence. The Yictorines and the later 
Mystics penetrated more deeply into the foundations of the religi- 
ously moral life, but committed the error of not basing asceticism 
upon the spirit of Christian liberty. This applies also to the valu- 
able Imitation of Christ of Thomas a Kempis. The Ethical reaction 
continually increasing corruption in the Church after i^ ^^^ cnurcn. 
the removal of the papal chair to Avignon, and the separation of 
the churches, produced a mighty reaction. 

The forerunners of the Reformation, such as Wycliffe, Huss, and 
others, pointed out, among other things, moral infirmities, and the 
reawakened interest in classical studies, likewise, intro- Humanism and 
duced a new feature into ethical teaching. Morality etmcs. 
was exalted into a guide to the wisdom of Christianity for the 
practical government of life by Petrarch (died 1374), Marsilius 
Ficinus (died 1499), Louis Yives (died 1540), Erasmus (died 1563; 
Manual of the Christian Soldier) and others. Savonarola (died 
1498) wrote his Simplicity of Christian Life in a spirit of larger 
sympathy with Christian faith. While the Reformation must 
be regarded as a moral renovation, not as a reform of abstract 
doctrine, it was yet, first of all, necessary that the new principle 
should be apprehended in the way of conquering the faith of men. 
The reformers, therefore, appear as moral heroes and The reformers 
inaugurators of a new period, but not as moralists in ^^^ ^^^^cs. 
the strict sense. Zwingli, however, presents with special force in 
his sermons the morals of practical life. He performs that same 
office, also, in his writings. The Shepherd, Freedom of Foods, and 
other works. Luther, in his Letters, Meditations, Sermons, Appeal 
to the German Nobility, and similar writings, gives living witness 
of the moral spirit by which he was animated. Melanchthon, in his 
Elements, however, accorded a scientific treatment to ethics, though 
from an ancient standpoint. Calvin, who, as a reformer, was 
a Christian, Cato-like censor, included ethics in the doctrine of re- 
generation, as expounded in his Institutes, tinder the Life of the 
Christian Man, The Bearing of the Cross, and other chapters.^ In 
* Institutes, ii, 8 ; comp. lib. iii, c. 6-8. 



493 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

the Reformed Church generally it was common, in view of the 
position occupied by the Old Testament, to attach great promi- 
nence to the legal element, and to combine it into a system, chiefly 
in connexion with the Decalogue. 

o 

The first to treat Christian ethics as a separate theological depart- 
First separate ^^^* belonged to this Church— namely, Lambert Da- 
treatment of naeus (Danaen, died 1536), in his Christian Ethics 
(Geneva, 1577, 1601-40). The school of Saumur pro- 
duced in the seventeenth century the Christian Morals (1652-69, 
6 vols.), by Moses Amyraud (died 1664), in which the attempt was 
made to harmonize natural with revealed ethics. A new interest 
was imparted to the study of ethics by the Cartesian philosophy, 
particularly within the Reformed Church;^ and Arminianism gave 
special prominence to the ethical side of Christianity as constitut- 
ing an essential feature. 

After Calixtus'' had, in the Lutheran Church, separated ethics 
Protestant eth- ^^om. dogmatics, which he does in his Epitome of Moral 
icai writers. Theology (1634-62), other affiliated works were pub- 
lished, such as those of Conr. Diirr, of Altorf (died 1677; Com- 
pendium of Moral Theology, 1698); G. Th. Meier, of Helmstedt 
(died 1693); J. Ch. Schomer, of Rostock (died 1693; Moral The- 
ology Consistent with Itself, 1707), and similar works. The two 
movements of Pietism and Methodism reacted upon the ethical life 
with stimulating and purifying effect. The close of the old and 
the transition into the new period was marked, both in dogmatics 
and ethics, by Buddaeus in his Institutes of Moral Theology (1711, 
1724), and J. L. Mosheim in his Ethics of the Holy Scriptures 
(Helmst. and Leips., 1735-53, 9 vols.). These were succeeded by 
Rambach (1738, 4to), S. J. Baumgarten (Halle, 1764), Crusius 
(Leips., 1772, 1773, 2 vols.), G. Less (1777, 4th ed., 1787), Ende- 
mann (1780, 2 vols.), Doderlein (Jena, 1789; 3d ed., 1794), Mich- 
aelis (Gott., 1792, 2 vols.), Morus (1794-99, 3 vols., published by 
Voight), and others. 

In the Roman Catholic Church the Jesuits especially devoted 
Roman catho- themselves to ethics, dragging it further and further 
lie ethics. into the labyrinths of casuistry, and shaking it to its 

lowest foundations by their miserable theory of probabilism. The 
most notorious are Gabriel Vasquez (died 1604), Thomas Sanchez 
(died 1610), Francis Suarez (died 1617), Paul Laymann (died 1635), 

^ Comp. Pelt, p. 479. 

^ The Lutheran Church had not been without ethical writers even prior to Calixtus ; 
the latter merely gave to ethics a nnore systematic form, and brought it into connexion 
with the body of Church teaching. Comp. Henke, ubi supra, p. 514. 



THE HISTORY OF ETHICS. 4£3 

Vine. Filliucius (died 1622), Escobar (died 1669), and Busenbaum 
(died 1669), in bis Marrow of Cases of Conscience. This work, 
which first appeared in 1645, has passed through 52 editions. It 
has been rewritten and enlarged by Lacroix (Cologne, 1757) and 
others. Jesuitism was confronted by the stricter and more Augus- 
tinian spirit of Jansenism and the school of Port Royal, to which 
Ant. Arnauld, Pierre Nicole (Essay on Morals, Par., 1671-1714. 
6 vols.), and Pasquier Quesnel (Abridgment of the Morals of 
tli9 Gospel, Par., 1693) belonged. They combined with a thor- 
oughly sincere moral disposition a strict asceticism, amounting 
almost to enthusiasm, and not unfrequently an obscure mysticism.' 
Quietism was a distinct outgrowth from this tendency. 

A new period for ethics began with Kant and his doctrine of the 
Categorical Imperative, by which ethics was happily Kant's treat- 
delivered from the fetters of an erroneous theory of nient of etmcs. 
blessedness, or Eudaemonism, but was at the same time robbed of 
its profound religious motives, and transformed into a species of 
moral arithmetic. Even Christian ethical writers, such as Ammon, 
followed this system for a time, while others, as Reinhard, pro- 
ceeded by the eclectic and empirical route. Men of strong supra- 
naturalistic faith, like Schwarz and Flatt, contented themselves 
with adhering only to what is scriptural, without starting out with 
any definite scientific principle. De Wette has pointed out the 
necessity for such a principle.^ As Schleiermacher created an 
epoch in philosophical ethics by his Critique of Morals, so his treat- 
ment of Christian ethics is thoroughly peculiar, and everywhere 
based on the specifically Christian element. From this time a 
striving to attain to a more thoroughly scientific character is appar- 
ent in most of the Protestant works belonging to the department 
of ethics, however strongly their authors may be controlled by dis- 
similar fundamental views. 

Richard Rothe has, according to Bunsen's judgment, penetrated 
more deeply than his predecessors " into the innermost marrow of 
ethical speculation, and has demonstrated that Christianity is the 
realization of the highest thoughts of God." In the Roman Cath- 
olic Church, Liguori (died 1787) and Bened. Stattler, (Ethics, 1782) 
endeavoured to restore probabilism. Others adopted the older 
scholastic method, for example, Liebermann in his Institutes (May- 
ence, 1840, 5 vols.). Among the Roman Catholic morali-ts who 
have shown themselves accessible to the scientific impulses of the 
century, to a greater or smaller extent, w^e may mention Si-hwarz- 

' On this point compare especially Reuchlin's Gesch. von Port Royal. 
2 In Berlin wissenseh. Zeitschrift, 1819, Nos. 1 and 2. 



494 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

liiiber (1785), Lauber (1784-88), Wanker (1794), Mutscbelle (1802, 
1803), Geissbiittner (1803), Scbeiikl (1802, 1803), Reykberger (1794), 
Reigler (2d eel., 1828), and Vogelsang (Bonn, 1834-39, 2 vols.). 
Tlie latter is a disciple of George Hermes. Tbe manuals and text- 
books of J. M. Sailer (Bisbop of Ratisbon), ITeinricb Scbreiber, 
and Job. Bapt. von Ilirscber are especially notewortby because of 
tbeir practical aim. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OE CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 

1. General. 

Adams, Jasper. Elements of Moral Philosophy. 8vo, pp. 492. New York, 183Y. 
(Part I, Relation to God and the Duties thence Arising; Part II, Relation to the 
Citizen ; Part III, Individual Relations to Others ; Part lY, Duties and Obliga- 
tions to One's Self; Part Y, Review of the Chief Professions and Employ- 
ments; Part VI, Christian Duties.) 

Alden, Joseph. Christian Ethics; or, The Science of Duty. 12mo. New York, 1867. 

Alexander, Archibald. Outlines of Moral Science. 12mo, pp. 212. New York, 1870. 

Bascom, J. Ethics; or, Science of Duty. 12mo, pp. xiii, 883. New York, 1879. 

BIrks, T. R. Supernatural Revelation ; or, First Principles of Moral Theology. 8vo, 
pp. vi, 240. London, 1879. 

Blackie, John. Four Phases of Morals: Socrates, Aristotle, Christianity, Utilita- 
rianism. 12rao, pp. vii, 354. New York, 1872. 

Butler, Joseph. Sermons. Svo, pp. xxiv, 303. New York, 1846. (This work is 
the fountain from which some of the best English and American writers on 
Ethics have drawn their doctrines. Butler's achievement in ethics is his ex- 
position of Conscience, " as the higliest tribunal of man's nature, which sur- 
veys, approves, or disapproves the several affections of our minds and passions 
of our lives.") 

Caldervvood, Henry. Handbook of Moral Philosophj'-. Seventh edition. 8vo, pp. xi, 
297. Loudon, 1881. 

Challen, James. Christian Morals. 18mo. Philadelpliia, 1859. 

Cobbe, Frances Power. Darwinism in Morals, and Other Essays. Reprinted from the 
Theological and Fortnightly Reviews, Eraser's and Macmillan's Magazines, and 
the Manchester Friend. 12mo, pp. 422. Boston, 1883. (A liberal Unitarian 
examination of many topics, among them the Evolution of Morals and Religion, 
Hereditary Piety, the Devil, the Religions of the "World, and the Rehgion of 
Childhood.) 

Dagg, J, Leadley. The Elements of Moral Science. 12mo, pp. 374. New York, 1 860. 

Davies, J. Llewelyn. Theology and Morality, Belief and Practice. Svo. London, 1873. 

Dewar, D. Elements of Moral Philosophy and of Clu'istian p]thics. Svo, 2 vols. 
London, 1826. 

Dymond, Jonathan. Essays on the Principles of Morality, and on the Private and Po- 
litical Rights and Obligations of Mankind. 8vo, pp. 432. Now York, 1834. 

Fleming, \Y. A Manual of Moral Philosophy, with Quotations and References for 
the Use of Students. New edition, 8vo, pp. 439. London, 1871. 

Gillelt, E. H. Tiie Moral System ; with an Historical and Critical Introduction, with 
Special Reference to Butler's Analog}^ 8vo, pp. 231. New York, 1874. 

Godwin, John H. Active Principles; or, Elements of Moral Science, Mental Feel- 
ings, Volitions, Moral Perceptions, and Sentiments. Svo. London, 1885. 



LITERATURE OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 495 

Green, Tliomas Hill. Prolegomena to Ethics. 8vo. Oxford, 1883. (The first book 
deals with the Metaphysics of Knowledge. A close criticism of Mill.) 

Haven, Joseph. Moral Pliilosophy ; including Tlieoretictil and Practical Ethics. 
12mo, pp.'366. Boston, 1860. 

Hickok, Laurens P. A Sj'stem of Moral Science. Revised with the Co-operation of 
Julius H. Seelye, LL.D. 12mo, pp. 288. Boston, 1880. 

Hopkins, Mark. The Law of Love, and Love as a Law ; or, Moral Science, Theoret- 
ical and Practical; with Strictures by Dr. M' Cosh, with Replies. 12mo, pp. 
342. New York, 1869. New edition, 1875. 

Hopkins, Mark. Lectures on Moral Science, Delivered before the Lowell Institute, 
Boston. 12mo, pp. xvi, 288. New York, 1862. 

Janet, Paul. Tlie Theory of Morals. Translated from the latest French edition by 
Mary Chapman. Pp. 490. Edinburgh and New York, 1883. (Book I deals with 
The Good; Book II, The Law or Duty; Book III, Morality.) 

Jarrel, W. A. Old Testament Ethics Vindicated; being an Exposition of Old 
Testament Morals ; a Comparison of Old Testament Murals with the Morals 
of Heathen so-called " Sacred Books," Religious, Philosophical, and Infidel 
Writers; and a Vindication of Old Testament Morals Against Infidelity. Second 
edition. 12m ), pp. 285. Greenville, Tex., 1883. 

Kant, Emanuel. Critique of Practical Reason, and other "Works on the Theory of 
Ethics. Translated by Thomas Kingsraill Abbott. Eonrth edition. Revised 
and Enlarged, wnth Memoir and Portrait. 8vo, pp. Ixiv, 368. London, 1889. 

Leatherman, P. R. Elements of Moral Science. 12mo, pp. 414. Philadelphia, 1860. 
(Follows the Scripture as closely as possible.) 

Mallock, "W. H. Property and Progress ; or, A Brief Inquiry into Contemporary 
Social Agitation in England. 8vo. New York, 1884. 

Martensen, H. Christian Ethics. Special Part. First Division: Individual Ethics. 
Translated from the Author's German edition by William Appieck, B.D. 8vo, 
pp. vi, 423. Edinburgh and New York, 1881. 

Martensen, H. Christian Ethics. Special Part. Second Division : Social Ethics. 
Translated from the Author's German edition by Sophia Taylor. 8vo, pp. 384. 
Edinburgh and New York, 1883. 

Martineau, James. Types of Ethical Theory. 8vo, 2 vols. Oxford, 1885. (An 
intuitionist, the author pronounces moral judgment to be the verdict of a faculty, 
giving by immediate inspection the moral worth of any given mode of conduct. 
Is largely historical, and in some of its principles follows Butler.) 

Novanticus, Scotus. Ethica; or, The Ethics of Reason. 12mo. London, 1884. 
(Opposes Utilitarianism — finds the grounds of moral action in man's nature.) 

Payne, George. Elements of Mental and Moral Science. Third edition. Enlarged. 
8vo, pp. 456. London, 1845. 

Peabody, A. P. A Manual of Moral Philosophy. 12mo, pp. 233. New York, 1873. 

Porter, Noah. The Elements of Moral Science, Theoretical and Practical. Svo, pp. 
XXV, 574. New York, 1885. (The doctrine of the freedom of the will is main- 
tained, and the fact that only the voluntary in human action and experience has 
moral quality is recognized, and also that the genesis of the idea and ground of 
obligation are not in the reason, but in the sensibility. 

Rivers, R. H. Elements of Moral Philosophy. Edited by T. 0. Summers. 12mo, 
pp. 381. Nashville, Tenn., 1860. (Part I, Theoretical Ethics; Part II, Practical 
Ethics. Chapter VI treats of slavery from the apologetic point of view.) 

Sartorius, Ernest. The Doctrine of Divine Love ; or. Outlines of the Moral Tlieology 
of the Evangelical Church. Svo, pp. xxxii, 378. New York, 1884. (Part I, 



496 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Primary Divine Love : its Contrast, and the Eeconciliation of that Contrast; 
X Part II, Of Divine Love Renewing and Perfecting.) 
Schurman, J. Gould. Kantian Ethics and the Ethics of Evolution, A Critical 

Study. 12mo, pp. 103. London, 1881. 
Smith, Alexander. Tlie Philosophy of Morals. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xxvii, 304, 342. 

London, 1835. 
Spalding, Samuel. The Philosophy of Christian Morals. 8vo, pp. xxviii, 430. Lon- 
don, 1843. 
Spencer, Herbert. The Data of Ethics. 12mo, pp. xxxiv, 288. New York, 1883. 
Stephen, Leslie. The Science of Ethics. Svo, pp. xxviii, 462. New York, 1863. 

(An exposition of the ethics of evolution.) 
Wardlaw, Ralph. Christian Ethics ; or, Moral Philosophy on the Principles of Divine 

Revelation. Svo, pp. xii, 416. London, 1833. 
Wayland, Francis. The Elements of Moral Science. Seventy-seventh edition. 

12mo, pp. 396. Boston, 1865. 
Whewell, "William. The Elements of Morality, including Polity. 12mo, 2 vols. 

New York, 1845. 
Whewell, "William. Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy in England. New 

edition. Svo. London, 1852. 
"Winslow, Hubbard. Moral Philosophy: Analytical, Synthetical, and Practical. 

Sixth edition. 12mo, pp. 480. New York, 1866. 
Wuttke, Adolf. Christian Ethics. "With a Special Preface, by Dr. Riehm. Trans- 
lated by John P. Lacroix. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 378, 348. New York, 1873. 

(Introduction to Vol. II by "W. P. "Warren ; Vol. I treats of the History of Ethics ; 

Vol. II, of Pure Ethics.) 

2. Ethical Monographs. 
Dwinell, I. E. Easy Divorce : Its Causes and Evils. A Social Study. Pp. 19. 

New Englander, 1884, p. 48. 
Evans, Hugh Davey. A Treatise on the Christian Doctrine of Marriage. 12mo, 

pp. Ixviii, 385. New York, 1870. 
Hovey, Alvah. The Scriptural Law of Divorce. 16mo, pp. 12. Boston, 1866. 

(Dr. Hovey treats first of the Scripture law as declared by Christ, and next as 

applied by Paul.) 
Woolsey, Theodore D. Divorce and Divorce Legislation. Second edition. 12mo, pp. 

308. New York, 18S5. (The author believes that it is better f#r the present to 

accept a law which sometimes allows divorces on other than scriptural grounds.) 
Wright Carroll D. A Report on Marriage and Divorce in the United States, 1867 

to 1886; including an Appendix Relating to Marriage and Divorce in Certain 

Countries in Europe. Revised edition. Svo, pp. 1,074. Washington, 1891. 

(This not only gives a statistical view of the question, but a synopsis of the law 

in each State and Territory.) 
For a full discussion of the subject consult Poole's Index to Periodical Literature and 

Supplements. 

SECTION XXL 
THE METHODOLOGY OF SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

The study of systematic theology can be pursued with profit only 
after the preparatory studies in exegetical and historical theology 
have been completed. Yet it is possible to so awaken an interest 



THE METHODOLOGY OF SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 497 

for dogmatics and ethics, while pursuing such preparatory studies, 
that a proper and methodical study of the former science will only 
require for its complete treatment such elements from the mental 
and outward experiences of life as have developed into personal 
convictions. It is by no means possible to master dogmatics by 
study alone. It requires to become a possession of the mind as the 
result of earnest conflict. The same is true of ethics. It is lirst of 
all necessary that Christianity shall have been justified as a divine 
fact to the personal consciousness, and consequently that apolo- 
getics shall have subjectively performed its work in the mind of the 
dogmatic theologian. Otherwise it will be impossible to determine 
and practically complete the objective development of dogmatics 
into a science. 

The study of encyclopaedia is designed to awaken an interest in 
dogmatics. The theologian is invited to direct his attention, with 
the first step he takes into the science, upon that point at which all 
theology culminates in a scientific aspect. He is not to lose sight 
of the goal while examining into the great variety of matters which 
intervene, although this is likely to occur where a soulless and 
micrological exegesis is employed, or the ordinary road of trodden 
ecclesiastical history is followed. The dogmatic heights cannot be 
stormed, but must be gained. The intervals that lie between can- 
not be overleaped. The fruit must ripen under the vivifying influ- 
ence, from within, of the religious disposition as it ascends into 
greater clearness, and, from without, of the streaming light of sci- 
ence. In its nature the study of dogmatics is partly historical and 

partly philosophical, and neither side should be culti- ^ .. x, ^v, 
r J i- i^ ^ ^ Dogmatics both 

vated to the neglect of the other. A mere dogmatic historical and 
historian who is thoroughly "posted," as students say, ^ ^^^"^ ^^^* 
in his department, but who has not been inwardly impressed by 
his subject, and brought into relations of sympathy with it, resem- 
bles, according to Hegel, a counting-house clerk, who keeps an ac- 
count of the wealth which belongs to other people, without ever 
acquiring property of his own. But it is also true that the mere 
speculator who has failed to lay an historical foundation is not un- 
like the mercantile speculator, or swindler, without substantial cap- 
ital, who is, consequently, doomed to inevitable bankruptcy. It is, 
therefore, needful that the historical and the philosophical elements 
be combined in this study, and upon a scriptural basis. But if the 
conversational and disputational method, in addition to that of 
direct address, is in keeping anywhere, it is here. 

Disputation, however, will not accomplish every thing. The in- 
ward health, which holds together the marrow of the religious life, 
32 



498 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

and to which dogmatics must bear testimony, is of greater value 
than the gymnastics of the intellect. Mere science is inferior to 
wisdom, which, to use the expression of Gerson, requires a cogni- 
tion of the affections. The practical task of ethics is, at least, as 
important within the dogmatico-ethical department as the scientific. 
Religious ex- He only who has experienced the sanctifying, purify- 
perienceneces- inpr and elevatinoT power of the Gospel in his own be- 

sarv to under- . . . . r i ^i • • 

stand dogmat- mg, who IS earnestly striving to attain to that Christian 

ics and ethics, disposition in which the Christian virtues find a reali- 
zation — he only will be able to speak of a fruitful and blessed ex- 
perience derived from the study of dogmatics and ethics. He only 
who internally participates in the weal or woe of the Church is 
entitled to an opinion upon these matters. Without this, however 
great may be his outward learning and logical ability, he can only 
speak of the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven as the blind may 
speak of colour.* 

This practical way is pointed out by our Lord himself (John vii, 
17) with reference to apologetics. The reading of writings for and 
against a principle, instructive as it is for the riper judgment,^ 
serves, as a general thing, to confuse rather than to set forth the 
truth. Only he who has learned from his own experience to know 
upon what point the weight of Christian truth is really directed, 
will be able to comprehend the exact salient point of apologetics, 

^ "So long as moral and religious regeneration is regarded simply as a formula, to 
be recited from the catechism — and multitudes of nominal Christians have even now 
no other conception of its character — there will arise no loudly expressed opposition 
against it. Or, if it should arise, it will amount to noise only, and pass away in the 
antiquated squabbles of schools of theology. Far otherwise will be the case when 
the dead formula is transformed into a mighty law of life, and an effective regenera- 
tion is suggested such as will endeavour to permeate the State with moral influence, 
and lead the Church back to its eternal origin, that it may renew its youth ; at this point 
the ways of the living and the dead, of hirelings and the children of the house, will 
diverge. At this point of separation stands the present time." — Gelzer, ubi supra. 
" All that occurs in the prof ounder life of the soul is intelligible to them only who 
have passed through analogous experiences ; and in the same way the deepest experi- 
ence of the human soul, its union with Christ by faith, must ever remain unintelligible 
to those who have not partaken of it." — Gess, Uber die biblische Versohnungslehre, 
p. 33. 

^ Oberlin, for instance, prepared himself for his conflict with the freethinkers by 
reading the works of Voltaii^e. Comp. Oberlin's Leben, by Schubert, p. 29, In like 
manner the theologians of our day cannot be excused from learning to know the liter- 
ature of nihilism, whose highest perfection of form has been attained in Strauss's 
Old and New Faith, and which has entered on a new stage of development, as ideal- 
istic pessimism, with Schopenhauer's philosophy. But to begin with such studies, in 
the expectation of thus being enabled to discover the truth, is like plunging into a 
whirlpool for the purpose of learning to swim. 



THE METHODOLOGY OF SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 499 

and will be able, when encountering even unskilful argumentation, 
to sepaiate the kernel from the shell. So, too, the true Need of expe- 
tactics for the polemic, with which he may resist the ^'ience. 
assaults of error, can only be acquired through the experience 
gained in conflict with the foe within his own being. Besides, it is 
only in connexion with such conflict that the courageous disposi- 
tion is developed which forms the necessary correlative to genuine 
Christian endurance. 

It is evident, finally, that the study of ethics also will be attended 
with profit only when personal moral growth keeps ^ 

pace with the progress of the study. Where conscience needed for 
is lacking the mind will, despite all the definitions for- study of ethics, 
mulated by science, never learn what constitutes the power of con- 
science, and in the absence of love it can never know wherein con- 
sists the might of love. It is indefatigable labour expended on 
himself that opens the moral nature of man to the vision of even 
the scientific inquirer. Only where the chief good is recognised as 
such, as the result of personal experience, can the doctrine of what 
is good be scientifically developed with success — the doctrine of 
duties only w^here obligation is personally felt, the doctrine of vir- 
tues only w^liere Christian virtues are practically cultivated. In the 
absence of moral effort any amount of ethical studies will fail to 
become more than dry theory or' lifeless, abstract doctrine. A 
majority of the errors committed even in the field of scientific 
ethics — for example, in casuistry — were coincident with a neglect 
of practical morality. The times of decadence in morality have 
ever reacted unfavourably upon the treatment of ethical science. 
Similar facts may be shown in the field of art. But incongruities 
between theory and practice are nowhere so strikingly apparent as 
when they exist in the sphere of morals, as in Pharisaism or hy- 
pocrisy. 



500 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 



\ 



CHAPTER IV. 

PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 



SECTION L 

PEOVINCE OP PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Practical theology embraces the theory of Church activities or 
^ ^ .^. ^ functions, whether they be exercised by the Church as 

Definition of ... 

practical the- a whole or by individual members and representative 
^ ^^^* persons acting for the Church. Its task is regulated by 

the nature of religion in general, and by that of the Christian 
Church in its determinate historical individuality. It, therefore, 
builds upon all such studies as give to religion and Christianity a 
scientific character and an outward form. Its immediate sphere of 
action, however, is that of art — that is, of action emanating from 
known laws. 

In designating practical theology as a theory, we evidently depart 
from the usage by which the preceding departments are character- 
ized as theoretical in contrast with the practical.^ But usage may 
also prove our justification. It does not, at any rate, hold to the 
etymology of the word so far as to have us think, in connexion 
with it, simply of theorizing (iSewpetv) — the properly contemplative 
as distinguished from the practical. On the contrary, whenever 
theory is spoken of a reference to practical ends is always under- 
stood, so that it denotes a guide to practice.^ This usage, less 

* Marheineke likewise observes that " the theology which is not practical is theoret- 
ical. The latter is knowledge for its own sake, the former for the sake of practice." 
— Prakt. Theologie, § 6. But knowledge having reference to subsequent action is the 
very thing that is denominated theory ! 

^ The definition by Pelt, by which practical theology is made " a scientific knowl- 
edge respecting the self-development of the Church," is likewise inadequate. The 
knowledge is not alone sufficient in this case, but needs to be transformed into action, 
as Pelt himself remarks, in the progress of his statement (p. 561), when he says that 
practical theology aims to show how *' the further development of the Church may 
be assured by the action of the Church in the present moment." It is true of every 
science, and, therefore, of this, that a theory of this nature must not be a rhapsodical 
something, but is required to become an organic whole, '• bearing the idea upon 



PROVINCE OF PRACTICAL TPIEOLOGY. 501 

scientific than customary, it is true, would, accordingly, convert 
practical theology most emphatically into a theoretical science. It 
transmutes into action what the inquiring mind has brought before 
us from the fields of the philosophy of religion, exegesis, Church 
history, dogmatics, and ethics, and transforms the eTriarrifir] into 
rexvT}, It is not the application of an art, but the theory which 
qualifies for the practice of an art. It thus possesses a ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ 
claim to scientific character. For, while all theology acter of practi- 
aims, in its character as a positive science, to affect the ^^^ ^^^° °^^* 
life of human beings, it is yet incomplete without that department 
which is most directly engaged in carrying that positive aim into 
effect. It is, accordingly, with entire justice that practical theology 
has been termed, by Schleiermacher, " the crown of the tree." 

But, in like manner, as there is an internal unity of life in the 
crown of the tree which is outwardly repeated under a different 
form, so are all the different theological sciences repeated in prac- 
tical theology, but with reference to the life of the Church and its 
needs, and hence in the form of application.^ In its practical the- 
most general aspects practical theology reaches back pjj^fosophy^^of 
into the philosophy of religion, for it is designed to religion. 
reduce religion to practice in the life. Unless the nature of the 

which it rests within itself as a recognised germ of life " (p. 562). Vinet, speaking of 
practical theology, observes well and to the point : " It is art which supposes science, 
or science resolving itself in art. It is the art of applying usefully, in the ministry, 
the knowledge acquired in the three other departments of theology, which are purely 
scientific." — Pastoral Theology (Skinner's ed.), p. 21. Also Ebrard: "Practical theol- 
ogy, when examined in the light, is not a knowledge, but an ability; not a science, 
but an art, in which the theological knowledge that has been acquired becomes prac- 
tical, in which it undergoes a practical application." The contrary view is advocated 
by Palmer, uhi supra, p. 323 : " Not the application to certain concrete conditions of 
office and life of a previously indwelling knowledge, but a knowledge itself which the 
other departments of theology have not furnished, forms the contents of practical 
theology." We concede this, provided this knowledge be a knowledge relating to 
what is to he done. On any other view practical theology becomes the most hollow 
and unfruitful of all studies, while it is undeniably the most fruitful of them all when 
its eye is fixed upon actual life. 

* It is not easy to understand why Graf (Prakt. Theologie, pp. 135 and 176) should 
object to this expression, unless the view introduced by Schleiermacher with reference 
to theology in general be regarded as antiquated (p. 136). Our idea does not, how- 
ever, involve a " popularized theology," but simply a scientific combination and elab- 
oration of the practical elements. Comp. what Vinet says : " The speculative side 
should have its place. Action is the last end of speculation ; but whatever may be 
the nature of the action, it is not sufficiently provided for if attention be confined to 
it in the practical point of view. It should be studied abstractly. ... He who re- 
gards the things of his profession only in the midst of action will act neither with 
freedom, nor with intelligence, nor with depth. — Pastoral Theology, p. 22. 



502 PRACTICxiL THEOLOaY. 

religion be understood, all worship, sermons, religious trainincr, 
and care of souls will be impossible. The conception entertained 
with regard to the nature of religion will determine what the 
worship, sermon, catechesis, and the care of souls are to accomplish. 

But practical theology cannot be allowed to rest content with 
mere general definitions in religious matters. It has to do with 
well-defined Christian and ecclesiastical functions. It, therefore, 
presupposes, in its scientific work, the whole of the positive con- 
tents of Christianity— its facts and teachings, and, more than all 
else, a knowledge of the Bible. The sermon must be rooted in 
the Bible. The homilist needs to be also an exegete. It also re- 
quires familiarity with Church history. The entire constitution 
and government of the Church, and the organization of its worship. 
The historical ^re grounded in historical conditions, and cannot be 
basis. gp^jj Q^^ from abstract theories. Liturgies, for in- 

stance, is based upon archaeology, and Church government on the 
history of the constitution of the Church. The function of teach- 
ing, moreover, in all its departments, necessarily presupposes 
Christian doctrine, considered both in its establishment by apolo- 
getics and in its development by dogmatics and ethics. Finally, 
since Church functions are always exercised by a particular Chui-ch, 
having a determinate denominational character, and being exposed 
to the possibility of conflict with other confessions, practical the- 
ology is required to include also this symbolical and polemical side 
of theological science. It thus comes to pass that the symbol is 
reflected especially in catechisms and liturgies, and that the consti- 
tution of any particular Church corresponds to its peculiarities of 
confession. These considerations justify the placing of practical 
theology at the close of the theological course. Only that theolo- 
Practicai the- gian who has passed through a preliminary scientific 
pietes^he tiM- training, and has received into himself and assimilated 
oiogicai course, the Substance of theological knowledge, is qualified to 
dispose of and utilize the possession he has acquired. The latter, 
however, will not accomplish itself. Plence, it is the task cf prac- 
tical theology to present to view the combined practical features of 
all theology, and then to indicate the objects toward which the ac- 
tivities of the Church are to be directed, and also the laws under 
which its functions are to be exercised. 

The office of practical theology is to show, not merely what may 
be admitted to the ecclesiastical field in the character of nn estab- 
lished element of worshi)> or Church constitution, but also how 
everything is to be administered. Only a crude empiricism would 
consent to leave this to the play of chance or considerations of 



PROVINCE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 503 

convenience. The scientific dignity of practical theology appears 
in the very fact that it will not rest satisfied with mere routine, but 
demands, and makes possible, a regulated action in behalf of the 
Church and in harmony with its spirit. "Such action, in unison 
with law, we designate as being according to art, and therefore 
assign practical theology to the department of art as its legitimate 
field. It is important, however, that the word art be not under- 
stood in a perverted sense, so as to denote paltry arts ^^^.^^ ^^^ ^^^ 
and tricks, or the unnatural, since true art is altogether highest nature. 
nature, taken out from its crude and accidental surroundings, intel- 
lectually illumined, and transmuted into consciousness. 

It is sometimes said by persons who are prejudiced against sci- 
ence, that the apostles were not learned men ; that they did not 
treat preaching as an art, and that this work does not afford a field 
for the exhibition of art, because only what comes from the heart 
can effect an entrance into other hearts. Such objections, however, 
serve merely to show to what extent the real nature of art is yet 
misunderstood. The word is employed in this connexion both in a 
wider and a more limited sense. Practical theology is entitled to 
the name of a theory of art, even in the broader meaning, since 
every rational function which aims at a definite result must be 
guided and upheld by an authoritative principle. In this sense it 
is actually customary to speak of medical art, the corresponding 
feature to which in the theological field may, perhaps, be found in 
the art which has to do with the training and the care of souls. 
But a place in practical theology must be conceded to art also in 
the narrow or aesthetical meaning of the word, in which sense it 
comes under the category of "descriptive functions."^ This will 
appear more particularly in connexion with the theory of worship, 
in the department of Liturgies. 

SECTION n. 

PRACTICA.L SIDE OF CLERICAL LIFE. 

The aggregate of ecclesiastical functions, which constitutes the 
object of practical theology, may be comprehended under the two 
categories of Church Government and Church Ministrations. The 
clergyman is required by the practical relation which he sustains 

toward the Church to devote himself, predominantly, if ^ 

' ^ -^ ' Former restrlc- 

not exclusively, to service in each of these depart- tion of practical 
ments. For this reason, practical theology has hitherto ^^^^ °^^' 
been largely restricted to the task of furnishing a guide to clerical 

^ Comp. Schleiermacher's division of Ethics, supra. 



504 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

duties, or to the character of a science of the clerical calling, with 
particular reference to the ministrations of the Church. 

"The practical in theology," says Schweizer, "has in no wise 
been created by the spiritual order, but rather has itself produced 
this order, which is in a peculiar sense the servant of the Church. 
The theology, at times predominantly learned, and at other times 
more largely practical, has been developed by the Church itself, 
regarded as a community holding to a common faith." ' His view 
requires that practical theology should begin with the institution 
of a spiritual order, a measure which belongs, according to Schleier- 
macher's arrangement, to the theory of Church government. Since, 
however, this branch has not as yet been largely developed, it 
would seem to be by no means advisable, in a methodological point 
of view, to place its scanty proportions in the foreground. It is, 
likewise, very difficult to divide the whole of practical theology 
between the two categories of Church government and Church min- 
istration.^ It is impossible to separate them wholly from each 
other. The liturgical elements, for instance, belong to Church gov- 
ernment in so far as the organization of the worship is concerned,^ 
and to Church ministrations when the administration of the worship 
is in question. 

It seems to be hazardous, upon the whole, to depart too greatly 
in this matter from the concrete facts with which we have to deal. 
We do not misapprehend the faulty character of an empirical proc- 
ess which yields as its result the simple fact "that preaching is 
carried on, and then constructs a theory — liomiletics — to correspond 
with that fact." * But it is also necessary that, on the other hand, 
the a priori construction of a science whose very name indicates 
that it is designed to meet practical wants, be avoided. These 
Practical needs practical needs, moreover, have not arisen as the result 
hSTr^cai ^^d^ ^^ T[ieTQ accident, but grow out of the historical devel- 
veiopment. opment of the Church during. her progress to this time. 
Hence they are consequently to be regarded as necessary rather 
than accidental facts, and as rooted in the history of the Church. 

To these considerations we must add the practical nature of the 
calling of the theologian himself. The primary object in which he 
is concerned, when, having been qualified for the service of the 
Church, he leaves the school behind, is certainly that he be intro- 
duced into the spiritual office. To acquaint him with the duties of 
that office is the work of practical theology. Should he confine his 
efforts in that position also to speculative labours merely, when may 

^ Uhi supra, p. 20. ^ See Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 35. 

2 Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 269 and 286. * Schweizer, uhi supra, p. 24. 



PRACTICAL SIDE OF CLETIICAL LIFE. 505 

we suppose that he will develop a sense for the practical? It is just 
this theory that constitutes a most distressing feature, that, after 
having in many instances spent numerous years in study, our young 
ministers often fail to know how to conduct a mere Bible class, or 
to construct a sermon that shall be more than a compilation from 
the notes of seminary lectures. If it happen that, in addition, their 
heads become filled with notions upon Church government through 
the study of practical theology, instead of their being brought in 
person to the place where safe action is necessary, what is to be 
looked for in such a case ? A morbid and total dcA- otion to science, 
w^ithout due emphasis on its practical departments, would result in 
rendering the young preacher unpractical who is placed in the very 
heart of the activities of practical theology. It appears, Necessity of 
then, that, in connexion with the study of practical p^cti?aTsideof 
theology, the young preacher should be first directed clerical duties. 
into the fields which have already been cultivated by other hands— p 
homiletics, catechetics, and liturgies — and led to put forth his effort 
there. It is, nevertheless, requisite that the nature of such studies., 
their internal necessity, and their connexion with the organism of 
the Church, as a whole, be made scientifically clear to his mind.^ 
After this he may extend the range of his vision beyond the culti- 
vated fields of Church ministrations, and embrace the uncultivated 
lands of ecclesiastical polity and ecclesiastical law.'^ 

It is certainly an observation of real value, that the functions of 
the Church are not identical with those of the clergy, and, there- 
fore, may not be confounded with them. But the theologian must 
comprehend these functions, and the clergyman must execute them 
theoretically or in practice. A sudden attempt to establish a lay 
theology, in w^hich the clergyman should take occasional part, but 
only with reference to his own person, would be wrong, and could 
just as well be applied to other departments. It may be said that 
the Bible is the common property of all Christians, and that there- 
fore exegesis belongs to all ; that the faith is the common property 
of the Church, and that dogmatics is consequently a science in 
which all may engage, and by no means theologians only. Since, 
however, theology as a science does not come within the reach of 
all men, but is empirically restricted to those w^ho are occupied in a 
special calling and profession, we may say that exegesis, historical 

' Corap. Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 32. 

^ Schleiermacher consequently evinced sound judgment in placing Church ministrar 
tions before Church government. Rosenkranz, too, concludes his Encyklopaedie 
with this department. Pelt, on the other hand, begins with the theory of Church 
organization. 



506 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

theology, and systematic theology have to do with what it is nec- 
essary that the minister should know. Practical theology, on the 
Difference be- other hand, treats what he has to do, in the exercise of 

tween the re- a clear consciousness and as a pastoral function; act- 
lation of the . , . • .i ,.■,.-„,. 

preacher to mg) as he must, m the name of the Church, mam- 

oio^y^aid'fhe ^''^^^^^S ^ Constant connexion and reciprocal relation 

other depart- of active influence with the Church. This practical 

ments. point of view will govern our arrangement, which does 

not rest on a priori considerations, but upon a simple recognition 

and observation of the state of facts in the case. 



SECTION III. 

METHOD OF TREATMENT. 

The duties for which practical theology is to qualify, admit of 
being divided according to various methods, which correspond to 
the different points of view that may be occupied. We class them 
under the three following categories : 

1. The gathering of individuals, and their introduction into the 
fellowship of the Church. This we call Halieutics and Catechetics. 

2. The guiding and promoting of the Christian life within the 

„ , . ^ Church society: a. As expressed publicly in connexion 
Categories of ^ *' , ^ , ^ ^ . •' 

Practical The- with the worship, either in a prescribed or a more inde- 
® ^^^' pendent form ; this is Liturgies and Homiletics. h. As 

manifested in the wider circles embraced within the Church, in the 
form of the care of souls ; this is Pastoral Theology. 

3. These functions are enclosed within the Organization of the 
Church, by which each clergyman is required to labour in his own 
place, and to whose proper management he must contribute; this 
is Ecclesiastical Polity and Law. 

Every mode of division involves deficiencies, which are owing to 

, the fact that the actual state of the Church, with the 
All modes of ^ , ' , 

division imper- needs which have been made manifest by experience, 
^^ * does not in all respects correspond to the ideal of what 

the Church ought to be. A purely scientific arrangement, based on 
the idea of the Church, will not unfrequently come into conflict 
with things as they exist. On the other hand, one which starts out 
with a recognition of the actual condition of the Church is open to 
the charge of being controlled by accidental features, and, there- 
fore, of being unscientific. This objection was brought to bear 
against most of the earlier methods of arrangement, which, how- 
ever, in many instances, scarcely deserved this name, since they 
joined together homiletics, liturgies, and catechetics, at haphazard, 



METHOD OP TREATMENT. 507 

without going back lo the conditions lying deep in the organism of 
the Church, upon which their life depends. 

The disposition to organize this department has been manifested 
in different directions since the time of Schleiermacher, and divis- 
ions of the most various kinds have been attempted. Those by 
Nitzsch, Schweizer, Marheineke, and Moll principally deserve at- 
tention. Nitzsch conceives practical theology as being a g . 
theory of Church* functions, and divides the latter into Nitzsch and 
fundamental and conservative. Among fundamentals he ° ^^' 
reckons homiletics, catechetics, and liturgies, the first two of which 
are included under the idea of the didactic. He divides the con- 
servatives into education and sacred politics. This method is fol- 
lowed in the dissertation cited above. A somewhat different view 
prevails in the larger work,^ which divides the functions, first, into 
those designed to edify, such as preaching, celebrations, the care 
of souls ; and, second, into the regulative, such as internal and ex- 
ternal Church law, objectively as legislation, subjectively as the 
formation of government and constitution. Schweizer has raised 
important objections against the arrangement of Nitzsch. Of these 
we notice especially that which censures the destroying of the nat- 
ural connexion of homiletics with liturgies through the association 
of the former with catechetics, thus giving to it a character too ex- 
clusively didactic. Schweizer proceeds upon the distinction be- 
tween Church government and Church ministrations, and sehweizer's ar- 
endeavours to carry further into details, and to modify, rangement. 
the plans marked out by Schleiermacher, with whom he agrees in 
the main. He deals, first of all, with the instituting of the spiritual 
order, the developing of a positive clergy from the natural clergy.* 
He then lays down an ingeniously contrived division of Church 
ministrations, based upon Schleiermacher's distinction between the 
free and those restricted to set forms. Such restriction applies,' 
most of all, to the services of the public worship, though less rigidly 
to the sermon than to the liturgy. It is less operative in the care of 
souls, where it appears more largely in the department of pastoral 

' Praktische Theologie, vol. i, p. 128, sqq. 

2 He obtains three forms : 1. The Roman Catholic, on which the sacerdotal char- 
acter of the individual {character indelehilis) makes a clergyman of the clergyman. 

2. The Illuministic and Quaker, where the distinction between those who impart and 
those who receive is but temporary, and determined by the particular service in hand. 

3. The Protestant, which is intermediate between the preceding two. 

^ The clergyman is restricted in services which he performs in the name of the 
Church, and as directed by her, being, so to speak, merely the organ of the Church, 
while in free activity his individuality may assert itself. Coincident with the above 
is the distinction between the fixed and movable. 



508 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

supervision than in that of unofficial service. It appears least 
of all in the work of winning souls to the Church,^ though more 
prominently when that function is exercised in connexion with the 
regular work of a church than in connexion with missionary work. 

Schweizer's division will, accordingly, result in the following 
schweizer's di- scheme : I. The theory of Church government. II. The- 
vision. ory of Church functions; 1. Theory of worship; a. Li- 

turgies, h. Homiletics; 2. PastoraL Theology, the Care of Souls; 
a. ministerial, h. free ; 3. Ilalieutics, theory of the art of adding 
to the membership of the Church; a. Catechetics, h. Theory of 
missionary operations. 

Much may be said, however, in opposition to this division also. 

^ , ^ ^ Not only is the entire distinction between free and 
Defects of _ '' 

sciiweizer's restricted merely relative, as Pelt has shown,'^ but the 
arrangement, j.^lativity itself, his plus out of the minus, is not 
always properly graduated. Should catechetics — which, in its 
character as the service for immature minds, reaches back into 
worship, and therefore into the department which, more than 
others, is controlled by established forms — be less restricted to 
forms than the care of souls ? The missionary function, halieutics, 
moreover, is erroneously placed by the side of catechetics, while it 
ought to precede, and prepare the way for, the latter function, as 
well as for all the remaining ones. It is, certainly, a function of 
a-cquisition, while catechetics is a preparatory function. Halieutics 
seeks its field, and finds it, beyond the limits of the organized eccle- 
siastical community; catechetics stands within those boundaries, 
though on the line. The two departments should, accordingly, lead 
and follow, instead of being placed side by side. The contrast be- 
tween freedom and limitation cannot be the determining idea in 
this matter. 

Marheineke distributes practical theology over the three concen- 
Marheineke's trie circles within which practical effort must be em- 
method, ployed. He distinguishes: 1. The Christian Church; 
2. The Protestant Church; 3. The particular, or local. Church. The 
ministrations of the Church have reference to the latter, and are 
divided into: a. The formation of the congregation, the instruction 

^ From akuv(^ alitvq, Matt, iv, 19. The term was first employed by Siekel in his 
Grundriss der christl. Halieutik, Lpz., 1829. We employ it in its broad meaning, not 
excluding Halieutics from Homiletics, with which it was identified by Siekel, but still 
regarding it primarily as the science of missions, and, therefore, placing it before Li- 
turgical Homiletics proper, and also before Catechetics. 

2 Encykl., p. 567. Comp. also the review in Rheinwald's Repert., 1837, vol. xix, 
p, 125, sqq. 



METHOD OF TREATMENT. 509 

of youth; catechetics. b. The assembling of the congregation; 
homiletics and liturgies, c. The influencing of individuals; care of 
souls. This method is also open to the objection of destroying the 
unity of the different functions. Liturgies concerns the life of the 
general, as well as that of the local, Church. Catechetics has to do 
both with future members of the Church, and, in part, with the 
conorregation. Preachino: is conducted in the name of the Church, 
and for the good of the congregation. Moll deduces the functions 
of practical theology from the nature of the Church, 

1 . T-» T 1 1 • 1 f ^ r-^^ i t MoU'S method. 

devotmg Fart i to the physiology or the Church, and 
reserving the theory of ecclesiastical functions for Part II. These 
are divided into regulative, training, and edifying functions. The 
first class includes the constitution, the legislation, and the admin- 
istration of the Church. To the second belongs training by means 
of supervision, instruction, and discipline. The third has to do 
with liturgical performances. Harms constructed a 
witty scheme, without claiming for it any scientific 
character. It is according to the three P's — the preacher, the 
priest, and the pastor — the catechist losing his place, and being 
stowed away in the pastor's 'province. A fourth P ought to have 
been available for the pedagogue. The Roman Catholics, Drey, 
Staudenmaier, and Graf, have adopted still other divisions.* 

We might attempt additional methods to those Avhich we have 
enumerated.^ For example, we might arrange an order according 
to the following plan: 1. The official and extra-official; or, based 
on the nature of religion, the directly religious and liturgical, 
designed to affect the feelings; 2. The homiletical, which operates 
more especially upon the understanding, and addresses its appeal to 
reason; 3. The practical, or pastoral, function, which directs its 
aim upon action — the practical life. In connexion with this scheme 
it would be necessary to regard catechetics, the common basis of 
the whole, as a preparation for the religious life in every direction, 
such as the public w^orship, the instruction, and the religious training 

' See Pelt, ubi supra. 

^ This, as we observe, is substantially the same as that of Ebrard, in Liturarik, S 10, 
namely : a. Miuisterium externum (catechetics and missions) ; b. Ministerium inter- 
num (worship and care of souls) ; c. The common bond of outward order (guber- 
natio). A different method is given by Ehrenfeuchter, Theorie des Cultus, p. 81, 
who gives the precedence to catechetics (the power of religion to produce doctrine 
and dogmas) ; the next place to the care of souls and ecclesiastical law (the power to 
penetrate through the individuality of nations in the course of historical develop- 
ment) ; and the last and highest place to liturgies, because the most diversified powers 
of the life of the Church flow together in the worship ; but, bemg deprived of move- 
ment, present themselves as settled states. 



510 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

of children. The entire discussion of this subject indicates that 
it would be prejudice to insist that any particular arrangement is 
the only correct one, and that every division which may be scien- 
titically justified deserves notice in its place.^ j 

SECTION IV. 

HISTOET OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Directions for the conduct of the spiritual office are already 
found in the Pastoral Epistles of the New Testament; in the Apos- 
tolic Fathers; in Tertullian, Cyprian, and Chrysostom, in his work 
on the Priesthood; Ambrose, in his treatise on the Duties of Min- 
isters; in Augustine, in his work on Christian Doctrine; and in 
Works of the Ephraem Syrus, in his work on the Priesthood. To 
Fathers. these must be added The Pastoral Care, which is as- 

cribed to Leo the Great (died 461), the Book of Pastoral Care, to 
John, Bishop of Ravenna, by Gregory the Great (died 604), and the 
Epistle to Ludifredus on the Duties of Priests in the Church, by 
Isidore of Seville (died 636). During the Middle Ages the work 
on the Institution of the clergy, by Rhabanus Maurus, was a leading 
book for the training of the clergy, and many directions are found 
elsewhere for priests, bishops, monks, and Church officers in gen- 
eral, according to the different gradations of the hierarchy and the 
requirements of different places.'* 

The forerunners of the Reformation turned their attention pref- 
work of the erably upon practical theology. Wycliffe, among 
Reformers. others, for example, wrote a tractate on The Pastoral 
Office. But a special change was wrought in the character of prac- 
tical theology by the Reformation itself, by which it became the 
theory of culture for preachers and pastors, instead of remaining a 
theory of training for priests. The isolated directions of Luther 
were collected by Conrad Porta, of Eisleben (died 1585), in his 
Pastoral of Luther, which has been often reprinted since 1582, the 
last edition being that issued in Nordlingen in 1842.^ The term 

^ An absolute division is impracticable, because the several branches of practical 
theology are so interlaced as to admit of being represented separately only in a modi- 
fied sense. See Vinet, Pasl Theol., pp. 22, 23. 

'■^ Comp. Ratherius of Verona, Synodica ad Presbyteros et Ordines ceteros forinse- 
cus, i. e., per universam dioecesin constitutos, in d'Achery, Spicileg. T. I., p. 376 5^5^.; 
the Tractatus de moribus et officiis episcoporum, by Bernard of Clairvaux (died 1153), 
addressed to the Archbishop Henry of Sens, and Neander, Der heil. Bernhard, 
p. 17, sqq. 

2 Comp. F. Gessert, Evangelisches Pfarramt nach Luther's Ansichten, Bremen, 
1826. 



HISTORY OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 511 

pastoral theology, which had alreaay been employed by Erasmus 
Sarcerius (1562), was now, with minor variations, transferred to 
other works also; for example, those of Quenstedt, in his Pastoral 
Ethics (1678, 1708), of J. L. Hartmann (died 1684), of Kortholt, in 
his Faithful Pastor (1698), of Mayer, in his Museum of the Minis- 
ter of the Church (1690),' and of other writers who did not always 
work in harmony with the spirit of Luther. 

The universities provided chairs of practical theology only in 
exceptional instances; for example, in Helmstedt and 
Tubingen. Such features as were deemed important oiogy in the 
were generally treated in connexion with dogmatics ^^i^^^^^®^- 
under the head of The Ministry, or in the chapter On Cases of Con- 
science. Spener, in his Pious Desires, and A. H. Francke, in his 
Pastoral Admonitions (1712), his Observations on Hartmann's Pas- 
torate (1739), and in his Pastoral College (1743), infused new life 
into this study. But, down to the close of the eighteenth century, 
the works most esteemed were those of Mieg (died 1708), Sacred 
Duties of the Pi'otestant Pastor (1747), Deylingius (died 1755), In- 
stitutes of Pastoral Prudence (Lips., 1768), Pet. Roques (died 1748), 
The Protestant Pastor (1723, Germ., Halle, 1768), Mosheim (1754), 
and Tollner (1769), Outline, upon which followed Rosenmiiller 
(1778), G. F. Seller (1786), J. J. Pfeiffer (1789), and others. All 
of these, however, were superseded by Niemeyer. 

The rationalistic spirit of the age, which first found expression 
in Spalding's Utility of tlie Preacher's Office (1st ed.. Rationalistic 
1772), asserted itself during the final decades of the cen- Jfrfctf cai 
tury in the secular mode of apprehending the task of theology. 
practical theology. Those profounder relations of the spiritual 
office, as they had been described by Herder, in his Provincial 
Sheets, were crowded into the background more and more. Graffe, 
with his dry formalism, allied himself with Kant, while Schlegel, 
on the other hand, emphasized the " promotion of Christian godli- 
ness," and F. H. Ch. Schwarz (died 183 V) defined the Christian idea 
still more clearly. To this was now added the impulse for scien- 
tific arrangement which emanated from Schleiermacher, although 
works of even later date — for example, the very serviceable treatise 
by HdiFell — were but slightly influenced by it.'^ Harms is original 
throughout, everywhere proceeding upon practical considerations, 
in this respect contrasting with Marheineke, who is purely specula- 
tive. The two complement each other; but the bridge which leads 

* Comp. Tholuck, Geist der Luther. Theologen Wittenbergs, p. 261. 
' According to the judgment of some critics the work of Hiiffell has even lost in 
Talue by reason of its strict regard for scientific principles. 



512 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

over from the one to the other might be difficult to find by the 
student. In view of what has been done down to the present time, 
it may be asserted that, so far as Germany is concerned, Nitzsch 
has brought the science of practical theology to a conchision for 
some time to come. Within the pale of the Roman Catholic 
Church Maria Theresa was the first to erect a chair of practical 
theology, its seat being in the national university of her realm, 
Austria. Sailer was efficient here, also, in a preparatory way, and 
was followed by Schenkel, Pawondra, Schwarzl, Goilowitz, Reichen- 
berger, Hinterberger, Herzog, and others.^ Among Rom.m Cath- 
olic works, that by Giaf is preeminent. 

Little has been done in England or America for the scientific 
organization of practical theology. The usage has obtained of 
treating the functions of the minister under the two heads of 
preaching and the pastoral care, leaving Halieutics, Catechetics, 
Liturgies, and Ecclesiastical Law to be treated, without any 
attempt to assign them fixed places, or to be omitted altogether. 
Shedd speaks of the minister as both an orator and a pastor : as an 
orator he addresses masses of men ; as a pastor he deals with indi- 
vidual souls. All of practical theology, threefore, which this writer 
considers is the formation of clerical chara<iter and the discharge of 
strictly parish duties. Hoppin, following the same general method, 
divides the minister's activities into those of the stxidy and pulpit, 
and those which find their place outside of the study and pulpit. 
Vinet, who is regarded as an authority in America, makes the same 
twofold division : "The preacher instructs, the pastor trains up: 
the one receives and nourishes those who come; the other seeks 
also those who do not come." Kidder, however, takes in the whole 
scope of practical theology, though without attempting to show the 
logical connexion of its parts. It is made by him to include " a 
knowledge of the various theories of Church polity; the theory and 
administration of discipline; the history and use of liturgies; the 
agencies and details of Church enterprises ; catechetics, or the ele- 
ments of Christian instruction; homiletics, the science and art of 
Christian address ; and the duties and relations of the pastoral 
office."^ Practical theology, in England and America, still waits 
for a broader treatment which shall unite all the parts into one 
consistent whole. 

^ See Pelt, p. 55 Y. 'Christian Pastorate, p. 196. 



LITERATURE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 513 



LITERATURE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY IN GENERAL. 

Ch F. Baur, Ueber das Verbal tniss der prakt zur wissenschaft Tbeologie. Tiib., 1811. 
A. H. Niemeyer, Handbucb fiir cbristliche Rehgionslebrer, Halle, 1790. 6th ed., 

1823 and 1827. 2 vols, 
f J. M. Sailer, Vorlesungen aus der Pastoraltheologie. 5tb ed. Siilzb., 1853. 3 vols 
J. F. C. Griiffe, Die Pastoraltheologie nach ihrem ganzeii Umfange. Gott., 1803. 2 vols. 
G. Schlegel, Handbueh der praktischen Pastoralwissenschaft. Greifsw., 1811. 

F. H. Ch. Schwarz, Der christl. Rehgionslebrer und seine moraliscbe Bestimmung. 

Giessen, 1798-1800. 2 vols. 

G. Ph. Ch. Kaiser, Entwurf eines Systems der Pastoraltheologie fiir Vorlesungen- 
Erl, 1816. 

* L. Hiiffel, Ueber das Wesen und den Beruf des evangel.-luther. Geistlichen. Geissen, 

4th ed., 1843. 2 vols. 
J. T. L. Danz, Die Wissenchaften des geistl. Berufs. im Grundrisse. Jena, 1824. 
F. B. Koster, Lehrbuch der Pastoralwissenschaft mit besonderer Riicksicht auf Pas- 

toralweisheit. Kiel, 1827. 

* Kl. Harms, Pastoraltheologie. In Reden an Theologie-Studierende. 3d ed. Kiel, 

1878. 3 vols. 

R. Haas, Der geistl. Beruf nach den neuesten Zeitbediirfnissen. Giessen^ 1834. 2d 
ed., 1845. 2 vols. 

Ph. Marheineke, Entwurf der prakt. Theologie. Berl., 1837. 

J. J. Kromm, Der evangel-protest. Geistliche innerhalb der Grenzen seines heiligen 
Berufs. Mannh., 1839. 

t J. Widmer, Vortrage iiber Pastoraltheologie. Augsb., 1840. 

f A. Graf, Kritische Darstellung des gegenwartigen Zustandes der praktischen Theo- 
logie. Tiib., 1841. 

* C. L Nitzsch, Praktisehe Theologie. Bonn, 1847, 1848. 3 vols. New ed., 1848-67. 

Index by Schmidt, 1872. 
K. F. Gaupp, Praktisehe Theologie. Berl., 1848, 1852. 2 vols. 
F. Schleiermacher, Die praktisehe Theologie nach den Grundsatzen der evangel. Kirehe 

im Zusammenhange dargestellt. Berl., 1850. 
f F. Vogl, Pastoraltheologie. 7th ed., by Gollowitz, 1855. 
f J. Amberger, Pastoraltheologie. Regensb., 1851, 1852. 2 vols. 
C. B. Moll, Das System der prakt. Theologie, im Grundrisse dargestellt. Halle, 

1853. 
J. H. A. Ebrard, Vorlesungen iiber praktisehe Theologie. Konigsb., 1854. 
F. Ehrenfeuchter, Die praktisehe Theologie. 1st part. Gott., 1859. 
K. Kuzmany, Praktisehe Theologie der evangel. Kirehe Augsb. und Helv. Conf. Zu- 

nachst fiir akademische Vorlesungen. Wien, 1860. 
W. Otto, Grundziige der evangelischen praktischen Theologie. Dillenb., 1866. 

Evangelische prakt. Theologie. Gotha, 1869. 2 vols. 

R. Kiibel, Umriss der Pastoraltheol. 2d ed. Stuttg., 1874. 

J. Paludain-Miiller, Der evang. Pf arrer und sein Amt. From the Danish, by A. Struve. 

Kiel, 1874. 

E. Doye, Der evang. Geistliche als Pred., Priester und Pastor. Berl., 1874. 
A. Schweizer, Pastoraltheologie. Lpz., 1875. 

F. L. Steinmeyer, Beitrage zur prakt. Theol. Berl., 1874-79. 5 parts. 

G. V. Zezschwitz, System der prakt. Theol. lipz., 1876-78. 3 parts. 
Th. Harnack, Praktisehe Theologie. Erl., 1877. 

33 



514 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION V. 

CATECHETICS. 

Catechetics has to do with the introduction of persons into the 
Christian community, and therefore with the imparting of instruc- 
tion and the religious nurture connected therewith. Catechetical 
instruction in the Christian countries of our day is largely confined 
to children, who have been admitted into the Church by the rite of 
baptism and by the regeneration of the heart. But its range should 
also embrace the instruction of such adults as have not come under 
early religious training, or have neglected it. 

The function of receiving new members into the Church is pre- 
ceded by that of gaining new members for the Church, or rather 
Haiieutics and ^^^ the kingdom of God in general. This function of 
Keryktics. acquisition has been termed Haiieutics. It coincides 
with the missionary function, or Keryktics,^ and by its nature takes 
the precedence of catechetics. In view of the continually increasing 
demands of science, it was impossible that the missionary function 
should, in its steadily progressing development, retain an empirical 
character alone. It was compelled to gradually construct a science 
of missionary operations, and a good beginning has already been 
made in this direction.'* 

It is not proper, indeed, to embrace the methodology of missions 
within the circle of studies which are neces^^ary to the future servant 
of the Church as such, because mission work, as historically devel- 
oped down to the present time, is, with few exceptions, rather a 
matter for independent Christian effort than an enterprise of the 
Church in its official character. Another reason is, that the train- 
ing of the missionary varies from the ordinary course of theological 
training in many respects, both as to form and matter. The meth- 
Methodoiogy of odology of missions will, nevertheless, possess interest 
missions. for every theologian who is interested in the general 

work of missions ; and even within the bounds of Christendom the 

^ Comp. Schleiermacher, § 298; Danz, p. 362, and the works by Stier and Lindner, 
cited there. 

^ Such beginnings exist in the various instructions given to missionaries by the 
societies in whose service they are engaged, e. y., the Unterricht fiir die Briider und 
Schwestern, welche unter d«n Heiden am Evangelio dienen, Barby, 1784; the in- 
structions in Annual Proceedings of the Church Missionary Societ}', Lond,, 1804-44; 
Melville Home, Letters on Missions, Lond., 1824; James Hough, The Missionary Vade- 
mecum, etc., Lond., 1832; William Swan, Letters on Missions, Lond., 1830. Also the 
special instructions relating to India, of Duff, Buyers, etc. Comp. also the Calwer Be- 
leuchtungen der Missionssache, since 1842; and especially W. Hoffmann, Missions- 
fragen, i, 1, Heidelb., 1847. 



CATECHETICS. 515 

ultimate object always is to loin souls for Christ. Homiletics, too, 
must aim to win souls. The same must be said of catechetics and 
pastoral theology, although such effort differs considerably in char- 
acter from that which is expended upon persons who have no ac- 
quaintance whatever with Christianity. Within the Church the 
theory for such effort may, at least with reference to cultured 
persons, be largely regarded as applied apologetics. But, be- 
yond the borders of the Church, there is no element upon which 
it may lay hold aside from the religious spirit in human nature 
generally.* 

Returning to catechetics, we observe that the name did not origi- 
nate accidentally;'"^ for itari]x^lv (from ?/%o^, a sound), whence Karr}- 
XV^V^) fcarrjxovfievog are derived, signifies, in both the New Testa- 
ment and the earlier Church fathers, to announce or instruct in a 
general sense (comp. Luke i, 4; Acts xviii, 25; xxi, 21-24; Rom. 
ii, 18; 1 Cor. xiv, 19; Gal. vi, 6). On this basis catechetics would 
be synonymous with keryktics. But by the more definite usage, 
which was subsequently developed, the name of catechists was 
applied to persons who prepared the novitiates for Christianity, for 
which reason they were also called nautologists, since they, accord- 
ing to a figure prevalent at the time, brought on board new rein- 
forcements for the crew. It will be necessary to hold fast this idea 
when attempting to determine the scope of catechetics. Every 
person whose Christianity is not yet sufficiently advanced to enable 
him to participate personally in the benefits of redemp- scope of cate- 
tion, is yet a catechumen, a minor, whose susceptibility chetics. 
to the influence of both the edifying and the regulative function 
needs to be aroused.^ Every person who aids to qualify him for 
that end is a catechist. 

It is, of course, true that Christian youth — that is, that portion of 
the Church which has become incorporated with it through bap- 
tism and instruction in the Sunday-school, but which has not yet, 
by renewal of the baptismal covenant, been individually received 
into the fellowship of the Church — are with us the leading objects 

^ In dealing with Jews the Old Testament Scriptures furnish a point of contact ; 
but the nature of the work becomes, for that very reason, different from that which 
must be employed with the heathen. It, as a rnle, presupposes a knowledge of Chris- 
tianity, though not a Christian understanding, and is therefore more particularly po- 
lemical and apologetic than halieutic. 

' Schliermacher, § 291, thinks that the term is too limited for the ground to be oc- 
cupied ; but it is in some sense also too broad, inasmuch as in the ancient meaning of 
the word KaTTjxdv the homiletical function was also involved. A further discussion of 
the word kuttix^Iv may be found in Zezschwitz, p. 1*7, sqq. 

' Schliermacher, §§ 293, 294 ; Zezschwitz, System der Katechetik, Einl. 



516 PRA.CTICAL THEOLOGY. 

of the catechetical function.' But circumstances may exist in 
which adults likewise need catechetical instruction, as in the case of 
Jews, Mohammedans, or heathen who become Christians, or of Ro- 
man Catholics who become Protestants. It is, as can be readily seen, 
the task of ethics and pastoral skill to determine the general method 
of estimating such changes of relation from the religious and moral 
Difference be- point of view, while catechetics has to do with persons 
and^catechet- ^"^^ ^^^ have already resolved to effect that change.^ 
ics. But adult persons are found, even in Christian countries, 

whose immaturity in a Christian aspect calls for catechetical instruc- 
tion, either because they were not baptized in infancy or because 
their religious training has been wholly neglected. Xor is it by 
any means a settled question, with reference to a large portion of 
the Christian Church, especially in the rural districts, whether a 
form of instruction midway between the hermeneutical and the 
catechetical could not be introduced, which should carry forward 
and establish the instructions previously received by persons who 
have been admitted to fellowship among mature Christians.^ 

SECTION VI. 
CATECHETICAL METHODS. 

The Christian religion rests upon the facts of consciousness as 
well as upon those of a positive revelation and of actual history. 
It follows, therefore, that the task of the catechist will involve the 
developing of religious feeling and of the understanding of the cate- 
chumen w^th regard to the inward truths of religion, as well as the 
The work of impressing on his soul of the great value of external 
the catechist. truths. This reflection will indicate to what extent 
the interrogative method is adapted to catechetical instruction. 

' The instruction of candidates for Church membership is exclusively a clerical 
function, while the earlier religious training belongs, in part, to the school and the 
family. It follows that different classes of catechumens may be assumed, each of 
which will require a mode of treatment peculiar to itself. 

2 Palmer's exclusion of the instruction of proselytes from the scope of catechetics 
(Katechet., p. 5), and its being assigned to the field of missionary work, arise from 
the confounding of the function of winning and converting souls, by which the reso- 
lution to embrace the new faith is called forth, with the teaching function, which as- 
sumes the change of religious belief as an already existing fact, and is employed upon 
a more thorough exposition of particulars. The catechumen is no longer beyond the 
pale of Christianitj^, though he yet remains outside the Church, Comp. also what he 
has said in Section iii with reference to the relation of halieutics to catechetics. 

' With reference to the catechization of adults, Avhich Spener already introduced at 
Frankfort, and which others also successfully engaged in, see Burk, Pastoraltheol- 
ogie in Beispielen, p. 536, sqq. 



CATECHETICAL METHODS. 517 

This instruction should be, not mere instruction, but the training 
and nurture of the soul. 

Two methods are to be avoided at this point — the one going to 
the extreme of endeavouring to lead the young and inexperienced 
mind to discover every thing through the questions he is made to 
answer, while the other goes to the contrary extreme of seeking to 
furnish him with the needed information w^holly from without. 
Catechetics goes back to the nature of religion and Christianity, 
and is required to gauge its task by that rule. Religion Function of 
cannot be imparted from without like a material sub- catechetics. 
stance. The spark which God has placed in every human soul 
must be kindled into life. But this, in turn, must be accomplished 
through incitements and communications from without. Among 
these may be enumerated the presenting of religious examples, and 
of great religious occurrences and facts, the opening to view of the 
connexion running through the Bible history,^ and especially by 
directing attention to the splendour of the life of Jesus. All this 
must constitute the introduction to a subsequent strictly systematic 
method of instruction in the form of catechism. The method 
should also be accommodated to the necessary gradations of the 
course of instruction, being at one time more interrogative, and at 
another more in the form of direct statement. This will serve to 
show how far the definition of Bertholdt ^ and others may be ap- 
proved, w^hich asserts that " catechetics is the particular science 
which lays down the rules which are to govern in religious instruc- 
tion, imparted by the method of question and answer, in order that 
it may become appropriated and profitable." 

Many absurdities have been evolved, especially by Graffe, in 
connexion with this play of question and answer. There has been 
talk of S]jiritual Socr.itism, in w^hich the fact Avas overlooked that 
Socrates had to do with very different persons from ^j^g socratic 
those who, as a rule, come under the influence of the u^ethod. 
catechist.^ Their questions, moreover, have a very different aim. 

^ " Catechetical instruction should begin with creating a clear conception of all these 
personages (Abraham, Joseph, Moses, Samuely David, Paul, John), each of whom is 
representative of some particular feature of the religious life, but all of whom unite 
among themselves into a common whole." — Rosenkranz, p. 332. All that is merely 
mechanical, as well as all that is merely learned and critical, should be avoided. 

^ Theol. Wissenschaftskunde, ii, p. 297. Mosheim regarded catechization as being 
" a reasonable and orderly conversation between teacher and pupil." — Sittenlehre (3d 
ed.), i, p. 488. 

'Hiiifell, i, p. 447, sqq. (2d ed.). "The Socratic method begets the conceit in the 
mind of catechumens that they, in some way, produce religion, and almost compels 
them to indulge in arrogant criticisms upon the faith whose wisdom has, after all, not 



518 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

The natural process is that he should put the question who desires 
to learn about some matter, and it would follow that the catechu- 
men and not the catechist, should ask. 

This is the arrangement in the catechism of Leo Judaeus. But it 
is the catechist who inquires in order to ascertain how much the 
catechumen knows — a task which may consist simply in the mechan- 
ical conduct of a recitation, which certainly does not deserve the 
name of a Socratic method ; or it may involve a process of inter- 
rogation which serves either to merely excite attention, to arouse 
independent thought, or, as being grounded in the conversational 
form, to logically advance the progress of the discussion. This last 
form is only available, however, when dealing with persons of some- 
what mature years and an advanced stage of knowledge. In such 
a case the various forms of questioning, such as the problematical, 
assertory, demonstrative, categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive, 
may all be employed ; not, however, so as to admit of their being 
previously memorized, but in such a way as to develop them natu- 
rally through the active interchange of ideas. The exciting of such 
The real art of interchange in proper measure, together with the ani- 
the catecbist. mating of its progress, constitutes the principal art of 
the catechist. This, however, cannot be accomplished by the mere 
eliciting of answers. The catechist will need to assert his right to 
speak at the proper point, to impart after having for a time de- 
manded. It is, therefore, as important to observe the proper key 
while narrating, expounding, and exhorting, as to impart the proper 
turn to questioning. 

The task of catechetics, however, is by no means fully exhausted 
Reiiffious na- when directions relating to form have been supplied. 
shouidbeS- ^^ ^^' ^^'^* ^^ ^^^' essential that the religious nature of 
led. youth be studied in so far as it is the object of cate- 

chetics, and this not merely with reference to its powers of appre- 
hension, but in every direction in which it is displayed. At this 
point catechetics has general pedagogics for its basis, and this, ac- 
cordingly, would be the proper point for discussing the relation of 
religious instruction as imparted by the school to that dispensed by 
the Church. Much has been said upon this point from the peda- 
gogical point of view. But it is further essential that the subject- 
matter of the instruction, which is distinctively Christian in its 

yet dawned in any wise upon their understandings." — Rosenkranz, p. 835. Mar- 
heineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 315. Zezschwitz shows, however, that the abuse of the 
method of developing a subject by question and answer does not set it aside, but that 
its further development is a task of the art of catechetics, vol. i, p. 4; comp. p. 11 
sqq.^ vol. iii, p. 23, sqq., and vol. iv entire. 



CATECHETICAL METHODS. 519 

character, be handled in accordance with clearly defined theolog- 
ical views, and also that the grading of the instruction, the object 
to be attained thereby, and the means to be employed, be clearly 
determined. The grading might be about as follows: 1. For the 
period of childhood, the exciting of religious feeling and reflection 
by means of repeating Scripture narratives and teaching simple 
texts, verses from hymns, and the like; 2. At the riper stage of 
youth for boys and girls the connected teaching of Bible history, 
accompanied with the teaching of the catechism. At this stage 
the didactic element will predominate; 3. At the stage of incipient 
manhood the instruction proj^er for all candidates for Church mem- 
bership, their preparation for the sacrament, and their initiation into 
the deeper unity of the Bible, in both history and doctrine, as well 
as into the teaching of the Church. With the latter process may 
be connected a survey of Church history, introduction into the life 
of the Church as a community, and into the life of devotion gener- 
ally. To what extent a stage of instruction beyond that for candi- 
dates for Church membership should be assumed is a question of 
practical importance, but upon the answer to which the catechetical 
function is no longer dependent, since, in the nature of the case, its 
task was ended at joining the Church. All that is subsequent to 
that act belongs to ecclesiastical didactics and to pedagogics in its 
broad acceptation; for instance, the religious instruction imparted 
in Bible classes, in Sunday-schools, Church lyceums, lectures, and 
similar ways. Here we see the value of catechisms, of sacred histo- 
ries, of volumes of selected passages from the Bible, and many sim- 
ilar works. Every pastor should always have in mind the instruc- 
tion, and use of proper methods thereto, apart from his pulpit 
ministrations. 

But the true catechist has not fulfilled his task when, in his offi- 
cial capacity, he has conducted a session for the in- ^ , ^ ,. 

. '^ "^ , . . . Catechetics a 

struction of the children. He will bear in his heart the part of pastoral 
youth entrusted to his care (John xxi, 15: (ioGKS ra dp- ^^°^ ' 
via fiov). With this feature catechetics reaches over into the field 
of pastoral care. It is also customary, in many places on the Con= 
tinent, to connect the instruction of children with the public wor- 
ship, and in this respect catechetics comes into contact with the 
homiletical and liturgical functions — the arranging of an appro- 
priate worship for children. But where no such custom prevails 
the hour o-iven to reliscion must not become one of instruction sim- 
ply,^ but must at the same time be made an hour of edification, of 

^ " The catechetical function must not be confined to instruction, but must consist 
pre-eminently in developing a children's worship, the soul of which is prayer, and it 
34 



520 PRACTICAL TEIEOLOGY. 

training in the practice of godliness, and hence a branch of worship. 
The summit of the catechetical fimction, finally, consists in the 
reception into Church fellowship, the recognition of whose siu^uifi- 
cance and relation to the whole belongs to liturgies. 

SECTIOx\ VII. 

MENTAL AND SPIRITUAL ENDOWMENT. 

The study of catechetics must not be confined to oral instruction 
merely, but must mIso involve appropriate practice, an opportunity 
for which should be afforded the student. Occupation with the 
general instruction of children will furnish a useful introduction to 
such practice; and the student who has enjoyed the benefit of 
thorough instruction in religion and of a thorough preparation for 
joining the Church, and who has preserved the blessed influence of 
such a course in his own heart, will, in a special sense, possess a 
great advantage over others. Diligent attention given to sound 
catechetical methods, and a general interest in the religious and 
intellectual life of the young, are also of advantage. 

The opinion is strongly entertained by many that catechetical 
knowledge will spontaneously develop itself. But precisely that 
which seems easy, even to children, is the most difficult of all. Let 
Luther be remembered, who owned that he was obliged to give his 
entire life to the study of the catechism, and yet never could ex- 
haust the study. By way of contrast let a young minister, dried 
up with speculative and critical knowledge, be imagined as the 
centre of a circle of animated and joyous children. Does conceit 
lead one to despise these little ones, and is there in him nothing of 
the feeling which attracted Christ toward those of whom he said, 
Necessity of " of such is the kingdom of heaven"? In that case it 
Tra a«[\vitlf were better to acknowledge one's bankruptcy than to 
childhood. sin against the sanctuary of childhood. But if the love 
exists, and only practice be lacking, the needed remedy may yet be 
found. It is the task of the Church to provide that remedy. The 
end in view is not to be attained by hiring a few children through 
offering rewards, or forcing tliem into the auditorium as horses are 
driven in a riding-school, for the purpose of experimenting with them. 

must involve a disciplinary element." — Pelt, Encykl., p. 676. " The children's wor- 
ship must go hand in hand with catechetical instruction and with the several depart- 
ments of catechetics. It must preserve, nourish, make, and .keep alive what these 
have planted."— Hirscher, p. 563; Vinet, Past. Theol., pp. 229-235; Palmer, p. 536, 
s^g^. ; Kraussold, p. 179, s^*. / Zezschwitz iii, p. 615. In the language of the early 
Protestants of Germany, recitations from the catechism were explicitly termed " pray- 
ings," a usage still in vogue in some sections of Switzerland. 



MENTAL AND SPIRITUAL ENDOWMENT. 521 

The pastor should seek out the children in their sphere as he would 
look for plants in their natural soil. All young pastors, even 
those who are not constrained thereto by motives of economy, 
should endeavour to secure opportunity for the teaching of chil- 
dren. Even the scientific instruction of the young forms a valua- 
ble i)reparation for religious teaching, and the teaching of language 
and history especially will afford those gymnastic advantages which 
were elsewhere looked for from the Socratic method. The ability 
to tell a story or relate an incident well is a special art to be ac- 
quired only by practice. But the religious disposition and con- 
tinued participation in the religious life are, here as elsewhere, a 
prime necessity. Every opportunity afforded the theological can- 
didate to teach a Bible class, or conduct a Sunday-school, should be 
thankfully embraced all through his theological studies. To observe 
a thorough catechist while surrounded by the children, and with 
him to enter into the thought and feeling of the children, will 
quicken the mind and impart courage. Hirscher beautifully says: 
" Fortunate art thou if nature has provided thee with rich endow- 
ments; but, however this may be, let there be no lack of effort to 
secure what may depend upon thyself. A real enthusiasm will 
richly supply what nature might have bestowed in but inferior 
measure." * 

SECTION VIIL 

HISTORY OF CATECHETICS. 

Comp. Langemack (died 1740), Historia Catechetica (Stralsund, parts 1-3, 1729-40); K5cher, 
Katechetische Geschichte der papstlichen Kirche, Jena, 1753 ; Schuler, Gesch. d. katechet. Rel.- 
unterrichts unter d. Protestanten von der Reformation bis 1762 (1766), Halle, 1802; Gilbert, 
Christ. Catechet. hist., P. I., tres priores aetates complectens, Lips., 1835 ; Ditbmar, Beitr. zur 
Gesch. d. katechet. Unterrichts, Marburg, 1848; Ehrenfeuchter, Gesch. d. Katechismus mit bes. 
Beriicksichtigung d. Hannover. Landeskirche, Gott., 1857 ; Mayer, Gesh. des Katechumenats u. 
d. Katechese in d. ersten sechs Jahrhunderten, prize essay, Kempten, 1868 ; Weiss, Altkirchl. 
Paedagogik dargest. in Katechumenat u. Katechese der ersten sechs Jahrhunderte, prize essay, 
Freiburg, 1869; Vinet, Pastoral Theology (Skinner's Translation, 2d. ed.), New York, 1861; 
Kidder, The Christian Pastorate, Cincinnati, 1871 ; Elliott, Henneneutical and Pastoral Lec- 
tures, New York, 1880 ; Phelps, Men and Books, New York, 1882. 

The catechumens of the ancient Church were not children; but 

childhood is already designated in the New Testament ^ ^ ^ 

-^ _ ® _ ^ ^ Catechumens m 

(Mark x, 13-19; Eph. vi, 4; 2 Tim. iii, 15) as called to the ancient 
participate in the kingdom of God. With regard to "^° ' 
the relation held by catechumens, and the different classes to which 
they belonged (aKQocjfisvoi, yovvKXtvovTsg, KarrixovfievoL, (t)(i)rt.^6iJLevoi)y 
consult the best works on ecclesiastical history. Zezschwitz says:' 
" Ecclesiastical antiquity has no knowledge of a rexvr) KarrjX'rj'^i'fCT], or 
catechetical art. The latter aj)pears in that character at a time 
' Page Y24. 2 pacrg 15. 



522 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

when the governing idea is no longer the catechumenate, but the 
function of teaching." The Apostles' Creed furnished the subject 
matter of instruction at an early period. But distinctively cate- 
chetical discourses were also in vogue, together with addresses deliv- 
ered on the occasion of reception into membership. This we see 
in Cyril of Jerusalem, and in the Catechetical Discourse of Gregory 
Early catechet- of Nyssa. A guide for the instruction of adult cate- 
icai works. chumens was given by Augustine in the treatise on 
Catechetical Questions, addressed to the deacon Deogratias, at 
Carthage. 

The situation was changed when the baptism of children had be- 
come more general, and Christianity had been made the religion of 
the state. Then catechetics became, in consequence, more largely 
what it is in our day — a teaching of the young. Charlemagne ren- 
dered valuable service by providing for such teaching. The Ten 
Commandments and the Lord's Prayer were taught in addition to 
the Creed. These were termed Leading Articles, which extended 
also to the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper. The 
monks Otfrid, of the Weissenburg monastery in Alsace, and Kero 
The first cate- 3,nd Notker Labeo, of St. Gall, wrote the first cate- 
chisms, chisms. A clear view of the position of catechetics in 
the fifteenth century is given in the Picture Catechism, published by 
Gefi^cken, in Leipzig, in 1855. The Waldensian Catechism repre- 
sented an evangelical tendency. The Wicliffites and Hussites 
(Bohemian Brethren) were also interested in the religious education 
of the young, which had been so terribly neglected by the Church in 
the lifeless and mechanical state in which it had become immersed.^ 
Among Roman Catholics, upon the Reformation, the Chancellor 
Charlier Gerson constituted a notable exception, assuming the posi- 
tion of catechist in his own person, and also furnishing the priests 
with a guide for catechization, though in very general outlines 
merely, in his treatise on Drawing the Poor to Christ. 

The first agency to perform thorough work, however, was the 
Luther's two Reformation. Luther, while engaged in the visitation 
catechisms. ^£ ^j^^ churches, in 1528, became convinced of the need 
for providing the people with a " good, simple, unvarnished cate- 
chism," a " lay Bible which should embrace the entire contents of 
Christian doctrine." This called forth his two catechisms, the 
smaller being intended for children and the larger for teachers.'' 

^ Comp. Herzog's Waldenser, 4, supplement, p. 458 ; and Zezschwitz, Katechismen 
d. Waldenser u. Bohmischen Briider, Erlangen, 1863. 

^ Different editions by Stier, Parisius, Purgold, etc. See Winer, Haudbuch d. Lit- 
eratur, complementary vol., p. 199. 



HISTORY OF CATECHETICS. 533 

They constituted the basis of religious instruction during a long 
period, and engaged the attention of numerous commentators. 
Luther is still a model as respects the true catechetical style in 
point of hearty and naive mode of expression.^ The Reformed 
Church, too, did not remain behindhand. Qi^colampadius, in his 
Report on Children,'^ and Leo Judaeus,^ and Calvin,* led the way. 
The Heidelberg Catechism, composed by Zacharias Ur- The Heidelberg 
sinus and Caspar Olevianus, became as famous as the catecMsm. 
catechisms of Luther, having been translated into nearly every lan- 
guage, and been made a symbolical book of the Reformed Church.^ 
The older catechists did but little theorizing, the amount contrib- 
uted in this direction being limited, upon the whole, to noteworthy 
hints in individual Avorks. But a special emphasis was placed upon 
the matter in the state churches by the ordering of sermons on the 
catechism by the authorities of the Church.^ But there was no 
absolute lack of theoretical instruction. The catechism of David 
Chytraus, at Rostock (1554-1604), assumed the form of popular 
dogmatics, but secured a wide acceptance by reason of its clear 
arrangement and precision.' We may mention the following addi- 
tional works: Hyperius, on Catechetics (1570, republished by A. 
Schmidt, Helmstedt, 1704); Alsted, Catechetical The- Leading au- 
ology (Hanov., 1622); Dietrich (died 1669), Catechet- f^The'rand 
ical Institution (1613); Maukisch, the commentator of Spener. 
Dietrich (1653); Kortholt, Encouragement for Catechetical Instruc- 
tion (1669), and Trotzendorf. These authors are the most widely 
known theorists between the time of Luther and that of Spener. 

^ " The catechism of Luther," says Herder, " must be fervently committed to mem- 
ory and retained forever." Comp. Harnack, Der kleine Katechismus Luthers in 
seiner Urgestalt, Stuttg., 1856. Comp. Vilmar (Pastoraltheol., p. 104) with reference 
to its advantages over the Heidelberg from a pedagogical point of view. Zezschwitz 
(Katechetik, ii, p. 265, sqq.) furnishes a " historico-critical estimate" of the material of 
catechetics. 

2 Reprinted in the Leben u. ausgewahlte Schriften d. reform. Kirche, vol. ii, pp. 
296 ff. 

2 Newly published by Grob, Winterthiir, 1836. 

^ Henry, ii, pp. 150, sqq. 

5 Originally issued in 1563. An edition in the form of the original edition, pub- 
lished by Wolters, 1864. Bethune, Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism, N. Y., 1868. 
See a judicious estimate of this work, as contrasted with the depreciatory treat- 
ment accorded to it in the days of rationalism, in G. Miiller, Theophil., Zurich, 180], 
p. 313. Comp. also the more recent works of Zyro, Sudhoff, Giider, Bender, Krum- 
macher, and others. 

^ Comp. Rudelbach, Amtliches Gutachten iib. d. Wiedereinf iihrung der Katechismus- 
examina, etc., Dresden, 1841. 

"^ Krabbe, Chytraus, pp. 45, 46. 



524 PRACTICAIi THEOLOGY. 

The last-named theologian, Trotzendorf, gave a new impulse in 
this field by the publication of his Catechetical Tables (1683), and 
also by his Thoughts on Catechetical Information, published by a 
friend in Halle, in 1815.^ The principal query with Spener was, 
" How shall we connect the head with the heart ? " Seidel, of Ber- 
lin (17 1*7), and others, followed in his track. (Etinger, too, is im- 
portant in this connexion because of his Historical and Moral Store 
house of Catechetical Directions, which appeared in 1762.^^ 

In the orthodox school, Fecht, of Rostock (died 1716), delivered 
Orthodox writ- lectures on catechetics, and combined catechetical prac- 
®^^- tice therewith. Additional guides to catechization were 

furnished by Rambach in his Well-Instructed Catechist, which ap- 
peared in 1722; by Buddgeus (died 1729), in his Catechetical Theol- 
ogy, which appeared in two volumes in Jena, in 1752, and by 
others. In the Reformed Church, Osterwald (died 1747) endeav- 
oured to bring into vogue, through the medium of his widely circu- 
lated Catechism (Amsterdam, 1707), a more independent treatment, 
which should accord with the needs of the time. But his effort 
resulted in his substituting the subjectively abstract element of 
natural religion and morality for the earlier concrete and objective 
modes of expression sanctioned by the usage of the Church. The 
Catechetics af- rationalistic revulsion in education, caused in the latter 
ticarpedagog- ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ eighteenth century by Basedow, Salzmann, 
ics. and other philanthropical schoolmen, reacted also upon 

catechetical instruction.^ The aim was to counteract, by the proc- 
ess of a free development of the faculties of the soul, a merely me- 
chanical method and a dead orthodoxy. 

But the result was a lapse into the opposite extreme. The posi- 
tive subject matter was frequently lost in the process of shallow 
argumentation, and in this way a false Socratism came into being, 
which could be confined within appropriate limits only after long- 
continued struggles. The so-called " philanthropic " method found 
"Philanthropic" adherents, though with modifications, in Miller, in his 
method. Directions in the Art of Catechising (1778, 1782, 1788); 

in Rosenmtiller, Directions in Catechising (1763, 1793), and others. 
Schmid treated catechetics in an entirely formal way, as we see in 
his Catechetical Handbook (Jena, 1791, 1792-99, 1801, 3 vols.). 
Graeffe, finally, carried the rationalistic formalism of questions to 

^Comp, Thilo, Spener als Katechet., Berlin, 1840. 

2 Comp. the Siid-deutscher Schulbote, 1855, 1-4. 

^ Comp. Salzmann, Die wirksamste Mittel Kindern Religion beizubringen, 3d ed., 
Leips., 1809. In his Konrad Kiefer he raves against the catechism, and allows little 
Konrad '* to pluck pigeons " instead of handing him the book ! 



HISTORY OF CATECllETICS. 525 

its highest point. He may, therefore, be considered tlie repre- 
sentative of the older rationalistic catechetics, based on Kantian 
principles in religion and morals, while Dinter, on the other hand, 
succeeded in overcoming formalistic narrowness and dryness by a 
more vivid and original apprehension of the matter of religious 
teaching. Still, in his dogmatic opinions, he did not forsake the 
rationalistic point of view. 

The religious element, and, more particularly, the peculiarly 
Christian features of that element, was regarded by Daub and 
Schwarz as being the essential thing, a view that was in the strong- 
est contrast with the former method. A more profound apprehen- 
sion of the whole subject, however, has been attained through the 
influence of the Schleiermacher school — as we see in services of 
Rtitenik and Schweizer — though the piocess was not scbieiermacher. 
unaccompanied by the danger of making the dialectical element 
prominent at the expense of the emotional. 

Tl)e Jesuits and related orders acquired entire control of the educa- 
tion of youth in the Roman Catholic Church, the Larger (1554) and 
Smaller (1566) Catechisms of the Jesuit, Peter Canisius (died 1595), 
being highly esteemed, in addition to the Roman Catechism, which 
received the sanction of the Council of Trent, in 1566. The theory 
of catechetics, likewise, was not neglected by the Jesuits.' But 
even Roman Catholic catechetics did not escape the in- Roman catho- 
fluence of the age in later times.^ Here, too, an ani- ^^^ catechetics, 
mated and Christian mode of treatment obtained the victory over 
every sort of lifeless formalism. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF CATECHETICS. 

The individual Churches have produced their catechisms, which, in many cases, 

have underg:one important modifications. For the names of these, and works written 

on tliem, we refer to the denominational literature of eacli of the great communions. 

Bartle, J. Exposition of the Church Catechism. 12nio. London, 1868. Second 
edition, 1874. 

Berg, J. F. The History and Literature of the Heidelberg Catechism and of its In- 
troduction into the Netherlands. 8vo, pp. 166. Philadelphia, 1863. (The 
position of this Catechism as to Calvinism is stated on pp. 29, 30.) 

Bethune, George W. Expository Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism. 12mo, 
2 vols., pp. viii, 491, 535. New York, 1864. 

Boyce, E. J. Catechetical Hints and Helps. Second edition. 12mo. London, 1876. 

Da we, C. S. Study of the Church Catechism. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Denison, J. E. Catechising on the Catechism. With a Preface by Canon H. P. 
Liddon. 8vo. London, 1889. 

* Comp. Possevin's (died 1611) Letter on the Necessity, Utility, and Reason for Teaching the 
Catholic Catechism (ed. W. Eder, Inerolstadt, 1583\ 
2 See M. Vierthaler, Geist der Socratik, Salzbur^, 1798. 



526 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Green, Ashbel. Lectures on the Shorter Catechism of the Presbyterian Church. 
12mo, 2 vols. Philadelpliia, no date. 

Hodge, A. A. and J. A. The System of Theology Contained in the Westminster 
Shorter Catechism Opened and Explained. 12mo, pp. 190. New York, 1888. 

Jones, Miss C. A. Stories on the Church Catechism. 16mo, 4 vols. London, 
1867-87. 

Maclear, G. F. Class Book of the Catechism of the Church of England. 18mo. 
London, 1868. 

Mitchell, Professor A. F. The Catechisms of the Second Reformation, with Notes. 
8vo. London, 1886. (The Shorter Westminster, Rutherford's, and other Scot- 
tish catechisms are included.) 

Nevin, Alfred. Notes on the Sliorter Catechism. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1878. 

Paterson, Alex. Commentary on the Westminster Shorter Catechism. 18mo. Lon- 
don, 1848. 

Pontoppedan, Erick. Epitome of Explanation of Martin Luther's Smaller Catechism ; 
from the Norwegian by E. Balfour. 16mo. Chicago, 1878. 

Pope, William Burt. A Higher Catechism of Theology. 12mo. New York, 1884. 
(Arminian.) 

Steel, Robert. The Shorter Catechism, with Proofs, Analysis, and Illustrative Anec- 
dotes. 8vo. London, 1884. 

Tercentenary Monument. In Commemoration of tlie Three Hundredth Anniversary 
of the Heidelberg Catechism. 8vo, pp. Ixxiii, 574. Philadelphia, 1863. 

Whitecross, J. Anecdotes Illustrative of the Assembly's Shorter Catechism. 8vo. 
Edinburgh, 1869. 

Whyte. Alex. Commentary on the Shorter Catechism. 16mo. New Tork, 1884. 

Williams, Isaac. Plain Sermons on the Catechism. 8vo, 2 vols. London, 1847. 
New edition, 1888. 

SECTION IX. 
THE THEORY OF WORSHIP — LITURGICS. 

To comprehend the nature of Christian worship as a whole, and 
The field of of the various elements by which it is modified in par- 
liturgics. ticular, is the scientific task of liturgies. Upon the 

manner in which it is performed wilt depend, in great measure, both 
the general organization of the public Christian worship and the 
administration of its several details. The former is included in the 
department of Church government, the latter in that of Church 
ministrations. 

It is the task of the philosophy of religion and of ethics to point 
out the necessity of public worship. It is, first of all, important to 
arrive at the understanding of such worship as being a necessity of 
the common life of Christianity instead of a mere court-ceremonial; 
or, at most, a moral stimulus for the masses. The nature of wor- 
ship, which Hegel terms " the highest deed of the human spirit," ^ 

' In harmony with that view, and carrying the idea further into its details, Kotlie 
calls worship an action, and more particularly an action to be performed in common 
— an internal, ethical, spiritual action, the highest which the Christian may perform. 



THE THEORY OF WORSHIP— LTTURGICS. 537 

must be deduced from the nature of religion and of Christianity. 
It is, therefore, the first duty of liturgies to apprehend the idea of 
public worship as an ethically justified and obligatory act on the 
part of the congregation. The constituent elements of the worship 
are afterward to be recognised in harmony with their liturgical 
importance and their relation to each other, as they stand upon the 
basis of that fundamental principle. This is also the point at which 
the relation of worship to art, in the strict sense, is to Relation of 
be determined. The Church is not simply an educational worship to art. 
institution, as those seem to suppose who centre the entire Avorship 
m the sermon, and regard everything else, such as singing, prayer, 
the sacraments, and the benediction, as mere additions. 

Bahr says: "In no other religion does the religious community 
appear to be so necessary and essential as in Christianity. The 
idea of a church, whether local or embracing the whole of the 
Church, is eminently peculiar to Christianity, and attains to the 
full dignity of truth in it alone. Christianity assumed the form of 
an independent religion for the first time when it appeared in and 
with the form of a community, and it lives and continues on from 
age to age only in that form. . . . The Church, united by the ties 
of a common Lord and a common faith, not only sustains a doc- 
trinal relation to Christ, but also a vital connexion like that of the 
body to the head. But it appears as such, as a whole, only in the 
public worship." ^ Also Palmer, in his treatise on Practical The- 
ology, says: "In the celebration the Church presents herself in 
bridal array; at such times we should, before all else, be filled with 
joy and exultation, excited by the reflection that it is a glorious 
privilege to belong to the Church, to be identified with and live in 
it." "^ Schenkel's idea, shared, however, by many others, that public 
worship is merely a means for the exciting of piety, and that it has 
no end in itself, grows out of his warped view of religion generally. 

Worship must.be conceived as the common act of the congrega- 
tion in which the religious life of its members finds 

, „ ^ - . CI 1 Worship defliied. 

expression under the form oi devotion, bucn expres- 
sion takes shape partly in the word and partly in the symbol.' 

» Page 351. 

2 Comp. s^ipra, § 12. We concede fully that a mere participating in the worship is 
not necessarily religious, and that facility in the use of forms of worship cannot be a 
substitute for' universal piety (p. 171); but this is pronouncing jndgment upon mock- 
worship merely, which stands related to the true and sacred worship of God as arti- 
ficiality does to art, or hypocrisy to religion. Here, too, the rule applies : abusus non 
tollit usura. — Dogmatik, p. 172. 

3 Ehrenfeuchter's conception (§ 33) of Christianity, as the end of all symbols, can 
hold good only in so far as the symbol is regarded as being veiled and obscure; 



538 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

The nature of the religious, or, more exactly, the Christian, symbol, 
as distinguished from the legal types of Judaism and heathen 
nature-symbols, and the relation of the symbol to the Word, can 
only be understood from the peculiar nature of the religious or 
Christian life. Ehrenfeuchter says; "It would be as silly to apolo- 
gize for religion because it has a system of worship as to excuse the 
soul for having a body. Some desire to attribute the worship to 
the sensuousness of man alone. . . . But on this method no one would 
suspect the eternal law of life, by which everything that is real is 
also possessed of the power to express itself in figurative form, and 
to manifest itself in the fulness of life and energy." ^ The place of 
the nermon in the worship is likewise determined by liturgies, so 
that liomiletics itself is, in a broad sense, a part of liturgies.'^ In a 
different point of view the sermon, nevertheless, extends beyond 
purely liturgical limits, and unfolds in its independent movement a 
conformity to law wnich is no longer included in the domain of li- 
turgies. All worship is based upon action and reaction, upon mutual 
incitement according to settled laws, which modify its organism, 
and upon which its earnestness, dignity, solemnity, practical fruit- 
fulness, and power to edify, depend. 

This, accordingly, is the place for discussing the contrast between 
the formally restricted and the free, the established and the mova- 
ble, the devotional and the festal, what has been historically trans- 
mitted, and what is demanded by the present time. 

A sound theory of worship will maintain a true medium between 

„ , , that settled uniformity of a lifeless mechanism which 
Province of a ^ -^ 

sound theory moves in the world of empty ceremonies, and a frivolity 
o worship. "vvhich is possessed of a mania for novelty and adherence 
to the fashion of the times, and which elevates its unsettled and 
superficial notions to the place of what has been tested and shown 
to be of worth. ^ It also distinguishes between a superabundance 

mystification has an end. But Christianity has, on the contrary, developed a noble, 
free, consciously-spiritual symbolism, upon which the worship is necessarily based, and 
which Ehrenfeuchter himself has profoundly and fervently apprehended under the 
idea of an "ideal art." Pp. 253, 275, and elsewhere. 

1 Page 51. 

2 This is also the view of Palmer, p. 352. Comp. Hagenbach, Liturgik u. Homi- 
letik. 

3 Even a better and really religious subjectivity has its limits. Ehrenfeuchter, vM 
supra, p. 76, observes with justice that " when the attempt is made to enforce the 
universal acceptance of an individual poetic view, which may possibly be profoundly 
true for the individual, and afford him wondrous comfort, the only result will be a 
■hardening of the poetic element and a petrifaction of the religious. For the poetic 
feeling of an individual is transitory, and even has its highest charm in the fact of its 



THE THEORY OF WORSHIP— LIT LTRGIOS. 529 

of what may be perceived by the senses, and that rationalistic 
soberness which dreads all that is imaginative.^ It will know how 
to discover those elements of art which are most nearly related to 
the religious life, and be obliged to carefully distinguish between 
the sacred and the profane, the necessary and the accidental, that 
which has been made from that which has developed. Fluctuating 
and unsettled states, in this regard, will increase in proportion as 
our stay upon the soil of practice without principles, on the one 
hand, and of impractical theories on the other, is protracted. 

A general interest in the liturgical regulation of our Church affairs 
has, however, been aroused, and the theory of worship has been re- 
constructed from its foundations. It is only to be regretted that 
bridges leading over from the region of speculation to that of prac- 
tice are so few, the result being that the learner, whose immediate 
object is to qualify himself for the service of the Church, is, with 
all the abundance of theory at command, left in ignorance with re- 
spect to the course he should adopt. The simple restoration of 
what is old, toward which the tendencies of the present age are di- 
rected from certain quarters, will by no means furnish a solution of 
the problem. What is needed is a living worship, which j^gg^j ^f ^ ^y. 
shall address both the intellect and the feelings. Upon ing worship, 
this consummation science needs to fix its eye, pursuing its course 

evanescent character, in the isolation of each separate moment which blooms forth 
with enlivening influence from the prosaic conditions of the actual world. . . . Such 
play of the imagination and the feelings gives rise to the arbitrary character of par- 
ticular services (ei^eAoi^/UTya/csm)." "A misunderstanding of the significant difference 
which exists between public and family worship works serious injury at this point." — 
Ibid., p. 79. 

^ " This is the pietistic view, which attaches no importance whatever to the outward 
features of the worship, and perhaps regards it as being in contradiction with itself, 
or with the idea upon which it rests. With this coincides the rationalistic view, in 
that it separates the interests of freedom from those of necessity, and maintains that 
the Christian religion is only designed for the needs of individuals, and requires that 
each one should be pious for himself ; that no value is to be attached to outward 
union for the purposes of a common worship, because this will constitute a limitation 
of individual liberty." — Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 'ZS. Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, 
Liturgic, § 38. On the relation of Protestantism to art, comp. Meyer, Das Verhalt- 
niss der Kunst zum Cultus, Zurich, 1837 ; Grueneisen, De Protestantismo artibus hand 
infesto, Stuttg., 1839, 4to; Protestantismus u. Kunst, in Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift, 
1839, 4, No. 8, pp. 287-322; Der Protestant. Gottesdienst u. d. Kunsfin ihrem 
gezenseitigen Verhaltnisse, St. Gall, 1840 ; Lange, In welchem Verhaltniss steht die 
Reformirte Kirche nach ihrer Lehre u. nach ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung zuv 
Kunst? An essay in the Verhandlungen d, Schweiz. Predigergesellschaft, St. Gall, 
1844 ; Schnaase, Verhaltniss d. Kunst zum Christenthum u. besonders der evangel. 
Kirche, Berl., 1852; Koopmann, Der evangel. Cultus u. d. Kunst, Darmst., 1854, and 
Kottmeier, Darstellung des Heiligen durch d. Kunst, etc., Bremen, 1857. 
34 



530 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

until the time shall arrive when the understanding, having been 
matured by thorough study, shall yield its fruitage as well in the 
practical life as in other domains. 

SECTION X. 

CONTKAST BETWEEN PEOTESTANT AND EOMAN CATHOLIC LITURGICS. 

In the Protestant minister's circle of studies that part of liturgies 
which relates to ministrations in the Church, or to direct administra- 
tion, will require less space proportionately than that which has to 
do with the government of the Church, and consequently with the 
devising of methods. The contrary to this is the rule in the Roman 
Catholic Church. 

The word liturgies points primarily to the already existing service 
for the Church, the Liturgy.^ The more complicated such service 
is, the more time will be needed for acquiring the mechanical readi- 
ness which is necessary to its performance. It is apparent that 
theology will be in a very low state where the whole of the theo- 
logical course is expended upon a mechanical training of this sort 

T.T r, • 1 ,•* for the clerical office. Rearions still exist within the 

Mechanical lit- , ^ 

urgy In Roman Roman Catholic Church where nothing more than such 
a oicism. ^ mechanism is required. But Roman Catholic theol- 
ogy is not at its best in such localities. Wherever it bears the 
character of a science, it seeks, rather, to penetrate by the way of 
speculation into the inner sanctuary of worship, and to justify its 
meaning and importance to the thinking mind.'^ But there is no 

* Comp. the lexicons on TieiTovpyog^ TisiTovpyelv, "keiTovpyia (Lukei, 23; Heb. viii, 2; 
ix, 21 ; X, 11), fbrmed ont of Tielto^ {XtjIto^^ from T^aog^ Aewf), the equivalent of dTjjuoaiog, 
and epyov (munus publicum) ; hence epyov tov "keu^zrov 7>,dov is equivalent to "KeItov 
epyov. See also the Apol. Conf. Aug., p. 2Y0 (ed. Hase), where the ancient use of the 
word is well expounded. On the ecclesiastical and Levitical meaning of the word in 
the New Testament, comp. Bleek on the respective passages in the Epistle to the He- 
brews. The derivation from ?ilttj {Tiiral, preces, whence is derived the word litany) is 
erroneous. The Lai,in word cultus (Gr. T^arpeia) answers to the German words " Got- 
tesdienst " (divine service) and *' Gottesverehrung " (worship of God), which have 
been frequently objected to, especially the former, though unjustly. See Pelt, p. 100. 
Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 63, says, that " he only who has been made free by 
God, and been born again into the liberty of the children of God, can resolve to enter 
upon the service of God, in which alone man can be truly free." 

2 " In our days," observes a Roman Catholic writer, " praise will be given by all ra- 
tional persons to him who has sufficiently sharpened his intellectual vision to enable 
him to find again in the worship of the Church the royal robe with which the incar- 
nated Son of God was enveloped, and to interpret all its forms in the spirit to which 
its origin is due." — Most, Die liberalen Principien auf dem Gebiete des Cultus, in Tiib. 
theol. Quartalschrift, 184*7, No. 1. 



PROTESTANT AND ROMAN CATHOLIC LITURGICS. 531 

breaking through the bounds of what has been traditionally received 
and what already exists, and Roman Catholic liturgies is, therefore, 
compelled to struggle always with the same task in reference to 
worship, which oppresses the scholastic theology of Roman Catholi- 
cism with reference to dogma, namely, to secure an afier under- 
standing of matters which already exist. "The theory has more 
the character of a statute than of an internal and necessary law." ^ 

This is not the case with Protestant liturgies. This is continu- 
ally employed upon the task of constructing a system Protestant ii- 
of worship which shall perfectly correspond to the turgics. 
Protestant principle, and to the needs of each particular time. It 
does not become contemplation merely with reference to the already 
finished edifice of the temple, but is essentially constructive, and we 
always find it engaged with line and compass in the study of the 
plan. It does not aim to secure a definite conclusion of its labours 
for all subsequent time, but to carry forward the development, 
within certain limits to be by itself appointed, of what is capable 
of being developed. There can, accordingly, be no idea of a mech- 
anism in the performance of liturgical services, and the specifically 
technical features connected therewith can only consist in the per- 
sonal appropriation of things that are prescribed, and in a personal 
entering into the spirit of the worship. The liturgical capability 
of the Protestant clergyman will, therefore, be manifested by a 
spiritual reproduction of what is prescribed by the Church, and is 
to be attained less in the way of practice than in that of inward 
consummation. For, it is certain that even the simplest of litur- 
gical services, such as the offering of prayer in the presence of the 
congregation, the administering the sacraments, and the pronounc- 
ing the benediction, are more appropriately and fervently performed 
by him who has penetrated the mystery of religious Necessity of re- 
feelings and their public representation, than by him ngious feeling. 
who, having no sympathetic feeling, simply performs a duty which 
is officially assigned to him. Every opus operatum is a negation of 
the Protestant principle, the death of liberty, and a turning away 
from the internal to the external. 

This leads to a further distinction between Roman Catholic and 
Protestant liturgists, namely, that the Protestant clergy- Djgerence be- 
man, in his liturgical functions, sustains a different re- tween Roman 
lation toward the congregation from that sustained by protestant li- 
the Roman Catholic. While the latter ministers in turgists. 
sacred things by virtue of his priestly character, even where no 

^ Ehrenfeuchter, uhi supra, p. 63; compare § 16, and Marheineke, Prakt. The- 
ologie, § 198. 



532 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

congregation is present, or, when it is present, still only before it, and 
never in and with the congregation,^ the Protestant liturgist repre- 
sents in person the priesthood of the whole congregation. He ex- 
presses in Church prayers only what all mentally repeat, and, if he 
sing, his voice is lost in the volume of praise by the whole con- 
gregation. The sacraments, even, are administered by him as the 
officer designated by the congregation, and set apart by the Church. 
He shares with the Roman Catholic liturgist, indeed, in being bound 
by the rule established by the Church, but not in the same degree, 
nor in the same manner. Many consider it, no doubt, a prerogative 
of Protestantism to afford absolute license, and such license has 
occasionally been carried to a high pitch, certainly not to the ad- 
vantage of real Protestantism.'^ 

To assume that the preacher offers prayer simply as a preacher, 
Distinction be- since " the prayer must be his own work as much as 
icirand Mur- ^^^^ sermon," is erroneous. A clear distinction must be 
gicai elements, made, at this point, between, the homiletical and the 
liturgical elements.^ No restraint is imposed upon him with respect 
to the former by homiletical rules, and he is certainly expected to 
come before the congregation with prayer as well as speech. The 
more the congregation recognises in the preacher's personal piety 
the acme of the religious life of the community,* the less will he 
refuse to perform a service which he must consider, in this precise 
form of service (XeLrovpyla), as being the necessary complement to 
the more independent sermon. The sermon is an inadequate and 
incomplete feature when not sustained by the whole economy of the 
worship. 

Liturgies in re- Liturgies touches upon the fields of ethics and eccle- 
anTecciesias- ^iastical law. Here, too, arise the ethical questions con- 
ticai law. cerning the extent to which the liturgist is required to 

represent the ritual in his own person, and whether he is simply to 

^ Ehrenfeuchter, p. 223. 

2 " The further development with which such a formal Protestantism violently 
breaks in upon, and interrupts, the course of liturgical tradition, is a progress into 
vacancy, and the setting to rights and clearing up are a transferring into the hands of 
the individual of what is designed for the Church as a whole." — Marheineke, Prakt. 
Theologie, § 22*7. Remarks on the license assumed by Protestant clergymen to the 
injury of the liturgical rights of the congregation occur in Bahr, ubi supra. 

" Comp. Al. Schweizer, Wiefern liturgische Gebete bindend sein sollen ? Zurich, 
1836, p. 22, sq., and the discussions of this subject by H. Lang, Bitzius, and Riifli in 
the Swiss Reform, 1873, Nos. 10, 12, and 15. 

^ " The bond of union which embraces the entire body must also appear in the sin- 
gle individual, and the organism of the whole show forth in the particular member." 
— Ehrenfeuchter, ubi supra, p. 65 ; comp. p. 346. 



PROTESTANT AND ROMAN CATHOLIC LITURGICS. 533 

make use of its forms of expression.^ Upon this follows, in imme- 
diate sequence, the legal question respecting the authority in which 
the right to prescribe a ritual is vested, and the extent to which it 
is allowable for the individual administrator to depart from the 
established form. Pedantry in Church government may work as 
injuriously at this point as self-will and arbitrary measures may in 
connexion with the ministrations of the public worship. Such 
differences can only exist, however, where the life of the church is 
hampered in some direction, either because the liturgy has been im- 
posed without the consent of the congregation, or the liturgist has 
intruded himself into his place. When the minister ceases to be 
the organ of his congregation and of the Church he is no longer 
in his proper place. But where he possesses the confidence of the 
congregation it will not be difficult for him to decide how far he 
may go in any given case. The being governed by forms, laid 
down by the legislative authority of his Church, will not be regarded 
as a burdensome constraint, but as a duty imposed on him by his 
own convictions as a servant of the spirit rather than the letter. 
He will thus be enabled to move with freedom and dignity even 
when guided by such authority. 

After all that has been said, however, the question may yet be 

raised whether Protestantism can recoojnise a science of „ ^ , , 

^ , Protestant rec- 

liturgics at all ? and whether we are not to be guided ognition of li- 
in such matters, also, simply by the Holy Scriptures? ^^^^' 
The latter must certainly be the authoritative standard here as 
everywhere. Principles such as are contained in John iv, 24, and 
Matt, vi, 7, will ever continue to be governing principles, and the 
Lord's Prayer will remain a model for all other prayers. But this 
does not imply that the liturgical forms of the apostolic age, which 
are not even well understood by our age, should be retained as an 
inalienable heirloom for all subsequent time. A literal retention of 
this kind would even destroy the higher conception of worship. 
The idea of the Lord's Supper would be entirely lost if, for exam- 
ple, it were maintained that exactly twelve should be seated at one 
table whenever it is administered. What could be more erroneous 
than the assumption that, since the early Chiistians did not yet 
possess the New Testament Scriptures, it is requisite that only Old 
Testament Scriptures be made the subject of preaching and Old 
Testament psalms be sung ? On this view it would be wrong to 
celebrate Christian festivals, and we should be obliged to observe 

' The above follows a distinction made by Schleiermacher, and has been opposed by 
V. Colin and Schulz (Leips., 1831). Comp. Schleiermacher in Stud. u. Krit, 1821, 
No. 1, and the replies of the above, Leips., 1831. 



534 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

the ancient Sabbath with the Jews and the Sabbatarian sects. It 
is, therefore, with entire propriety that Ehrenfeuchter observes,* 
that it certainly is the aim of Protestantism to restore primitive 
Christianity, not, however, in the sense of actualizing its begin- 
nings, but rather its principles. Hence "the sphere of worship in- 
cludes more than that of the Holy Scriptures."* Hence, also, Prot- 
estant liturgies is presented with the great and far-reaching task of 
" ascertaining and representing the eternal forms of worship." ^ 



SECTION XL 

FOEMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 

The essential elements of Protestant worship are the sermon, 
Elements of which is based upon the word of God, the united prayer 
■worship. g^jj(j singing of the congregation, and the benediction, 

which concludes the service. The highest point of Protestant wor- 
ship is attained in the periodical celebration of the Lord's Supper, 
whose lending characteristic is that of a feast. The distribution of 
the various liturgical observances, the relation they are to sustain 
toward each other, and the more or less festal character they are to 
bear, will be determined by the ecclesiastical year, the periodically 
recurring festal seasons which it includes, and the wisdom and care 
of the pastor. All forms of art which have no immediate relation 
to the living Word are referred to the background at this point, 
and are designed at most to promote an auxiliary object, not directly 
aiming at an increase of devotion. 

It must be conceded that not all Protestant liturgists are agreed 
The eucharistie upon the above Statements. Many have maintained 
element. ^^^.^^ ^]^q eucharistical feature especially should not be 

wanting in any form of divine service, and that all else should, as 
in the Roman Catholic Church, tend to give prominence to it as 
the principal end in view, even the sermon being made to occupy 

^ Page 72. 

2 Ibid., p. 166: " The sphere of worship is always extended over an existence of 
actual joy in God, over a present filled with the consciousness of God, while the sacred 
writings always, by their form, refer back to what is past." 

^ Ibid., p. 75 : The ancient Church in general deserves, next to the apostolic age, to 
be consulted, together with its forms of worship, whenever a reconstruction of the 
worship is in question, hut it is not necessary that their example be anxiously imi- 
tated. It should be discriminately used with reference to the needs and conditions of 
the present time. Gorap. Simon, Die apostol. Geraeinde-u. Kirch enverfassung, Poted., 
1851 ; Abeken, Der Gottesdienst der alten Kirche, Berl., 1853; Harnack, Der christL 
Gemeindegottesdienst im apostol. Zeitalter, Dorpat, 1853. 



FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 535 

a secondary position in this regard.' It cannot be denied tliat the 
Lord's Supper constitutes the summit and crown of the common 
worship. But it is to be questioned whether its too frequent repe- 
tition would not lead to a loss of real solemnity and fervour of dis- 
position, and to its being degraded into an opus operatam. This 
assertion of the eucharistical feature with which the demand for a 
purely liturgical service, without the sermon, is connected, has its 
excuse in the one-sided view which led Protestantism, particularly 
of the Reformed type, to lay stress for a time upon the sermon as 
being the only element of worship which is absolutely essential. 

That the sermon should constitute the central feature „, 

Plan of the ser- 

of the service, even though but in a formal way, is mon in wor- 
entirely proper, and in harmony with the position every- ^ ^^* 
where assigned to the word of God in the organism of Protestant 
worship. But it should be remembered that the word of God 
does not secure a proper recognition through the sermon only, 
and that the latter is not in any sense its only exponent.^ The 
original representative of the word of God is the Bible itself. 
For this reason the reading of a section from the Scriptures is 
included among the elements of public worship.^ But it is neces- 
sary that the congregation be afforded opportunity for self-edifica- 
tion, upon the basis of God's word, for giving expression to the 

^ E. g.^ by Kliefoth, Die urspriingliche Gottesdienstordnung, Rostock, 1847, 2d ed., 
2 parts, 1858-59, and since then by many others. 

^ Bahr, uhi supra, has directed attention upon this point with emphasis, and often 
with keen irony ; but he goes too far in the direction of undervaluing the sermon. 
Ehrenfeuchter (§ 8*7) assigns to the latter its true position among the different ele- 
ments of the worship by conceiving of it as their formal centre. Comp. also Vinet: 
It is being recognised with increasing clearness in the Reformed Church that the at- 
tention is not to be fixed alone upon the hearing of a sermon in connexion with the 
public worship, but that the direct participation of the congregation is absolutely 
requisite. Comp. Coquerel (fils) : What is adoration and worship but an art by which 
he who adores puts himself in true and actual relation with Him whom he adores ? . . . 
Nothing which is passive alone constitutes the highest worship. The being present 
and listening is not an act, and consequently not worship. Le Culte tel que Dieu le 
demande (Paris, 1853). This is a rationalistic view, and should be qualified, 

2 These lessons are not simply needed for the purpose of acquainting the people 
with the Scriptures, although this was formerly the case, when the Bible was not so 
generally circulated as at the present. But tne united listening in the Church is very 
different from the private reading at home. Comp. Palmer, Homiletik, p. 370. R. 
Rothe wrote from Rome, " The mere listening to the reading of the Scriptures in the 
Christian congregation has always been a rich blessing and enjoyment, to me at least, 
although I have not unfrequently been deprived of them by their discussion pro and 
con." In Nippold, p. 360 : In the Reformed Church it is usual, in some localities, to 
read the Decalogue, but it is better to make independent selections suited to each 
separate occasion. The ancient Church had its lectors. 
35 



536 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

impressions receivc^d, aiui to elevate itself into immediate com- 
munion with God. 

Prayer and singing are exponents of the word of God equally 
Prayer and with the semion, in so far as they are based upon, and 
singing. originate in, that word. Even the sermon can only lie 
a word of God to the congregation when it is not only based upon 
the Bible, but is supported by the common devotion, and, so to 
speak, grows from it as its appropriate soil. It is necessary, there- 
fore, that prayer and singing on the part of the congregation should 
both precede the sermon, for the purpose of exciting devotion and 
collecting the minds of the people, and follow it, to reproduce and 
lix the impressions received.^ They form a species of antiphony t<> 
the sermqn, while the benediction which follows constitutes the 
symbolical conclusion of the whole.^ 

It is for liturgies to decide what is the relation sustained by 
prayer and singing to each other and to the sermon, and in w^hat 
order the several parts are to succeed and support each other. 
Probably a hymn of general character, not directly related to the 
sermon, will furnish the most appropriate introduction for divine 
service, to be followed by the prayer. The prayer should conclude 
with the Lord's Prayer. Its character involves that it should be 
introductory, and calculated to excite devotion, but at the same 
time adapted to call forth that contrite disposition whence springs 
Order of ser- ^ ^^^^ desire for salvation. Then follow Scripture selec- 
viee. tions, and then singiug, with special reference to the 

sermon, and afterward the sermon. The closing prayer may have 
■direct bearing on the sermon, and be shaped by its thought. It is 
designed to fix the impression wrought by the sermon, but must 
lead over into the general worship again. At this point inter- 
cession is in place. The closing hymn and benediction form 
the end. 

It is of advantage to the nature of devotion that the different 
services of the Church be not equal in the extent and fulness of 
their liturgical elements. The average medium is found in the 
Sunday services, which are more extended than the week-even- 
ing services. The more joyous a divine service is designed to 
be, the more largel}^ may forms of art be drawn upon in its ar- 
rangement, though under the presumption that such forms will 
possess a strictly religious character. If we examine the available 

^ " The singing falls chiefly to the lot of the congregation, and the preaching is the 
service of the clergyman ; while the functions of both are combined in the prayer, as 
in a common centre." — Marheineke, itbi supra^ § 260. 

* Rosenkranz, Encykl., p. 340. 



FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 537 

forms of art we shall find them to consist in discourse, music, and 
action. 

A large field is open to music. Should it be employed only 
when connected with words, under the form of singing? j^^^^q ^^ ^.q,,. 
Should it be congregational only? Ought it to be in- ship. 
terspersed with solo and choir singing, or accompanied with instru- 
mental music, and to what extent?^ How far may instrumental 
music be allowed without the accompaniment of song? The limit 
lies here. As action may, as a rule, be regarded only as an auxil- 
iary to speech, so instrumental music may be regarded only as an 
aid to the singing. 

Religious architecture ^ also deserves a prominent place among the 
arts connected with Protestant worship, and beside that sacred arcM- 
of discourse and that of song, not only for reasons of tecture. 
propriety, but also because of the religious and symbolical idea 
which the edifice is to embody and express.^ But a church edifice, 
even when the embodiment of an idea, together with the symbolical 
features introduced into the structure, is not to be regarded as in- 
volving any essential element, but merely as an aid to the exciting 
of devotion, and as exercising an influence to stimulate and support, 
rather than to direct and govern, the worship. The architectural 
symbol, therefore, stands upon the border line, upon the same foot- 
ing ns the music of the organ and the ringing of church bells. For 
it is possible to conceive of a truly elevating Protestant worship 
from which all of these are wanting, while such worship could find 
no expression at all in the absence of the sermon, singing, and 
prayer, and the celebration of the Lord's Supper. The essential 
feature, in which Protestant worship differs from Roman Catholi- 
cism, is simply its inward nature, freedom, and life — qualities which 
must not be allowed to give way before any degree of sesthetical 
refinement. However, it would be equally improper to renounce 

^ " It may be said of the Christian Church, that in the organ it has invented an in- 
strument which combines within itself all the tones which existed singly in separate 
instruments before its discovery." — Rosenkranz, p. 83Y. Comp. Herder's poem, Die 
Orgel. Harms pronounced against the organ, as did also the ancient usage of the 
Reformed Church, which had no better name for it than the "pope's lyre " (!). Comp. 
Bahr, ubi sicpra, p. 112, sq. 

■^ Vetter, ubi mpra. " There is no grander cathedral than St. Peter's Church in 
Rome ; but more beautiful than this, says the cherished Neander, is that Church which 
consists of two or three Christian souls assembled in the name of Christ." — Merle 
d'Aubigne in the Verhandlungen des sechsten evangel. Kirchentags zu Berlin (Berl., 
1853), p. 48. 

^ Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, p. 290, sqq. This field embraces also the external sur- 
roundings of the church edifice, particularly burial grounds and their monuments. 



538 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

all natural connexion between worship and art, in so far as the latter 
enters modestly into the service of the Church.^ 

Lange says : " Worship is the festal representation of the ideal in 
the real; while art is the festal representation of the real life in the 
ideal;" or, "art represents the manifestation of the new world in 
symbolic form, while longing that it shall come into being; and 
worship represents the hidden character and the growth of the new 
world with a yearning that it may appear." Ehrenfeuchter shows 
ingeniously how man becomes in worship both the material and the 
manager of it: "The art of comprehending himself in the inner- 
most relations of his life, and of entering into relations with God, 
is what we demand of every human being. This constitutes the 
profoundest and truest element of life." F. W. Krummacher beau- 
tifully remarks, in one of his sermons, that "art is entitled to a 
place in the Church. This admits of no doubt; but it is the 
product, and not the creator, of the new life. The promise is 
restricted altogether to the word, and the word is accompanied 
by the generating, while art has only the preserving and refresh- 
ing, spirit. Art, moreover, belongs rather to a Solomonic period of 
the Church than to a Davidic. In the latter it is necessary that 
the sword of the word should first perform its work. Not until 
the victory was achieved did the harp and psaltery ring out their 
notes." '^ 

It follows from this, that worship through the Word still consti- 
tutes the heart of Protestant liturgies. To deal with the Word in 
preaching is the office of homiletics; and liturgies, accordingly, is 
Limitations of restricted : 1. To the word as connected with the sing- 
liturgics. ing (Church hymnology) ; 2. As emanating from the 

common feeling in the form of prayer (Church prayer) ; and 3. As 
it introduces and accompanies the performance of sacred actions, 
as in the benediction and the sacraments. The two latter form the 
ritual. Hence hymn books and the ritual constitute the liturgical 
apparatus which each Church government is required to provide for 
the use of the ministrations of the Church, and liturgies is required 
to furnish the fundamental principles by which the work of provid- 
ing such apparatus is to be governed. With reference to hymn 
books, or the text of hymns, it is by no means a question how to 
provide the Church with hymns which should be modelled upon 

^ "Art," remarks a Swiss pastor (Ritter of Schwanden), "is that St. Christopher 
who seeks out a lord, serves him faithfully, and does not admit into his mind the 
thought of being lord himself; and yet so feels his own worth as to be resolved to 
remain with him only who is the strongest." 

2 Die Sabbathglocke, Berl., 1853, pp. 1*78, 179. 



FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 539 

any particular liturgical theory. On the contrary, liturgies boldly 
and gladly makes use of the existing treasures of hymnology in the 
Church.^ Hengstenberg says : " The poetry of Protestantism evi- 
dently finds its culmination in the Church hymn. In ^ ^ ^ 
opposition to ' the widespread notion which still con- on religious 
trols many weak natures, that the worship of Romanism ^°® ^^' 
is more poetic than that of Protestantism,' it is asserted, and with 
truth, that this would be a correct opinion 'if poetry consisted in 
all manner of mechanical forms and outward ornaments.' But 
poetry is spirit which speaks to spirit, and the unadorned sing- 
ing of one of Luther's or Paul Gerhard's hymns with the heart of 
a living congregation is more poetical than all the allurements 
which attract the eye and ear in the splendid worship of Roman 
Catholicism.'^ 

To sift our hymns, and discover the gold contained in them, is one 
of the highest arts of theology. Here, again, it is easy ^j^ ^^^^^ ^^^ 
for a view that is based upon the taste of individuals necessarily 
to assert itself, whether it be the fanciful pedantry of ^°° ' 
affecting what has the flavour of antiquity or the rationalistic 
soberness which eliminates everything that breathes the aroma 
of poesy. Not everything that is old is also good. Even 
among the old there is much that is antiquated, "either because 
it is involved in a dogmatical or ethical conception of the world 
which has passed away, or because it can no longer be compre- 
hended and enjoyed.^ The thing demanded is, accordingly, that 
hymns of a truly sterling character be sought out with accurate 
judgment, and that the heart of this class be discovered. But the 
claims of the new are also to receive due recognition beside the 
old, though the purity of tone and colour in the latter should be 
preserved. The Church hymns of the former days often become 
mongrel forms through an " improvement " which results to their 
damage, and through their being dressed up a la mode, by which 
means they assume a character which cannot be approved either 
by good taste or historical judgment. Changes are required in 
occasional instances, no doubt, but they should be executed 
with the utmost caution, and it is one of the principal problems 

^ The Reforraed Church has long been content to use psalms only. Here, too, it 
would be a misapprehension of the idea of scriptural worship were the text of spirit- 
ual songs to be confined to psalms only. Many of the most beautiful Church hymns 
are usually revised psalms. 

^ Evangel. Kirchenzeitung, vol. Ixxiv, No. 4, p. 3*74. 

^ See Marheineke, xihi supra^ p. 256, and Stier, Erneuerte Rechenschaft iiber das 
evangelische Gesangbuch, Brunswick, 1832. 



540 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

in liturgies to determine the principles on which they are to be 

introduced.^ 

If the Church hymn belongs to the department of poetry, the 

prayer involves a form of language which expresses the 
Public prayer, t,.. ^ -, „ . fi ^ • ^ i- i- 

" unity oi poetry and prose — that is to say, oi tree 

and yet elevated speech. Every infusion of merely reflective, dog- 
matizing, moralizing, and logically connecting elements, is to be 
avoided. The older written forms of Church prayers, while con- 
taining much that is strong and robust, were yet often pervaded 
with a dogmatizing and polemical spirit which could not be edify- 
ing; and modern forms often include much sentimental verbiage, 
or are couched in the tone of merely moralizing preaching. It 
will be necessary that the appropriate manner and tone of the 
Church prayer, by which it secures an aspect of due veneration, be 
retained, and that all effeminacy and insipidity be excluded, while 
at the same time the structure of sentences is kept sufiiciently flex- 
ible to avoid the impression of stiffness.^ 

With reference to the administration of the Sacraments, we may 
say that they constitute the most fixed and immovable element of 
worship, especially with regard to the words of institution and con- 
secration, which liturgies is not at liberty to change. The addi- 
tions, such as preliminary and supplementary prayers, exhortations, 
and the like, are not so immovably fixed. Such other formulas as 
relate to specific occasions may receive a more independent and 
flexible treatment, though the true spirit of the Church may always 
be retained even in the framing of such formulas. 

^ The preface to Knapp's Liederschatz contains valuable directions for this work. 
Comp. also Herder's preface to the Weimar Gesangbuch. Numerous discussions of 
this question have been had in recent days at Church conferences and synods, and in 
periodicals, but without arriving at any agreement respecting the principles on which 
a hymn book for the common use of the evangeUcal Churches should be composed. 

^ Ehrenfeuchter, § 81. 

^Kapp (in the work mentioned below) has set forth some excellent principles. 
Comp. also Hebel, Ideen zur Gebetstheorie (in Werke, vol. vii) ; we are not to pray 
*' as the awkward members of a guild, and the foremen address each other in a sworn 
form of greeting, but as dear children approach their beloved father." There is dan- 
ger, however, that the Church prayer express too great familiarity, as if addressing 
a mere " friend of the family." 



THE METHODOLOGY. 541 

SECTION sn 
THE m;ethodology. 

The nature of liturgies forbids that facility in its use should be 
acquired by practice, as may be done with catechetics and homi- 
letics. But the liturgical sense may be variously cultivated, and 
especially by making of the divine service a vital element for the 
pastor, in which he feels himself at home. The understanding of 
liturgical matters is likewise aided in a special degree by familiarity 
with the older and more recent liturgies, though we may not use 
them, and particularly by familiarity with the treasures of hym- 
nology which belong to the Church. To this may be added personal 
j)ractice in singing, — if we have the gift, — an acquaintance with 
the theory of Church singing, and also an insight into the nature of 
Christian architecture. 

Practice in the leading of the prayers of the congregation may 
be connected with practice in preaching, but the true The necessity 
anointing of the liturgist must be derived from a Higher ^^ divme iieip. 
Power. Fessler says: " The school and extensive reading, industry, 
and practice, may, when joined to distinguished ability, produce 
excellent orators, but the forming of a divinely inspired liturgist, 
who holds full communion with God, is exclusively a work of grace 
— i. 6., of the illuminating, inspiring, and anointing influence of the 
Holy Spirit."^ Frcelich observes, with striking truth, that "to 
strike the proper tone with a certainty which shall excite the congre- 
gation to join heartily in prayer, and to fill it with devotional feel- 
ing, and to hold it fast, and harmonize it with the different turns of 
the prayer, demands not only all the fervour of which the leader is 
capable, but also all his skill." ... In the biography of Spleiss, 
superintendent at Schaffhausen, he is credited with having prepared 
himself for the conduct of his liturgical services with the same indus- 
try and care which he bestowed upon a sermon; and thus, while 
his sermons frequently burst forth with excessive vivacity, his li- 
turgical delivery was quiet and restrained. But each word was em- 
phasized with the proper degree of force, and made to express its 
full meaning, especially in the more important passages. 

Every part of the service connected with the worship, and not 
the sermon alone, must be minutely studied. An expressive and 
unaffected presentation of these various parts is very rare. Even 
the ablest preacher may utterly destroy the good influence of the 
sermon by carelessness in the conduct of the other portions of the 

^ Riickblieke auf meine 70 jahrige Pilgerschaft, Breslau, 1826, p. 416. 



543 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

service, while the lack of personal eloquence may be readily over- 
looked in the case of a faithful administrator in holy things. 

The proper reading of the Scripture lessons is highly essential. 

^ , They should be selected with arreat care, their spirit 
The preacher s •'^ ^ ^ ' -i 

relation to the studied, and then read with calm fervour.^ With re- 
singmg. gard to singing, the minister is not required to accom- 

plish more than any other member of the Church. But he is still 
expected to direct the singing to the extent of selecting the hymns 
which are to be sung. For this purpose, if for no other, a thor- 
oughly intimate acquaintance with the hymn book, unfortunately 
so rare an acquirement, is of great advantage. Luther went too 
far when he said, " I will not look at a preacher who cannot sing." 
The pastor should do all he can, in his appropriate sphere, toward 
the improvement of the singing by seeing that the congregation 
are supplied with hymn books, and all possible helps. He cannot, 
therefore, permit himself to remain in ignorance of the poetical 
and musical treasures of the hymnology of his individual denomi- 
nation, or of that of the Church as a whole. 

The opportunity of attending public worship while travelling 
should never be neglected, from religious as well as homiletical and 
liturgical considerations, the object V)eing to enlarge one's spiritual 
and mental horizon, and the combatting of prejudices that were 
previously entertained. A visit, for example, to a congregation of 
the Moravian Brotherhood will yield to every mind a profitable 
picture of Christian propriety and liturgical simplicity. Besides, 
every opportunity for a better acquaintance with the better speci- 
mens of ecclesiastical art and architecture should be seized upon 
cheerfully. Ko preacher visiting the older countries should neg- 
lect any privilege, both in services in the churches and in observa- 
tion, to enrich his mind for better ministrations after his return 
home. 

With regard to every part of the service, and more especially the 
administration of the sacraments, everything depends upon a sense 
of propriety, which itself results from thorough moral culture. At 
the communion table and the baptismal font the most learned pedant, 
the keenest critic, and the prof oundest speculator, may be put to 
shame sooner than a simple, properly trained, modest, and inwardly 
consecrated and anointed servant of God. Such a man as that the 
preacher — if not that already — should endeavour to become. 

^ Such reading should not, be declamatory, but suited to the spirit of the passage, 
and recitative. Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, p. 352 ; Bahr, p. 72. 



THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 543 

SECTION xm. 

THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 

Christian worship has developed itself out of the Jewish worship. 
It was at first simple synagogue worship, then, to an christian wor- 
increasing extent, levitical priesthood and temple ser- from1;hrjelv- 
vice, and, finally, a return to the simpler form through ish. 
the agency of the Reformation. From that point it is possible to 
distinguish three periods: "The stormy period of the Reformation; 
then the quiet and often stagnant intermediate period; and, finally, 
the active and struggling period in which we live." ' 

Liturgies is conformed in its method to these successive stages: 
The apostles already furnished hints respecting the proper behav- 
iour at the time of worship (1 Cor. xi, 22; Eph. vi, 19; Col. iii, 16; 
James ii, 2, 3). The apostolical constitutions and the liturgies 
which were promulgated under the names of the Apostle James 
and the Evangelist Mark, of Jerusalem and Alexandria, are, as is 
well known, rejected by criticism. With them were connected, in 
the East, the liturgies of Basil and of Chrysostora, and, in the 
West, those of Gelasius and Leo I. These last, however, were 
superseded by the Roman Missal of Gregory I. Milan alone pre- 
served its special liturgy.^ When the Romish worship, under the 
supervision of the papacy, had developed into the ritual of the 
Romish mass, and the functions of the priesthood had extended 
over a v/ider area, it became necessary to provide guides. for their 
conduct, such as Durandus (died 1296), in his Reason for Divine 
Offices, and similar works. 

Luther transformed the mass into a simple observance of the 
Protestant ceremony of the Lord's Supper, and the Reformed theo- 
logians rejected both the name and the thing.^ The symbolical 
books contain the earliest liturgical principles, and they reappear 
occasionally in dogmatical works in connexion with the Church and 
the sacraments. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the flour- 
ishing period of German Church hymnology, did more in the Avay 
of furnishing a liturgical apparatus, such as hymn books and form- 
ularies, than in that of discussing the worship itself. It was not 
until a beginning was made, from the standpoint of modern ration- 
alism, in the work of setting aside the ancient, or of conforming it 

^ Lange, ubi supra, p. 109. 

2 Comp. Assemani, Codex liturgicus, Rom., 1649-65; xiii, fol. ; Renaudet, Collectio 
Liturgiarum orientalium, Paris, 1716 ; Daniel, Codex liturgicus ecclesiae universae, 
Lips., 1847, sqg. 

3 Comp, J. C. Funk, Geist u. Form des von Luther angeordenten Cultus, Berlin, 1818. 



544 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

to the-so-called " demands of the spirit of the times," or the period 
of diluting the hymnology of the Church, that nevi theories were 
Rationalistic provided to accompany the new liturgical forms. This 
works. ^yas done by ZoUikoffer, Seiler, Diterich, Hufnagel, Wag- 

nitz, and others, first in the journals of the period, and afterward 
in books. Specimens of these works may be seen in Bastholm's 
Improvement of the Outward Worship (Leips., 1786); Spazier's 
Frank Thoughts on the Protestant Worship of God (Gotha, 1788); 
Wolfrath, Questions on Liturgical Subjects (Hamburg, 1793-94); 
Burdorf's Hints for the Improvement of the Festivity of Public 
Worship (1795); Jenisch's Worship of God and Ecclesiastical Re- 
form (Berlin, 1803), and Reinhold's Ideas on the Outward Worship 
(Neustrelitz, 1805). To these may be added Tzschirner, in his 
Cautious Improvement of Siicred Services (1815), who demands a 
natural worship of God, and Hebel, in his Liturgical Contributions, 
who admits the emotional element, but too strongly from a subjec- 
tive point of view. The mystical and Romanizing tendencies, stim- 
ulated by the romantic school, likewise asserted themselves by the 
side of the rationalizing and sentimental tendencies in worship, in 
Horst's Mysteriosophy, and in the works of Fessler, and others. 

Gass (died 1831), stimulated especially by Schleiermacher, was 
the first to provide a really scientific basis for evangelical liturgies, 
of which the writers mentioned in the literature below availed 
themselves in the further development of this branch, though gen- 
erally governed by speculative rather than practical motives. Kapp 
wa=? more largely practical than any other author. The latest 
Recent diver- movements within the ecclesiastical territory have given 
sity of views, p^gg ^q ^ great diversity of views. This we see in the 
union of the two Protestant Churches of Germany, and the con- 
nected dispute, extending into ecclesiastical law, respecting the 
ritual, in which Schleiermacher took part. We observe it also in 
the reaction against the Prussian service book, which emanated from 
the Old Lutheran party. To these must be added Puseyism, which 
originated in the Oxford School, and whose fundamental views in 
relation to ecclesiastical law and liturgies found acceptance in Ger- 
many as well. We see it also in Irvingism, which sought to restore 
a levitical worship. 

In the Reformed Church it was felt to be necessary that at least 
a justification of the peculiar form of worship be furnished. Greater 
sobriety and caution were manifested from that point, in opposi- 
tion to an sestheticising, mystifying, and speculative transcendent- 
alism, which does not exclude the recognition of whatever may be 
more valuable among the possessions of other churches. It is in 



THE HISTORY OF LITUIIGICS. 545 

place here to recall the unfortunate dispute concerning the ritual in 
the Grand Duchy of Baden, and the hymn book contro- controversy in 
versy in the Palatinate, in connexion with which such Baden and the 
a quiet discussion of principles as was to be desired, 
and as would have yielded fruit to the Church and to science, was 
not, in all probability, secured — a proof that not all times are 
equally prepared to admit of liturgical reforms, and that some will 
warn against retrogression in matters where others see only prog- 
ress. Nor has the Roman Catholic Church been free from attempts 
to reconstruct the worship anew since the close of the last century. 
Not to dwell upon the Theophilanthropists of France (1796), who 
endeavored to introduce a sentimental deism, and the church of 
the Abbe Chatel at Paris (from 1830), it may be sufficient to men- 
tion, in the theoretical department, the Principles of Liturgical 
Theology, of the Benedictine, Kohler (1788), and Winter's "What 
the Liturgy Should Be (Munich, 1809), together with the works of 
Schmidt, Hnogek, Liil't, and others. Ignatius of Wessenberg ren- 
dered especially meritorious service in the ennobling of the wor- 
ship and the introducing of a German hymnology. His ideal, at 
all events, was to build up a German Catholic Church, though not 
of the kind produced in the fourth decade of this century, to 
Avhich that name was applied. It remains to be seen how far the 
Old Catholicism of Dollinger and others will succeed in construct- 
ing a liturgy. 

In many of the Protestant churches of Great Britain and Amer- 
ica a revolution in the estimate of the value of a fixed liturgy is 
quite observable. While retaining in j^ublic services the use of free 
prayer, concessions have been made by them to the value of forms. 
The participation in the reading of Scriptures by the congregation, 
the repeating of the Apostles' Creed, the use of the Gloria Patri, 
and occasionally of the Gloria in Excelsis and the TeDeum^ are 
confessions of a desire to enter more fully into a fellowship of 
thought and life with the Church universal. Unquestionably the 
growth of the historical spirit has had somewhat to do with this 
salutary change ; but more than this, the conviction that liturgi- 
cal forms insure stability. At the same time the value of the 
hymn as an element of public worship has been more clearly per- 
ceived, and the development of a jDopular hymnody, which has 
carried religious thought and emotion to the lowest strata of society, 
has become one of the features of our century. And if this sacred 
song be not of the highest quality, it still j)erforms its function of 
making the Christian religion a part of the common life of men. 
Isaac Taylor claims that "hymns and psalms and spiritual songs 
35 



546 PHACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

are a species of literature, in which the English language is richer 
than any other, and that they administer comfort, excitement, 
and instruction to an extent and in a degree which never can be 
calculated." ^ 

Be this as it may, the two drifts of the religious feeling of the 
English-speaking world — that toward the popularizing of sacred 
song, and that toward the adoption of liturgical forms in churches 
where they have not heretofore been acceptable — must be both 
taken into account. It has even been proposed that the Churches 
of the United States come into some sort of union on the basis of 
the liturgy of the Church of England. The proposal has not been 
received with favor, but the fact of its originating with a repre- 
sentative of a non-liturgical Church shows a dissatisfaction with the 
ancient attitude of such Churches toward forms of prayer. The 
vast open-air gatherings, in the summer season, of American Christ- 
ians for teaching and worship must continue for a long time to 
give prominence to sacred song, which cannot, at least in such cir- 
cumstances, be rivaled by liturgical forms. The growth of intelli- 
gence, and the habit of reflection which comes of intelligence, must, 
however, create in many the desire to express their highest aspira- 
tions in the language of those prayers which have come down to us 
as the supplications that have fallen from the lips of the saints of 
all the Christian ages. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OP LITUROICS. 

Blunt, John Henrj. The Annotated Book of Common Prayer. 8vo. London, 1866. 
. New and enlarged edition, 1884. 

Liturgy and Hymns for the Use of the Protestant Church of the United Brethren, 
or Unitas Pratrum, New and revised edition. 12mo, pp. xxxviii, and 1,323 
hymns, without paging. (The morning service contains an extended litany.) 

Proctor, Francis. A History of the Book of Common Prayer, with a Rationale of its 
Offices. "With an Introductory Chapter on the History of the American Liturgy. 
By "William Stevens Perry. Fifteenth edition. 12mo, pp. xl, 502. London 
and New York, 1881. (Perhaps the best history of the English Prayer Book.) 

The Book of Common Prayer, and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites 
and Ceremonies of the Church, According to the Use of the Protestant Episco- 
pal Church in the United States of America. 12mo. New York, 1855. (The 
alterations in the Book of Common Prayer prepared in the General Convention 
of 1883 were adopted by the General Convention of 1886.) 

The Book of Public Prayers and Services for the Use of the People Called Meth- 
odists. 12mo, pp. 298. London, 1883. (Based on the English Prayer Book. 
The Appendix contains directions relative to the solemnization of Marriages in 
"Wesleyan Methodist Chapels, and the Burial Laws Amendment Act of 1880.) 

The Sunday Service of the Methodists in America. With the Occasional Services. 
12mo, pp. 314, 104. London, 1'784. (This is the Service Book prepared by Mr. 

1 Wesley and Methodism, p. 95. 



HOMILETICS. . 547 

Wesley for his American Societies. Recent editions have been issued by the 
publisliing houses in New York, Cincinnati, and Nashville.) 
Wheatly, Charles. A Rational Illustration of the Book of Common Prayer of the 
Church of England. 12ra ^, pp. xii, 532. London, 1852. (The author con- 
siders Bucer an intermeddler in the formation of the English book.) 

SECTION XIV. 
HOMILETICS. 

Liturgies determines the nature and form of worship. But 
homiletics has to determine the nature and form, of the Christian 
sermon alone, and to furnish instruction respecting the mode of ex- 
pounding the word of God in the congregation, and of presenting 

it in discourse. Liturmcs directs attention to the en- „ , . 

.^ . Relation of h- 

tire contents of Christian revelation, whence the sermon turgics tohom- 
is to derive its material ; and the latter operates parity ^^®^^^^' 
in the field of hermeneutics and partly in that of rhetoric, though 
with constant reference to the peculiar nature of sacred discourse, 
as distinguished from other forms of oratory. 

The word homiletics is derived from bfiL^la. It is usual to under- 
stand homilies as denoting only a single class of sermons, namely, 
those whose unity does not inhere in a theme which is propounded, 
but in the text, and which approximate to popular forms of speech 
in their language more than to those of other classes.^ The ancient 
usage covered a broader ground with this term, however, and in 
conformity therewith we use the term homiletics to designate not 
only the theory of this single form of discourse, but that of the 
sermon in general. At this point, however, we must fix the limit. 
Homiletics must not be expanded into a theory of sa- „ ., ,. 

. . ^ . . -\ Homiletics not 

cred, or even Christian or religious, eloquence, in gen- a theory of sa- 
eral. It is possible to conceive of Christian addresses cred eloquence. 
which are not included in the department of homiletics pr#per ; for 
example, the missionary address (^fcT^Qvyfia). The latter may be de- 
nominated a sermon, in the peculiar biblical meaning of the word ; 
but it, as well as the preaching of the apostles, is nevertheless un- 
like what our sermons can be, since they are not the product of the 
impulse of the moment, but bear the character of a regularly re- 
peated and integral part of public worship. Herder remarks,^ that 
"as soon as the sermon ceased to be what it really was in the mouth 

^ Opinions differ greatly with regard to the propriety of homilies. "While Herder 
has advocated their use. Harms has decided adversely to it, and says : " They fill, but do 
not satisfy." Schleiermacher was likewise not inclined to regard them with special 
favour. He considered homilies to be a mere aggregation of separate sermons. 

' In Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie, No. 40, the whole of which should be 
read in this connexion. 



548 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

of the apostles, a message, it became an exposition of the word of 
God, its writings and teachings, and an application of what had 
been read in the midst of a quiet Christian assembly. This was 
termed a homily, and was not properly an oration." 

If it be desired to set forth a theory for the aw akening preaching 
of an apostolic herald, or for the proclamation of the Word amonu: 
the heathen, it will be found convenient to ap*propriate to it the 
name keryktics — a term first formed by Stier from the Greek word, 
K7]QvoG(i), to proclaim.^ Such preaching precedes, in point of time, 
even catechetics, w^hile the sermon, as ordinarily understood, is ad- 
dressed to persons who already belong to the Christian community, 
so that homiletics carries forward the w^ork of catechetics. 

We would not assert that the usual sermon should involve no ele- 

.^ . ment of keryktics, for many nominal Christians exist 

Necessity of con- -^ ' . -^ 

tinuai preaching to wliom the Call to repentance needs to be continually 
of repentance, addressed, and Schleiermacher pivoted the question 
upon too fine a point w^hen he excluded all hortatory sermons of 
this kind. Yinet urges the reality, which is stronger than any the- 
ory. It is equally certain, however, that many of our most zealous 
hortatory preachers miss the mark by incessantly driving the plough, 
instead of pausing to sow the seed and water it, and cherish the 
growing blade. By preaching only repentance we always tarry in 
the court of the Gentiles, and never enter into the most holy place. 
The needs of advanced Christians and growth in grace should not 
be disregarded. The treatment accorded to cold and formal Christ- 
ians within the Church, moreover, is specifically different from that 
which the actual heathen, who " are without," can receive. An ap- 
peal may be addressed to their nominal Christianity, or, better, to 
the Christian name they bear. They may be reminded of their 
baptism, and everything may be presumed of them in an ideal sense, 
though it does not exist in a real form. Their conscience differs 
from that of the heathen, and discourse addressed to that conscience 
must differ from that w^hich aims to reach the heathen mind. 

Still other forms of discourse might be mentioned which belong 

^ Comp. Nitzsch in Stud. u. Krit., 1882, No. 3, p. 725: "Since it must be admitted 
that the word homily — whether so used in the New Testament or not, is immaterial 
in this connexion — does yet, when historically considered, and taken in the meaning 
assigned to it in the early usage of the Church, denote the function which embraces 
the whole of the service of the Tinyo^ rnv {)-eov, it follows that homiletics is always to 
be regarded as a leading branch of practical theology by the side of catechetics. The 
combination of the two is, only in the case of the missionary, however, to be denomi- 
nated keryktics, provided it is still necessary to retain the Greek designations for the 
Bake of brevity, and of associating the conditions of the present with those of antiq- 
uity and history." 



HOMILETICS. 549 

to the keryktical, and not the homiletical, department; for exam- 
ple, the preaching of the crusades in the Middle Ages, and such 
free discourses in the open air as the mediseval friars were wont to 
deliver, or the bazar and street preaching of the most recent period. 
There is also a class of discourses which belongs within the circle 
of parliamentary speech, such as conference and occasional addresses. 
Occasional discourses stand at the very boundary line, and are in- 
cluded more especially under the pastoral or the liturgical function, 
as they are directed to the peculiar condition and religious needs of 
the respective persons concerned, or relate entirely to the particular 
occasion to be utilized. The ordination sermon, for example," 
grows out of the position held by the ordaining minister under the 
economy of Church government. 

We, therefore, confine our attention to the sermon within the 
limits of the regular services of the Church, in which it assumes 
various characters in accordance with the solemnity, be it more or 
less, of the particular service, being either a Sunday morning or 
evening sermon, or a more popular discourse in familiar language, 
as the homily, or a practical exposition of some Scripture. The 
feature which makes a sermon of the sermon, and distinguishes it 
from other forms of religious or Christian discourse, is the text ' or 
passage of Scripture which does not serve merely as a motto, but 

is the root from which the sermon must g-i'ow. This 

The text, 
determines not only the contents of the sermon, which 

must be scriptural in any case, but also its form. The preacher is 
not simply a speaker, but also an expounder, with the single quali- 
fication that at one time the former function will be more promi- 
nent, and at another time the latter. The art of preaching has its 

^ Textus (from texo), a texture. Applied to the texture of discourse in Quinct., 8, 6 ; 
Ammian. Marcellin,, 15, 7. Comp. Stephani Tliesaur. In the Middle Ages the term 
textus was applied to the Bible itself ; comp. da Frene. It is here given to a partic- 
ular section taj^en from the Scriptures, which Campe not inappropriately renders by 
" Grundspruch " (fundamental theme). Examples aie not wanting, in the history of 
horailetics, of sermons which have no other texts than verses from hymns or sections 
from the Catechism. But such discourses do not belong within the range of the ser- 
mon as fixed by the requirements of a fully developed Protestant worship, They may 
be serviceable for the work of edification in other directions, but they cannot replace 
the sermon. Addresses not founded upon a text are, as a rule, better adapted for 
occasional discourses, but they are termed occasional discourses for that very reason. 
Texts taken from secular books are even worse than no texts at all. In the Midd'e 
Ages sermons were based on Aristotle, later, in the fifteenth century, on Brandt's 
Ship of Fools, and the Rationalist Unitarians of England still draw their texts from 
Schiller and Byron. An instructive discussion as to whether a text is needed or may 
be dispensed v/ith, and concerning the special difficulties involved in the being re- 
stricted to a text, is contained in Vinet, Homiletics, chap. 3. 



550 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

field of exercise both in the department of hermeneutics and in that 
of rhetoric. With regard to the former branch we refer to the 
department of exegesis, treated in this work. With reference to 
the oratorical branch it is important to assure to pulpit discourse 
its special field. As religion itself is neither a formal know- 
ing nor a doing, religious discourse likewise differs from those 
forms of discourse which direct their aim chiefly upon knowing oi 
upon doing. The former class, of course, are not discourses, in a 
strict sense of the word, but approximate in character to treatises, 
such as academical addresses or lectures. 

The sermon should not be a lecture or treatise. It aims to 
The sermon not enlarge and correct the religious apprehension, but 
a lecture. only in order that the religious state of the soul may 

be more clearly understood and be more unimpeded in its expres- 
sion. The preacher may not rest satisfied with having wrought 
conviction in the mind unless it make itself felt upon the heart. It 
should also pass over into action. The pulpit discourse differs, 
however, from all such addresses as aim directly to produce action, 
and in connexion with which the speaker is content with having 
the object realized which he has in view, without regard to the 
motive from which it is performed. This is the case with parlia- 
mentary and juridical addresses. The older homiletical writers of 
France distinguished between " eloquence of the bar " and " elo- 
quence of the pulpit." It will be apparent, from this consideration, 
to what extent Demosthenes and Cicero may be regarded as our 
models. "The person," says Herder, "who, without qualification, 
regards the forensic orations of Demosthenes and Cicero as models 
to which our sermons are to be conformed, has no proper idea of 
the nature of either the sermon or the forensic address; he has not 
apprehended the design of either."^ He elsewhere says: "Preach- 
ers cannot, like Demosthenes and Cicero, call forth sudden decis- 
ions and resolves to action; they cannot, because they should not; 
and they should not, because they cannot. There are no Philips 
before our walls that we should at once rush in wild enthusiasm to 
guard our gates — this is true, and who has ever wrought to secure 
that end? There are no felons to be instantly condemned or ac- 
quitted — who has ever spoken as if this were the case ? But let it 
be supposed that something of this kind were yet to be devolved 
upon the speaker, then, teacher, you are compelled to ])erform the 
work, and will need to display ability in its accomplishment, or 
you speak but poorly. If a Christian duty, of whatever kind, ought 
to be instantly performed, and it were devolved upon you to make 

* Brief e, No. 40, Werke x, p. 18. 



HOMILETICS. 551 

it clear and urge to action, it were weak not to do this despite 
whatever theory might be employed to furnish an excuse." ^ 

Should the sermon then aim simply to influence the religious 
feeling ? By no means. A mere gush of feeling is not 
at all a discourse. The sermon should not be a mono- sermon to the 
logue, an expanded prayer, a meditation in which the ^^'^^'^^s^ ^o"^- 
preacher appears only in his relation to God and Christ (after the 
manner of the ancient " speaking with tongues," 1 Cor. xiv, 2), and 
not in that sustained toward the congregation. This is a fault in 
which many emotional persons become involved, whose discourses 
soar upon the air, instead of being directed upon the heart like ar- 
rows from the quiver. A discourse is distinguished from the poem 
by the very fact that it is not a mere outburst of the feelings, but 
rather a homily, in the etymological meaning of the word — that is, 
a conversation with the hearer, who is to be regarded as not merely 
a recipient, but as joining with thought and feeling in oratory a con- 
the discussion, and possibly as replying to it and raising versation. 
doubts. Vinet says: " Oratorial discourse thus appears as a con- 
test, a combat; this idea is essential to it. At one time the orator 
combats an error by a truth, at another he opposes one sentiment to 
another sentiment. In its just use oratory is a combat waged 
against errors of the mind and heart with the warfare of speech! "' 
*'The oratorial discourse is a drama, each word of the preacher is a 
question to which the auditor replies in himself, and his reply be- 
comes a new question to which the orator replies. There is an in- 
terior in every oratorical art." Cicero, when asked to point out the 
result of rhetoric, replied: "Actio, actio, actio." 

We must, accordingly, include the dialectical element also, al- 
though this, again, must rest upon a profounder basis, namely, the 
common feeling of Christianity. But we must not resolve every- 
thing into dialectics. The sermon must necessarily be of a pare- 
netic or hortatory character, and aim to excite to resolve and action. 
But such resolution must likewise grow out of the feeling which 
has been excited, and out of definite convictions. The sermon is a 

tei«timony of Christ and of life in him, and at the same ^^ 

•^ . ' The sermon a 

time a proclamation of that life.^ It is discourse to an testimony to 
extent, perhaps, not equalled by any other form of ad- ^^''^^*^- 
dress, inasmuch as it addresses the entire man, takes hold upon the 
inmost depths of his being, discloses that being to his thought, and 
raises him above himself." 

' Provinzialblatter, p. 3*74. ' ^ Homiletics, Skinner's edition, p. 26. 

' Ehrenfeucliter, p. 358, assigns the latter only to the sermon, the former to prayer. 
* Comp. Herder, Der Redner Gottes (Werke zur Relig. und TheoL, x, p. 475, sqq.). 
SO 



552 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

The individuality of the speaker is, doubtless, more fully dis- 
played in the sermon than in the liturgy. But this must not be 
understood as implying that his individuality, in the form of per- 
sonal views, should assert itself in this vrork, or that the preacher 
should preach simply himself, or merely human doctrine. Christ 
attains to a distinct form in each separate individual, and it follows 
that the individual life can only be properly manifested in the 
higher peculiarities which it involves, and for the benefit of the 
common life of the Christian community. We will not, therefore, 
say that the preacher is required to renounce his individuality. 
This view presumes a conflict, which, unfortunately, arises in many 
cases between the convictions of the preacher and those of the 
Church. It should, rather, be the aim of the preacher to make the 
asserting of his individuality subserve the spiritual elevation of the 
congregation, and his human teaching reflect the word of God. 
For the preacher's individuality is not, in point of fact, to be con- 
sidered a channel through which water flows, or a glass for the pas- 
sage of the rays of light. On the other hand, we hold that the 
preacher is not to annihilate, but to perfect and idealize, his indi- 
viduality. The speaker, carried along by the peculiarity of his 
Christian life, pours out upon the congregation what has been de- 
veloped into life in his own personal experience, and thereby awak- 
ens new life in his hearers.' 

But he does this in an artistic form by first stripping off the evil 
features attaching to his individuality, including everything that is 
merely subjective and accidental, by permitting the product of his 
mind to become clear to himself through the process of meditating 
jipon it, and to become, in a true sense, a part of his inner life, and 
by assuring himself, with an inward certainty that extends down 
to the individual expression, that he is justified in appearing in this 
precise manner, and not otherwise, before the congregation, as its 
speaker, and that he is called to labour precisely in that form. We 
do not question whether the preacher, by virtue of his ofiicial posi- 
tion, is alone competent to perform this function, and 
Lay preaching. ' , , ^ , J>i i ' ^^ t 

not other members of the Church as well. Laymen 

ofliciated as speakers in the early Church. We consider it proper 

' Beyer, ubi siipra, p. 25, separates the idea of the sermon into three parts : (1) The 
creative ; (2) The receptive ; and (3) the mediating principle. He finds these three in 
(1) The word of God ; (2) The congregation ; and (3) The person of the preacher. " The 
word of God furnishes the sermon with its life-giving and saving contents, the life 
derived from God ; the adaptation to the congregation gives to it historical and local 
form ; and the mind of the preacher, in which the preceding elements are combined 
into unity, bestows upon it the power and colouring of personal life." 



HOMILETICS. 553 

that our worship be so expanded as to admit of other than settled 
and stationed ordained preachers. Lay preaching, however, should 
have clearly defined limits. To judge of the sermon altogether 
from the pastoral, instead of from the liturgical and lay, point of 
view, and to consider the pulpit simply as an elevation upon which 
the one shepherd stands to feed his flock, appears to us an entire 
misunderstanding of the nature of the sermon. We do not disre- 
gard the benefits arising from the bond which joins pastor and peo- 
ple together, but all the gifts and graces for preaching are not con- 
fined to him who may be pastor. 

SECTION XV. 

HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 

Homiletics is divided into two parts, the General and the Special. 
The latter embraces, 1. Invention; 2. Disposition; 3. The Division of 
elaboration and delivery of the discourse. Care is re- JioQuietics. 
quired, however, to avoid the danger of regarding such division in 
thought as having brought about a real separation in the concrete, 
and to guard in general against losino- sight of the essential charac- 
ter and meaning of pulpit discourse, because of the influence of the 
arbitrary rules of the schools which have intruded themselves into 
the different divisions of homiletics. 

The theory may be divided in conformity with the two questions, 
What shall be preached? and How shall it be preached? The Umit of sa- 
This was the plan pursued by Augustine in his Christ- ^''^^ eloquence. 
ian Doctrine. The matter may be considered in its general and its 
particular aspects, the general inquiry being, How far does the limit 
of sacred eloquence extend? That limit is determined by the 
Christian character. Nothing but what is connected with the 
Christian life as such,^ and aims to establish, purify, and perfect 
that life, iftay properly be made the subject of homiletical discourse. 
But nothing that belongs within that circle can be excluded from 
the range of such discourse. This is, consequently, the place for 
determining the character of Christian preaching. The sermon 
should be pervaded by both doctrinal and ethical preaching. The 
two should interpenetrate each other, though the doctrinal element 
may at times predominate, and at other times the ethical. To what 
extent may political matters be discussed? How far may the course 
of nature, as the changes of the seasons, be regarded? In all these 

* We assume as self-evident the fact that the standard to which such Christian life 
is to be conformed is given in the word of God, and particularly in the teaching of 
Christ and the apostles. 



554 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

matters good taste and sound wisdom must be observed. There is 
a time for everything. 

The first division of homiletics is the theory of invention. No 
direct invention, in the ordinary meaning of the word, 
must be understood. The matter for our preaching 
was invented long ago. But the duty is devolved upon us of de- 
ciding what portion of the existing treasure shall now be presented 
to the congregation. With what subject should the preacher deal 
on this day, at this hour, in this particular instance ? At this point 
we again meet the opposing elements of the prescribed and the 
free. There are certain great general topics, such as Christmas, the 
new year, Easter, important national days, and public events of par- 
amount interest, which require special treatment, but the device of 
the text and mode of treatment are the province of the preacher in 
his individual capacity. To what degree may a preacher be guided 
by his personal mood? How far may outward circumstances gov- 
ern his choice ? Should he, in his regular ministrations, undertake 
a doctrinal or an exegetical series ? Which parts and books of the 
Scriptures deserve to be separately treated ? Should he select his 
texts chiefly from the Old or the New Testament ? Should he pre- 
fer historical to doctrinal passages? Should he choose parables; 
larger or smaller sections; texts from the gospels, or the epistles, 
or the apostolic history? Guiding principles are needed in all these 
matters. There should be no accident or personal whim. Even 
eminent preachers have allowed themselves to be misled into the 
effort of exciting curiosity either by selecting peculiar texts or dis- 
cussing piquant themes. Reinhard and Draseke in Germany, and 
many preachers in both England and America, have erred in differ- 
ent directions upon this point; the one being misled by his ingenu- 
ity, the other by his wit. Reinhard, however, was tempted to go 
astray because of the restriction imposed by the topics prescribed 
by the ecclesiastical calendar. The custom of selecting abbreviated 
texts, mere starting points of texts, so to speak, prevails especially 
in the Reformed Church of France. This is very prominent in the 
sermons of Adolph Monod and Alexander Yinet. 

A frequent and living intercourse with the Scriptures, the obser- 

^ -.^. vation of its practical features, an acquaintance with 

Conditions nee- ^ . 

essary for prop- the human heart, a correct estimate of the preacher's 
personal disposition, and especially a candid observa- 
tion of the time and its needs, and of the Church at large as well 
as the local church, comprehend the secret of homiletical invention, 
and protect against the intellectual bankruptcy of being preached 
out, while they also cut off, at the beginning, all temptation to 



HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 555 

make use of unworthy artifices^ such as an attempt to surprise by 
novelty and originality. A text that has been judiciously selected 
is worth half a sermon, and brief and striking texts are certainly 
very effective. Palmer remarks: " It is a beautiful and grand thing 
for the preacher to have succeeded in striking the proper chord in 
the very enunciation of his text, and an electrical effect is often 
produced when the congregation is made to realize at the outset 
that this is to be the subject which ought to be discussed to-day." ^ 

When the theme and text have been selected the work of arrauge- 
ing is in order. It is, first of all, necessary to determine the exact 
relation sustained by the text to the theme, and this decision will 
govern the further progress of the sermon, the theme being either 
at once evoked from the text, and then developed more extensively, 
or, being gradually developed before the hearer's mind, the dis- 
course is strung upon the thread of the text. The former method 
is synthetic preaching; the latter, analytical. The two 
methods may frequently be combiaed and interpene- analytical 
trate each other, especially when but little attention is ^^^ ° ' 
bestowed upon unnatural and inflexible divisions, and more regard 
is had for a natural and attractive grouping of ideas. Arrange- 
ment is certainly needed, but not arrangement only. Connexion is 
also requisite. By this we mean a just distribution of effective 
points, not only in harmony with the laws of logic, but also with 
those of rhetoric and art. 

Herder strikingly observes of a true disposition of the sermon: 
" There must be no figure, no clause, no comma, which does not 
grow, as it were, necessarily out of the theme as a branch and its 
limbs, or a flower and a leaf of the tree grow out of the root or the 
trunk. If it be not in this place it is nowhere, and the discourse is 
incomplete; it has a gap, a vacant plnce, as we say of paintings. 
A totally different question is that which asks whether the disposi- 
tion should be set forth like a naked skeleton. Nature does not fol- 
low that plan, and the sermon should be the last to adopt it. 
Natural arrangement, and a continued analysis of the word of God, 
form the best disposition for its use." "^ The best mode of division, 
however, will always be that in which the connexion of the text 
determines the structure of the sermon, and where the latter grows 
out of the text. This, likewise, settles the question concerning the 
relative value of synthetical or analytical sermons. 

The sermon should not be a mere unorganized agglomeration and 
aggregation of saws and sentences any more than it should resem- 
ble a skeleton. A fine human figure is resolved into its component 

^ Page 384. " Brief e iiber das Studium der Theologie, No. 45. 



556 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

members before tbe observer, but the members have an elastic con- 
nexion, and are not articulated with wires. The bones may no 
more stand out than they may be buried in obesity from sight. So 
with the sermon. This involves the entire secret of so-called ser- 
monic division. Much pedantry has taken root in this field, but it 
is once more dying out. The aim was to divide off with the aid of 
Artistic divis- liii® ^^^ compass, and an external symmetry, as in the 
i^^' closely clipped French gardens, came to be considered 

the law of beauty. A Procrustean bed was made ready, and every- 
thing was stretched or cut off until the parts, and secondary parts, 
were all of equal length. The utmost conscientiousness was em- 
ployed in measuring and weighing whether a sermon should be 
divided into two or three parts, or whether more than three could 
be allowed, and how much space should be allotted to the introduc- 
tion and every other member. Many preachers even made use 
of an arrangement obtained from others, as if theft were not a 
crime, and as if the arrangement and the execution did not mutu- 
ally determine each other. A master must be competent to fit his 
own goods; only a bungler will construct a patchwork article. 
Much has been said upon the delivery of the sermon. It cannot 

be denied that the pulpit has its own peculiar stvle, any 

The delivery. . . j ' j 

more than it can be denied that there is a special style 

of praying or singing, or of architecture, in the Church. The 
preacher should not talk, but speak, and speaking is an art. His 
tone should not be simply argumentative, nor merely hortatory, nor 
yet merely pathetic. The beauty of the discourse is dependent on 
its truthfulness. Beyer well says: "If the idea of the beautiful 
requires that thought should find its adequate expression in the con- 
crete form, a sacred beauty must always be ascribed to the sermon. 
Its divine substance is to be presented to view under the form of 
human speech, and, therefore, must penetrate with glorifying power 
through the whole discourse, and appear in its structure, and even 
in the separate words. But the beauty of the sermon is for this 
very reason not such as may be intentionally sought out and arti- 
ficially manufactured. It is no tinsel ornamentation." ^ 

The more fully justice is done to the sermon the richer will it be 
in fulness of expression, resembling the word of God, in which it 
has its origin. In its moments of elevation it may approximate to 
the poetical character, but without becoming poetry.^ Everything 

^ Uhi supra, p. 348, and also p. 567. 

2 Comp. Palmer, TJeber das Malen in den Predigten, p. 85, sqq. "We would not 
agree with him in designating Krummacher absolutely as a model, since his colours are 
at times altogether too glaring. 



HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIA L. 557 

that is unwortliy, all that resembles the Capuchinade, all raeretri- 

cious ornamentation, both that which recalls to mind the grosser 

affairs of ordinary life and that which involves the terminology of 

the schools and books; in a word, all that is purely tech- „ , 

' ' 1 J Useless orna- 

nical, should be carefully excluded from the sermon, ment to be 
All foreign terms which are not contained in the Bible *^^^*^^- 
are, therefore, to be avoided whenever possible. Dignity and sim- 
plicity should combine in it into the higher unity of Christian ear- 
nestness. Popularity of style should not be carried to the extreme 
of triviality. The language should be select, but not strained. A 
true popularity, an adaptation to the level of common minds,* may 
most readily be secured by the study of the Scriptures and of the 
good, robust preachers of the earlier days. Such older forms of 
thought need to be recast into modern phraseology, however, in 
order that an adventurous pulpit jargon, having no affinity with 
actual life, may be avoided. 

Whether the sermon should be written and memorized, or merely 
elaborated in the mind, will depend upon personal considerations, 
and theory has but little concern with the question. Palmer says: 
" The congregation does not ask, and has no right to ask, how you 
prepare to speak readily, whether by writing your sermon or other- 
wise. Your mode of occupation while in the study is your business 
alone. You may, if you choose, compose your sermons in Latin or 
in French; if you employ your language, the tongue of the congre- 
gation, readily while in the pulpit, the other processes involved in 
the sermon concern yourself alone." Schleiermacher has expressed 
the opinion that persons of placid disposition may venture upon ex- 
temporaneous speech, while emotional natures would do better to 
fix both thought and its expression by previous writing. The old 
Zalansky says a blunt word: "A young preacher should sit out and 
sweat out. his sermons; first write them, and when they have been 
thoroughly finished present them to the people. . . . Shame upon 
them who even make it their boast that they have not in many 
years devoted a sheet of paper to the writing of their sermons." 
It does not follow from this that sermons should smell of the lamp. 
Artis est artem eel are. 

The internal process of preparing the sermon must never be al- 
lowed to appear in the delivery. The sermon, e\en ^^ 
^ ^ \ '' ' The sermon to 

though a written one, must always be mentally con- be mentally 
structed with a view to its being s}>oken, and not as if ^-^'^^^''^c*®*^- 

^ The popularizing of preaching was never more strongly urged than at a time when 
the true Christian life of the people had been wholly lost sight of. The best discus- 
sion of unction, is given by Vinet, in his Pastoral Theology, pp. 214, 215. 



558 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

it were an article to be read.' It must lie in the mind as a speech, 
and be continually upon our tonixues; the imagination must always 
picture us, as was always Guthrie's method, as standing in the pul- 
pit with the open Bible before us, and the congregation assembled 
iu our presence. Only thus shall we be able to retain sufficient 
freshness of mind to prevent the sermon from becoming stale in the 
process of protracted preparation, and to cause it to be constantly 
new and fresh while we meditate upon it, so that the time of deliv- 
ery may become the real natal hour of the sermon, and the hearer 
may be impressed that it comes freely and directly from the heart 
at that moment. It is self-evident that a sermon which must be 
read, as a whole, can produce no such effect. Rosenkranz says: 
" The unfortunate habit, begun in early life, of relying upon read- 
ing and writing, and the fact that people have not been sufficiently 
accustomed to think, form the reason why free speech, which can 
only arise from an assured state of the mind, is kept down, espe- 
cially in the case of persons of liberal culture." But a school-boy-like 
and poorly memorized sermon, and also one that is so completely 
extemporized that the pangs of labour under which the speaker 
brings forth his thoughts may be observed, will produce a painful, 
and, even if joined with much facility of speech, a repulsive im- 
pression. 

As a final direction, it must be observed that the various opera- 
tions of invention, arrangement, and elaboration are not to be sepa- 
rately employed in a mechanical way, but each must be made to ex- 
ert a determining, supplementing, and correcting influence over the 
others, if the sermon is to retain its vital colouring. The entire sermon 
must already be present in the moment of mental composition, as the 
plant exists in the germ. It is simply to be resolved before the mind 
into its elements, and be precipitated and clarified, as in some chemical 
process. The arrangement often leads to a more exact fixing of the 
theme, and the elaboration rencts upon the disposition, while the 
written word cannot be corrected until the spoken word has been 
heard. A sermon may be excellent in point of style, and yet read 
by the preacher to himself to better advantage than it can be heard 
by a congre station. It is, therefore, necessary that the preacher 
Possible effect should not only think himself into the sermon, but also 
be^studieTby ^'^^^ ^ ^^^^ estimate of the effect it will produce upon 
the preacher, the ear. Often the repeating of the sermon aloud, or 
at any rate its imaginary delivery in thought, instead of merely 

^ Gossner remarks that the Holy Ghost at Pentecost distributed tongues of fire, but 
not pens for writing. Bengel's motto was, " Think much, and write little : " and yet 
he conscientiously wrote down at least the plan. 



HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 559 

thinking it over, will be very beneficial. Bishop Burnet was accus- 
tomed, when riding or walking, to speak upon a given text in a loud 
tone of voice, and without any preparation, by which practice he 
attained to such readiness that he became able to speak appropri- 
ately upon any subject without much previous thought. The sermon 
should be transfigured and spiritualized to its very centre down to the 
moment of delivery, in which it is thrown off as a ripened fruit from 
the mind of the preacher. If a sermon be delivered a second time, 
or many times, it should be improved for every new delivery. Thus 
only can there come the joy of creating with each repetition. To 
ride an old sermon to death is a sad business. " Dissatisfaction 
with old sermons," says Palmer, " should continue . while life re- 
mains." Augustine was always dissatisfied with his sermons after 
they had been delivered. When shall the immorality of presenting 
in numberless churches a fossil sermon that has once, like a part in 
a play, been committed to memory, come to an end? 

The rules with reference to delivery are generally of a negative 
character. Harms fancifully comprehends the whole under the 
three L's, " langsam, laut, lieblich " — slow, loud, pleasant. Canon 
Kingsley said : " Keep sacredly to the habit of breathing at every 
stop. Read and speak slow; and take care of the consonants, and 
the vowels will take care of themselves." ^ Upon the subject of 
gestures especially, in which much depends upon the 
speaker's individuality, it is possible only to indicate 
precautions of the most general kind. Much depends upon the 
theme. The gesture should be the outgrowth of the thought and 
feeling. It is only effective when unconscious, like the breathing of 
a child. Be sure the gesticulation is imperfect, unnatural, if the 
speaker can remember afterward what it was. Herder had no ges- 
ticulation, and Schleiermacher next to none. The elder Edwards 
had almost none, even in his most overpowering discourses. The 
young preacher should guard against imitating some favourite ges- 
ticulator. Some use the mirror as a help in preparation. But a 
faithful friend, who directs attention upon our mistakes of emphasis 
and our faulty gestures, is the best kind of mirror within reach. 
Goethe's words, in Faust, will cover all our remaining ground: 

If feeling does not prompt, in vain you strive; 

If from the soul the language does not come, 

By its own impulse, to impel the hearts 

Of hearers, with communicated power, 

lu vain you strive — in vain you sturiy earnestly. 

' Letters and Memoirs of the Life of Charles Kingsley, p. 384. The entire letter 
addressed to Miss is on Stammering, but will apply well to pulpit elocution. 



560 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Toil on forever; piece together fragments; 

Cook up your broken scraps of sentences, 

And blow, with puffing breath, a struggling light, 

Glimmering confusedly now, now cold in ashes; 

Startle the schoolboys with your metaphors ; 

And if such food may suit your appetite, 

Win the vain wonder of applauding children! 

But never look to win the hearts of men, 

And mould the souls of many into one, 

By words which come seductive from the heart! 

Be honest, if you would be eloquent ; 

Be not a chiming fool with cap and bells ; 

Reason and genuine feeling want no arts 

Of utterance — ask no toil of elocution; 

And when you are in earnest, do you need 

A search for words ? O, these fine holiday phrases, 

In which you robe your worn-out commonplaces, 

These scraps of paper which you crimp and curl, 

And twist into a thousand idle shapes, 

These filigree ornaments, are good for nothing. 

Cost time and pains, please few, impose on no one ; 

Are unrefreshing, as the wind that whistles, 

In autumn, 'mong the dry and wrinkled leaves. 



SECTION XVI. 

' THE METHOD OF HOMILETICS. 

Exercises which afford a preparation for preaching are: (1) The 
Preparationsfor Cultivation and quickening of the practical faculty in 
the pulpit. ^\^Q general study of the Bible; (2) The preserving of 

particular thoughts in writing, which contain the germs of future 
themes; (3) Practice in delivery. Constant and devotional listening 
to sermons in the services of the Church, and also the reading of 
homiletical productions, whether old or new, aid greatly in the form- 
ing of the future pulpit speaker. 

Exegesis should not be studied alone with a view to the pulpit. 
But practical exegesis should, nevertheless, always be enjoined with 
critical. The person who studies the Scriptures as a preacher 
should must often be struck by their flashes of light even when 
engaged upon the driest subjects. Such flashes indicate fruitful 
seasons. Every preacher should keep a notebook, upon which to 
enter the seedthoughts gained from the Scriptures, together with 
brief hints with regard to disposition and elaboration. In all his 
walks and most leisurely moments his eye should be on his pulpit. 



THE METHOD OF HOMILETICS. 561 

The most useful scrapbooks for preachers are those which each 
man compiles for himself. Exegesis in preaching can- ^^ 

not be conducted on the same plan as surgical prac- ways before 
tice upon a skeleton. It is a skeleton, indeed, when a ^^^° 
student is required to preach in the presence of his fellow students 
and a faculty of theologians, who are to personate the absent con- 
gregation. We suppose there is necessity for this in theological 
seminaries, but no student is expected to do full justice to himself 
under such circumstances. Young Rothe, in his student days, 
wrote this to his father: " Frankly stated, it appears to me that 
an experiment of this kind is a questionable matter. It is surely 
a repulsive thought that a Christian congregation should sit like 
a sort of wdg-block upon which a young bungler is to try his 
sermon; and yet in another direction such an experiment can, in 
view of the entire nature of the sermon, be undertaken nowhere 
but in the congregation, and it must, therefore, be carried through 
in that way." A sermon may be read, or recited, or gone through 
somehow, before an audience of critics, but it cannot be delivered 
in the highest sense. Might it be proper in like manner to pray 
by w^ay of test ? or to exhort, or to censure or comfort, all by way 
of practice ? 

But there ought to be practice in delivery ? Yes, and the more 
the better, provided it is rightly done. The school should aim to 
promote tliis end, and do this work. Student associations for prac- 
tice in speaking will also render valuable aid. But when it is re- 
quired that a sermon should be preached by way of practice — and 
this should come to pass in the last year of the course — let it be 
undertaken with the help of God, and with full allowances for all 
the disadvantages of the hour. 

Many preachers attempt to display the whole of their theology in 
their first sermon; many others endeavour to concen- Defects of first 
trate in it all the feeling of their hearts. A wise re- sermons, 
straint is highly needed at this point. Persons who have not yet 
passed beyond the period of theological conflict should beware of 
troubling the congregation with their doubts, or with the questions 
of the schools in general. Let them select themes which they are 
able to discuss, which have become transparent and concrete to 
their minds, and which they are competent to manage. Herder's 
paternal counsel has a general application here: ''O friend, friend, 
do not hasten into the pulpit while too young or too thoughtless. 
You are not without other exercises which, though conducted in 
private, will forward you further on your way. If you insist on 
preaching, at least clothe yourself in modesty from head to foot. 
36 



563 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Nothing is more attractive in a youthful speaker, and especially a 
pulpit speaker, than this." 

Many, however, are restrained from entering the pulpit by exces- 
„. .^.^ sive timidity, and by the fear of breaking down. Such 

Timidity no ,^ ^ . . .. ^ 

ground for dis- difficulties, which have their origin as frequently in self- 
couragemen . .^r^ pride as in a really sacred awe respecting the char- 
acter of the office, can only be overcome in a moral way. The true 
napprjata is a gift of grace. The best young preachers, however, 
have always been most alarmed. Pliny says: "Quod M. Cicero de 
stilo, ego de metu sentio. Timor est emendator acerrimus. Hoc 
ipsum, quod nos recitaturos cogitamus, emendat; quod auditorium 
ingredimus, emendat; quod pollemus, horrescimus, circumspicimus, 
emendat." Luther preached his first sermon in the convent of the 
Augustine monks before venturing to present himself before the 
public. Spener says that when he entered the pulpit for the first 
time he felt as though he were being led to the place of execution. 
Moeves testifies that he trembled far more while preaching his first 
sermon than when listening to the thunder of his first battle. 

Criticism may follow the sermon of the young preacher, but it 
should not be allowed to intimidate him beforehand. It is, more- 
over, a fact that he only is able to feel and hear himself into the 
real spirit of a sermon who gladly and frequently listens to the ser- 
mons of other men. One of the faults of our surfeited age consists 
in its unwillingness to hear other than distinguished orators. Some- 
Every sermon thing may be learned from every sermon, even though 
a lesson. j^ \yQ ^ poor one. But there is no objection to our be- 

coming acquainted with what is best and most perfect whenever 
opportunity is afforded. In this direction the rich sermon litera- 
ture of our English theology is of great assistance. The reading of 
a sermon is not, of course, equivalent to hearing it, but it possesses 
advantages of its own. Criticism may be applied with much less 
restraint in this case than when listening during the hour of wor- 
ship in the church. The reading of sermons should be elevated into 
a study to a much greater extent than is actually the case. Artists 
are directed to examine works of art, and poets are obliged to read 
the works of other poets. Why should not a similar rule apply to 
sermons? To construct anew a sermon that has been read by a 
master in the pulpit, and to search out its effective points, penetrate 
into the mystery of its profound connexion with the Christian life, 
and compare its method with that of another, constitutes a valuable 
exercise for young ministers of the Gospel, and one u^on which 
teachers of homiletics should lay greater stress. Such critical read- 
ings, moreover, afford the surest defence against the danger of 



THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 563 

slavishly imitating so-called " sermon skeletons," in which undertak- 
ing it generally happens that the imitators copy precisely their faults 
and excesses. Better study a great sermon than any skeleton. But 
do not steal either, or from either. 



SECTION XVII. 

THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 

I. History of the Christian Sermon. 

Schuler, Gesch. der Veranderungen des Geschmacks im Predigen, Halle, 1792-94, 3 vols. ; and 
ihkl., Beitrage zur Gesch. d. Verand. des Geschmacks Im Predigen, Halle, 1799; Ammon, 
Gescb. d. Homiletik, etc., Gottlngen, 1804, Part I. (the first period from Huss to Luther, with 
historical introduction to the history of homlletics, from the rise of Christianity down to the be- 
ginning of the fifteenth century) ; Schmidt, Kurzer Abriss d. Gesch. d. geistl. Beredsamkeit u. 
Homiletik, Jena, 1790; Schuderoff, Vers, einer Kritik d. Homiletik, Gotha, 1797; Lentz, Gesch. 
d. christl. Homiletik, Brunsw., 1839 ; Paniel, Pragm, Gesch. d. chrlstl. Beredsamkeit u. d. Hom- 
iletik, Leips., 1839 ; Schenck, Gesch. d. deutsch-Protest. Kanzelberedsamkeit von Luther bis auf 
d. neuesten Zeiten, Berl., 1841 ; Doering, Die deutschen Kanzelredner des 18ten u. 19ten Jahr- 
hunderts, Neustadt a. d. Oder, 1830; Leopold, Predigtamt im Urchristenthum, etc., Liineburg, 
1846 ; Marbach, Gesch. d. deutschen Predigt vor Luther, Berl., 1873 ; Beste, Die bedeutendsten 
Kanzelredner d. altern Lutherischen Ku-che, von Luther bis Spener (2 vols.), Leips., 1856-58 ; Al. 
Vinet, Histoire de la predication parmi les R^formes de France au dix septieme siecle, Paris, 
"i860 , Sack, Gesch. d. Predigt in d. deutschen evangel. Kirche, Heidelberg, 1866 ; Schmidt, 
Gesch. d. Predigt i. d. evangel. Kirche Deutschlands von Luther bis Spener, etc., Gotha, 1873. 

For English and 4Daerican bibliography, see below. 

The earliest preaching was a KT^pvyjia, a declaration, a heralding, 
and the formal homily was not developed until a sys- The early hom- 
tem of Christian worship had been constructed, although *^^^- 
it did not entirely supersede free discourse even then. Either hom- 
ilies or free discourses were handed down by Origen, Eusebius of 
Csesarea, Eusebius of Emisa, Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius, 
Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzen, Cyril of 
Jerusalem, Ephraem Syrus, Macarius, Amphilojhius, and John 
Chrysostom. These were not always free from the influence of the 
ancient rlietoric learned from heathen schools. In the Latin Church 
the discourses of Zeno of Verona, Ambrose, Gaudentius, Augustine, 
Leo L, and others, are worthy of note. 

Preaching declined in the Middle Ages. In the Greek Church 
John of Damascus and Photius delivered addresses in Medisevai 
honour of the Virgin Mary and of images; but the preaching. 
Trullan Council (692) had already directed the clergy to make use 
of old and approved homilies. In the Western Church recourse 
was likewise had at first to collections, postils, i. e., post ilia scil. 
verba Domini sive Scripturae Sacrae, the earliest of which were 
undertaken by Paul Warnefried and Alcuin, and followed by the 
similar collections of Raban Maur, Haymo of Halberstadt, and 
others. These collections were designed to serve as models for 



564 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

imitation in the vernacular. But this design was gradually laid aside 
as the growth of the hierarchy and of externality in the worship 
became more pronounced. The power of Cliristian oratory was 
henceforth less apparent in the church than in the open air, frequent- 
ly in the public streets. The preaching in convents was conducted 
in the Latin language. St. Bernard (Doctor mellifluus), and also 
the great scholastic Thomas Aquinas, attained to special eminence in 
this regard. The Begging Friars, from the thirteenth century, gave 
a new impetus to preaching. According to the historians, Bertholdt 
of Regensburg (died 1272), a Franciscan monk, preached to sixty 
thousand people. 

Among the Mystics special importance attaches to Master Eckart, 
The Mystic Heinrich Suso, and particularly to John Tauler. John 
preachers. Melicz, the forerunner of Huss, and the latter reformer 
himself, likewise brought a beneficial influence to bear upon the 
work of preaching. Chancellor Gerson preached in both Latin and 
French, and the great Florentine, Girolamo Savonarola, was espe- 
cially powerful of speech. The fifteenth century brought with it 
some strange contrasts, the comical being closely connected with 
the serious. This reflection will serve to explain the burlesque 
mode of preaching followed by Gabriel Barletta, Olivier Maillard, 
Michael Menot, and, to some extent, by the excellent Geiler of 
Kaisersberg. The Brothers of the Common Life, on the other 
hand, contributed toward the promotion of Protestant preaching. 

The Reformation of the sixteenth century, however, was pre- 
eminently a regeneration of the Christian sermon as based on the 
Preaching by word of God, Luther himself being distinguished above 
the Reformers, all others, although Zwingli does not need, upon the 
whole, to take a much lower place. The personal traits and situa- 
tion of these men were very different. Calvin was also peculiar, 
and most of the remaining reformers, as CEcolampadius, Bullinger, 
and Haller, were good preachers. The time, however, when men 
attained to eminence in such labours soon came to an end. Luther's 
"postils" were followed by others, of which still others availed 
themselves with more or less benefit. Of writers of postils we may 
mention Anton Corvinus, Brentz, Avenarius (Habermann), Chem- 
nitz, Osiander (Peasant Postils), Matthesius (Mountain Postils), 
and Dietrich (Children's and Home Postils). 

Much insipidity prevailed at the close of the sixteenth century 
and during the seventeenth, and it was especially common to intro- 
duce disputes into the pulpit, and to chastise heretics. But worthy 
and edifying preachers were not wanting, of whom we name espe- 
cially Arndt (died 1627), the author of the treatise on True Chris- 



THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 565 

tianity, Ilerberger (died 1627), Andrea, and others. The structure 
of the sermon was now subjected to critical treatment, and all 
manner of artificial divisions were introduced ; for example, the 
five different testes: (1) didascalicus; (2) elenchticus; (3) paracleticus; 
(4) epanorthoticus; (5) paedenticus. In the end there were, literally, 
a hundred different methods, and all imaginable fancies Fanciful divis- 
with regard to theme, exordium, and division. The *<^^s- 
want of taste reached its culmination — not, however, in a pedantic 
form so much as in a mere disposition to drift — in the Roman 
Catholic Church of Germany, in the person of the eccentric preacher, 
Ulric Megerle (Abraham de St. Clara, court preacher at Vienna, 
died 1709), who displayed many excellent qualities, but carried the 
effort to popularize his sermons to the extreme of triviality, and in- 
dulged his scurrilous method until his name became proverbial. 

A very different state of things existed in France, where both 
the Reformed and the Catholic Churches were served by the most 
celebrated of their pulpit orators at this time. We may mention^ 
of those belonging to the former Church, Mestrezal ^^jg French 
(died"' 1657), du Bosc (died 1692), Claude (died 1687), p^^ip"- 
and especially Saurin, who preached at the Hague, and died 1730. 
Of Roman Catholic preachers we may name: Mascaron (died 1703), 
and pre-eminently, Flechier (died 1710), Bossuet (died 1704), Bour- 
daloue (died 1710), and Massillon. The fame of these preachers is 
based upon their classic style, Chrysostom being their model, more 
than upon the depth and consistency of their Christian sentiments. 
Fenelon (dieil 1715), on the other hand, was distinguished for his 
fervour. After the Huguenots, expelled under Louis XIY., had 
settled in Germany, the French style, as represented in Ancillon, 
Abadie, Jacquelot, Lenfant, and especially in Saurin, came to be 
regarded as a model also in that country. To this must be added 
the English model, found in the perspicuous and moderate Tillot- 
son, who died 1694. 

The preaching now became more mild in its doctrinal character, 
and gave greater attention to moral questions, besides making use 
of greater elegancies of style, its leading representatives being 
found in the Swiss preachers, Osterwald and Werenfels. The piet- 
ism of Spener and Francke led, in Germany, to a re- sermons of the 
newed recognition of the profound conditions upon Pietists. 
which the life of the Christian sermon depends. But it was im- 
possible that its influence should conduce to give it an artistic form. 
Spener's style was heavy. Wolfianism, too, was not favourable to 
the easy movement of discourse. The mania for definition and 
demonstration became highly ridiculous, in many instances of even 



566 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

this kind of labour. Rambach (died 1735) represents, in Germany, 
the transition from the pietistic to the philosophical method fol- 
lowed by Reinbeck, who died in 1741. Modern pulpit oratory, in 
that country, had its origin with Mosheim (died 1755), who was 
termed the German Bourdaloue, and whose model was Tillotson. 
He was follow^ed by Cramer (died 1788), the elder and the younger 
Sack, Jerusalem, Spalding, Zollikofer, Resewitz, Teller, Bartels, 
and others. The reflective and moralizing elements constituted the 
predominant quality in most works emanating from these, in some 
instances, very celebrated preachers. They also gave increasing 
expression to the utilitarian theory. Under such influence sermons 
came to be degraded not only into dry disquisitions upon morality, 
but even into popular lectures on agriculture, hygiene, and simi- 
larly inferior topics. The more strictly evangelical method was not 
left without representatives, however, who continually asserted its 
claims in the face of such aberrations. In Wtirtemberg, Rieger 
(died 1743) was considered a model, and in Prussia the "divine 
orator" Willamovius became an ideal for the imitation of Herder. 

Herder and Lavater apprehended the task of sacred oratory anew, 
Herder and ^^^ came into decided contrast, not only with the more 
Lavater. strictly evangelical, but also with the rationalistic, method 
of preaching, which had its origin in Kantianism, and whose repre- 
sentatives appear in the persons of Loffler (died 1816) and others. 
Both Herder and Lavater were rather guided by their own genius 
than by the methods of any school. Reinhard (died 1812) became 
the founder of such a school, and the representative of a strictly 
logical method. His sermons, collected in thirty-five volumes 
(1793-1813), were long regarded as models. They were charac- 
terized by richness of thought, especially upon moral questions, 
clearness and definiteness of expression, force and dignity of style. 
Their deficiencies are, a farfetched and indirect treatment of the 
text, and, coupled with a degree of religious warmth, a certain 
dryness and prosaic rationalism. The method of Zollikofer and 
Reinhard found supporters among both rationalists and supranatu- 
ralists, and, in fact, occupies a theological position in which the con- 
trast between their different principles has not yet been thoroughly 
overcome. 

The more eminent preachers who, while retaining more or less of 
personal freedom and individuality, followed in the track of these 
earlier models, were Marezoll, Ribbeck, Hanstein, Ehrenberg, Ey- 
lert. Kief eker, Ammon, Bretschneider, Tzschirner, Schuderoff, Rohr, 
Zimmermann, Schmalz, Bockel, Alt, the Strasburgers Haffner and 
Blessig, the Swiss Muslin, Stolz, Hafele, Heer, Fasi, and others. 



THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 567 

The oratory of many of these men attained to a higher elevation 

than that of their models. 

Schleierraacher (died 1834) introduced a new life into the method 

of preaching,* as, indeed, he did into theoloery g;ener- 

~'' ~ SchlBierrnacher 

ally. The prevalent moralizing method predominates 

in his earlier sermons, the First Collection. But the specifically 
Christian element comes into greater prominence in his later efforts, 
though in the manner which was peculiar to himself. His dialectic 
method has been frequently imitated to the injury of his followers. 
His sermons deserve rather to be studied than imitated. The ser- 
mons of Claus Harms, of Kiel — Sermons and United Postils — are 
constructed with a larger recognition of the condition and needs of 
the people, and are genuine models of Christian addresses in popu- 
lar form, althousfh it is necessary to distino^uish between 

CIeus Harms 
the earlier (1808-11) and the later (1824-27). Harms 

concedes that " much rationalistic sin still attaches " to the former. 
But this cannot be said of the latter class, or of his " Christological 
Sermons" (1821), since the controversy that called forth his Theses 
gave to Harms a place among the most advanced defenders of Lu- 
theran orthodoxy. It is also necessary to separate between an earlier 
and a later period in the case of Draseke, whose affectation of orig- 
inality often destroys the profound impression otherwise produced, 
although a noble enthusiasm, akin to that of Herder, exhales from 
his sermons. 

Originality, carried to the verge of extravagance, and sometimes 
of insipidity, attains its highest point in the sermons of F. A. 
Krummacher. Theremin's sermons are characterized by grent rhe- 
torical talent and perfection of style. It may be stated, as a general 
fact, that the renewed infusion of life into theology restored life 
and individuality to preaching as well. A long list of names might 
be furnished of persons who are distinguished by logical keenness, 
or depth of thought, by intensity or elevation of feeling, or by the 
power of evangelicnl conviction and the fire of a newly awakened 
zeal, which, in some instances, assumes forms of every variety and 
with every degree of colour. It will be sufiicient to recall the 
names of the more or less venerated persons without dwelling upon 
the different tendencies they represent — for example, Menken, 

' Schweizer, Schleiermacher's Wirksamkeit als Prediger, Halle, 1834 ; Rhenius, 
Magdeb., 1837; Rienacker, in Stud. u. Krit., 1831, No. 2, pp. 240-54; Sack, ibid., 
pp. 350-85 ; Liicke, Erinnerungen an Schleiermacher, ibid., 1834, No. 3, p. 745, sgg. ; 
concerning Schleiermacher's political sermons, see Wehrenpf ening in the Prot. Kirchen- 
Zeitung for September, 1859; Baur, Schleiermacher als Prediger in d. Zeit von 
Deutschland's Erniedrigung und Erhebung, Leips., 1871. 
37 



56S PRACTICAL TPIEOLOGY. 

Emmerich, Ilossbach, Jonas, Sydow, de Wette, Al. Schweizer, Grtin- 
eisen, Tholuck, Nitzsch, Strauss, Harless, Jul. Milller, Tob. Beck, 
Arndt, the two Hofackers, Krummacher, Ahlfeld, Schenkel, Rust, 
I'alraer, Ehrenfeuchter, Ebrard, Steinmeyer, Conrad, Gerock, Hoff- 
mann, Kohlbriigge, Sander, ^lallet, Bernet, Bvichsel, Kogel, Harms 
(of Hermann sburg), Langbein, Petri, Miillensiefen, Kapff, Bey- 
schl.ig, Rothe, Bruckner, Kahnis, W. Baur, and others. 

Modern rationalism is represented, though with various modifica- 
tions, by Schwarz of Gotha, H. Lang of Zurich, and Hausrath of 
Carlsruhe. 

The sermons of the French pulpit orators, Adolph Monod, Alex- 
ander Vinet, (4randpierre, Bersier, and Pressense, and, as represent- 
ing freethinking tendencies, Colani, Coquerel, father and son, 
deserve to be studied. 

Among Roman Catholics, in addition to those already mentioned, 
the names of Sailer, Mutschelle, Boos, Brand, Forster, and Kalin 
deserve to be noted. Werner, of Vienna; Lacordaire; Father 
Hyacinthe, now practically separated in all but name from the 
Romish Church, and bearing the name of Loyson; Ventura, of 
Rome, Gavazzi, and the preachers of Protestant doctrines in Italy, 
have each, in his day, arrested attention. 

For the American and the Englishman their models must be the 
successful preachers in the English language. In modern times 
none have equalled the masters in English theology as the makers 
of sermons. In the earlier English period may be mentioned Far- 
indon, Atterbury, South, Tillotson, Charnock, Baxter, Hall, Taylor, 
Beveridge, and Howe, while in the more recent we may mention the 
Wesleys, Whitefield, Heber, Simeon, Robert Hall, Robertson, 
Spurgeon, Punshon, Kingsley, Dean Stanlej^, Farrar, and Liddon. 

II. History of the Theory of Preaching. 

Christ preached with authority, and not as the scribes. The 
apostles proclaimed in Christ's stead, " Be ye reconciled to God." 
IsTo human instruction was needed for their guidance; the Spirit 
taught them what they ought to say. " It is, therefore," as Beyer 
says, " a leading duty of theological science to thoroughly deter- 
mine the nature of apostolic preaching in order to provide a stand- 
ard for Christian preaching in general." After the Church had 
been founded, how^ever, and conditions of human arrangement had 
Art of preach- been introduced, the art of preaching was develo^jed 
tbeoiogfca?sd- ^J *^^ ^^^^ ^^ theological science. Origen laid down 
ence. the proposition, and secured its recognition, that the 

didactic sermon is a work of art. The teachers of Christianity, 



THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 569 

moreover, were generally the pupils of heathen rhetoricians, such 
as Libanius and Theraistius, and the theory was accordingly devel- 
oped on the ground of the old time rhetoric, much in the same way 
as the ancient Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies were at first 
applied to the science of Christian theology. Augustine, starting 
with the recognition of the authority of rhetoric, gave instructions 
respecting the proper mode of presenting the doctrines contained 

in the Scriptures. In his Christian Doctrine he called 

. . , ... Augustine. 

attention to invention and expression in the sermon, 

and followed Cicero in many respects, though with an intelligent 
apprehension of the real task of Christian oratory. He was suc- 
ceeded by Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville, and Raban Maur, in the 
latter's Clerical Institutes. Alanus, of the Island (died 1203), wrote 
a Summary of the Preacher's Art, and Humbert the Roman, a 
Dominican (died 1277), wrote on the Learning of Speakers. The 
homiletical views of Thomas Aquinas were collected from the writ- 
ings of himself and others under the title of Treatise for Preachers, 
upon which followed Leonard of Udine's (died 1470) Tractate on 
the Fundamentals for Preachers (Ulm, 1478), and Nicholas Bari- 
anus of Milan's Sixty-Seven Questions on the Matter of Preaching, 
which appeared in Boulogne in 1511. 

Reuchlin published a work upon the same subject, bearing the 
title of Book of Treasures in the Preacher's Art (Pforzheim, 1504). 
The Curate's Manual of the pastor Surgant of Basle, which imme- 
diately preceded the Reformation, and discussed the method of 
preaching in its details, is especially deserving of mention. 

Luther was more practical than theoretical in everything, and 
we obtain only scattered hints from his works, the most valuable 
of which, in this respect, is Table Talk. This was collected for the 
first time by Porta, pastor at Eisleben, toward the close of the six- 
teenth century, and subsequently by Walch. Luther made the dis- 
criminating demand that the preacher should be both a dialectician 
and a rhetorician, but he also recommended that such Luther and 
a mode of preaching be adopted as would edify even Meiancbthon. 
servants. In 1519 Melanchthon published his Rhetoric, and in 1535 
he wrote his Oftice of Speakers. The Ecclesiastes of Erasmus was 
also extensively used. Directions for the art of preaching w^ere 
given, among Protestants, by Hyperius, on the Function of Sacred 
Assemblies, or the Popular Interpretation of the Scriptures (1553); 
by Weller, a pupil of Luther, on the Mode and Reason of Address 
(Norimb., 1562); by Hemming, a pupil of Melanchthon, on Pastoral 
Instruction, and How the Flock of Christ should be Fed with Sound 
Doctrine; by Osiander, on the Reason of Address (Tub., 1582); by 



570 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Andrea, on the Method of Address (Tub., 1595); and by Panera- 
tius (1571). We find similar directions in The Speaker, by Reb- 
han (1623), and the works of Hunnius, Hiilsemann, Schleupner, 
Forster, the elder Carpzov, and Zalansky, the Lutheran pastor at 
Prague ; Muller, in his Ecclesiastical Orator (Rostock, 1670, 4to), 
Baier, a pupil of Arndt, in his Compendium of Homiletical Theol- 
ogy (1677), and Leyser, in his Course of Homiletics (Viteb., 1701). 

Among Reformed theologians we may mention Gaussen, on the 
Reformed writ- Reason of Address (1678), and the Hollanders van Til 
ers. (died 1713), Vitringa (died 1722), and Hollenbeck, in 

the latter's Best Kind of Address (1668; 2d ed., 1770). We may. 
also recall Fordyce, an Englishman, who wrote on the Art of Preach- 
ing (1745). 

After Spener had, in Pious Desires, directed attention toward a 
truly awakening and edifying mode of preaching, his exposition 
speedily led to the publishing of textbooks written in harmony 
with his views, which, in their turn, called forth the opposition of 
the old-school writers. Thus Loscher wrote his Homiletical Brev- 
iary (Viteb., 1720) in reply to Lange's Sacred Oratory (Francof., 
1707). There was also a supply of insipid guides to flowery preach- 
ing, an example of which is furnished in the Elegancies or Flowers 
of Orations, written by Christian Weiss, rector at Zittau, .whom 
©thers followed in a similar direction. Hallbauer, of Jena, on the 
other hand, became noteworthy at the beginning of the eighteenth 
century by the writing of his Necessary Instruction in Wisdom in 
The Woman Edifying Preaching. The Wolfian school produced 
school. Rambach, who wrote the Elucidation on Homiletic 

Precepts (Giessen, 1736), Reinbeck, the author of the Outline of a 
Method of Edifying Preaching, and Baumgarten, the author of Direc- 
tions on Edifying Preaching (Frankf., 1752). This school carried 
the mania for definitions in the pulpit to an extreme, and was op- 
posed by G. F. Meier of Halle, himself a Wolfian, in his Thoughts 
by a Philosophical Preacher (1762). Teller (1741), Kortholdt (1748), 
Simonetti (1754), Fortsch (1757), and others, issued additional 
works in this department about the middle of the century. The 
theories of Mosheim, in his Advice on Edifying Preaching (1771); 
of Teller, in his Outlines of Homiletical Lectures (Helmstedt, 1763); 
of Gruner (Halle; 1763); Bahrdt (1773); Steinbart (2d ed., Ziilli- 
ehau, 1784); Marezoll, On the Destination of the Preacher (Leips., 
1793); Schmidt, Guide for Popular Pulpit Oratory (3 vols., Jena, 
1795-1800); Thym (Halle, 1800), and Thiess (1801), all bear the 
stamp, in various degrees, of this same tendency with regard to 
preaching. 



THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 571 

This, too, was the period to produce the largest number of jour- 
nals, magazines, archives, sketches of sermons, and the like. " For,'' 
as Palmer observes, " no mercantile house has sent out into the 
world a larger number of commercial travelers, intended to traffic 
with the article * sketches of sermons,' than has the firm * Ration- 
alism & Co.' "^ The conclusion of the old, and more especially 
rhetorical, theory, is formed by the work of Schott, the scientific 
complement to Reinhard, which, in its own way, is not without 
value. 

Theremin directed attention more especially to the inward source 
whence oratory has its rise, and a majority of the works, mentioned 
below, of recent times, have likewise treated homiletics in connexion 
with the ideas respecting the nature of religion, Christianity, the 
Church and its worship, as they have been brought out by philosophy 
and recent theology, and also in relation with the religious concep- 
tions of art. The first among Roman Catholics, subsequent to the 
Reformation, to construct an Ecclesiastical Rhetoric, was Valerius of 
Verona (15Y4). He was followed by Alexander (1 701); Gisbert, in 
his Idea and Practice of Christian Eloquence (1728); Roman Catho- 
Fenelon, in his Dialogues on Eloquence in General, and lie writers. 
that of the Pulpit in Particular (1788); and Maury, in his Prin- 
ciples of Pulpit and Forensic Eloquence (1789). Of German Ro- 
man Catholics, those deserving of mention are Ignatius Wurz (1769, 
2 vols.), Rudolf Graser (died 1787), Brand, and Zarbl. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF HOMILETICS. 

Abbott, Lyman. A Layman's Story. 16mo, pp. 361. New York, 18Y3. 

Alexander, James W. Thoughts on Preaching: beuig Contributions to Homiletics. 
12mo, pp. xii, 514. New York, 1861. (Not a methodical treatise, but full of 
rich suggestions.) 

Baldwin, M. S., and Others. Papers on Preaching. Svo. New York, 1888. 

Bautain, M. The Art of Extempore Preaching. Hints for the Pulpit, the Senate, 
and the Bar. 12mo, pp. xii, 364. New York, 1859. 

Bloom, J. H. Pulpit Oratory in the Time of James the First Considered and Beauti- 
fully Illustrated by Original Examples. A. D. 1620-21-22. 8vo, pp. viii, 243. 
London, 1831. 

Broadus, John A. A Treatise on the Preparation and Delivery of Sermons. Svo, 
pp. 529. Philadelphia, 18*70. 

Broadus, John A. Lectures on *the History of Preaching. 12mo, pp. 242. New 
York, 1876. 

Bungener, L. The Preacher and the King ; or, Bourdaloue in the Court of Louis 
XIY. Being an Account of the Pulpit Eloquence of that Era. Translated from 
the French, by George Potts. 12mo, pp. 338. Boston, 1853. 

* Homiletik, p. 38. 



573 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Burgess, H. The Art of Preaching and the Composition of Sermons. 8vo. Edin- 
burgh, 1881. 

Claude, John. Essay on the Composition of a Sermon, ]8mo, pp. 252. New 
York, 1848. (This famous essay has appeared in many editions.) 

Dabney, R. L. Sacred Rhetoric. 12mo, pp. 361. Richmond, 1866. 

Davies, G. J. Papers on Preaching. 8vo, London, 1882.- 

Etter, John W. The Preacher and His Sermon. A Treatise on Homiletics. Pp. 
581. Dayton, Ohio, 1884. (Especially rich in its treatment of the subject of 
preaching to children.) 

Fisk, Franklin W. Manual of Preaching. 12mo, pp. xv, '631. New York, 1884. 

Fowler, Henry. The American Pulpit: Sketches, Biographical and Descriptive, of 
Living American Preachers. 8vo, pp. 575. New York, 1856. 

Hervey, George Winfred. A System of Christian Rhetoric, for the Use of Preach- 
ers and other Speakers. 8vo, pp. 632. New York, 1873. (A work of more 
than ordinary originality. The theory of the author is that " tlie preachers of 
the Gospel are successors of the prophets ; that the preacher is one who speaks 
in behalf of God, and with his commission and assistance.") 

Horailetical and Pastoral Lectures ; Delivered before the Church Homiletical Society ; 
with a Preface by C. J. Ellicott. 12mo. New York, 1880. 

Hood, Edwin Paxton. Lamps, Pitchers, and Trumpets, Lectures on the Yocation 
of the Preacher. Second Series. 12mo, pp. 303. New York, 1869. (For illus- 
tration sketches are given of Frederick "W. Robertson, Pusey, Manning, New- 
man, Spurgeon, Lacordaire, and Binney.) 

Hood, E. Paxton. The Throne of Eloquence. Great Preachers Ancient and Mod- 
ern. 8vo, pp. vi, 479. New York, 1888. (Discusses true and false ideals of 
pulpit eloquence, and presents the lives of several noted preachers.) 

Hood, E. Paxton. The Vocation of the Preacher. 8vo, pp. vii, 528. New York, 
1888. 

Hoppin, James M. Homiletics. A new edition. 8vo, pp. 845. New York, 1892. 

Kidder, Daniel P. A Treatise on Homiletics. 12mo, pp. 495. New York, 1864. 

Macleod, Alex. Christus Consolator. The Pulpit in Relation to Social Life. 8vo. 
London, 1870. 

Mahafify, J. P, The Decay ol Modern Preaching. An Espay. 12mo, pp. 160. New 
York, 1882. 

Moore, Daniel. Thoughts on Preaching, Specially in Relation to the Requirements 
of the Age. 12mo, pp. 386. London, 1861. Second edition, 1869. 

Murray, Nicholas. Preachers and Preaching. 12mo, pp. xii, 303, New York, 
1860. 

Neale, John M. Mediaeval Preachers and Mediaeval Preaching. A Series of Ex- 
tracts, Translated from the Sermons of the Middle Ages, Chronologically 
Arranged, with Notes and an Introduction, 12mo, pp. 417. London, 1856. 

Parker, Joseph. Ad Clerum: Advices to a Young Preacher. 16mo, pp, 266. Bos- 
ton, 1871. (A capital book.) 

Parker, Joseph. Pulpit Notes ; with an Essay on the Preaching of Jesus Christ. 
12mo. London, 1873. 

Phelps, Austin. The Theory of Preaching, Lectures on Homiletics. 8vo, pp. 610. 
New York, 1881. (Also a lecture on " Ministerial Culture.") 

Phelps, Austin, Men and Books, or Studies in Homiletics. Lectures Introductory 
to "The Theory of Preaching." 12mo, pp. 354, New York, 1882. 

Phelps, Austin. P]nglish -Style in Public Discourse, with Special Reference to the 
Usages of the Pulpit, 8vo, pp. 389. New York, 1883. 



LITERATURE OF HOMILETICS. 573 

Ripley, Henry J. Sacred Rhetoric. 12mo, pp. 259. Boston, 1849. 

Russell, William. Pulpit Elocution. Comprising Remarks on the Effect of Manner 
iu Public Discourse ; The Element of Elocution Applied to the Reading of the 
Scriptures; H5n\jns and Sermons, whh Observations on the Principles of Ges- 
ture; and a Selection of Exercises in Heading and Speaking. "With an Introduc- 
tion by Professor E.A.Park and Rev. E. N. Kirk. Second edition. 12rao. 
Andover, 1885. 

Sliedd, W. G. T. Homiletics and Pastoral Theology. Svo, pp. vi, 429. New York,* 
1867. 

Sheppard, Nathan. Before an Audience ; or, The Use of the Will in Public Speak- 
ing. 12rao, pp. 152. New York, 1892. 

Smiti), Wilder. Extempore Preaching. 12mo, pp. 170. Hartford, 1884. (The 
titles of chapters are: Preparation, General: Preparation, Special ; Arrange- 
ment; Illustrations; Style; Memory; First Attempts ; Delivery; Physical Con- 
ditions; Spiritual Conditions; Repeating.) 

Spurgeon, Charles H. Lectures to My Students : a Selection from Addresses Deliv- 
ered to the Students of tiie Pastors' College, Metropolitan Tabernacle, Loudon. 
12mo, pp. 297. New York, 1875. 

Stevens, Abel. Essays on the Preaching Required by the Times. 12 mo, pp. 266. 
New York, 1866. 

Storrs, R. S. Conditions of Success in Preaching Without Notes, 12mo, pp. 233. 
New York, 1875. 

Sumner, J. B. On Apostolic Preaching and Ministerial Duty. 12mo. New York, 
1864. 

Taylor, WiUiam. The Model Preacher. 12mo. Cincinnati. No date. 

Townsend, L. T. The Sword and Garment. 16mo, pp. 238. New York, 1871. 

Turnbull, R. The Pulpit Orators of France and Switzerland. 12mo. New York, 
1848. 

Twells, H. Colloquies in Preaching. 12mo. London, 1889. 

Vincent, Marvin R. The Expositor in the Pulpit. 16mo. New York, 1884. 

Vinet, A. Homiletics, or the Theory of Preaching. Translated and Edited by 
Thomas N. Skinner. 12mo, pp. xxiii, 534. New York, 1854. 

Waylaiid, Francis. Letters on the Ministry of the Gospel. 16mo, pp. xii. 210. Bos- 
ton, 1863. (Includes both preaching and the pastorate. Letter II is on the 
" Call to the Ministry ; " Letter III, " The Ministry Not a Profession.") 

Wynne, Frederick R. The Joy of the Ministry. 12mo, pp. xv, 202. London, 
1887. 

Ziegler, H. The Preacher: his Relation to the Study and the Pulpit. 12mo. Phil- 
adelphia, 1876. 

Zincke, F. Barham. On the Duty and Discipline of Extemporary Preaching. 12mo, 
pp. xii, 251. London, 1866. 

For the history of American Preaching and Preachers, Sprague's Annals of the 
American Pulpit is an almost inexhaustible storehouse of information. 

Yale Lectures. 
Beecher, Henry Ward. Yale Lectures on Preaching. 3 vols., 12mo, pp. 275, viii, 

330, 336. New York, 1872-74. (Also combined in one volume.) 
Hall, John. God's Word Through Preaching. Being the Yale Lectures for 1875. 

12mo, pp. 274. New York, 1875. 
Taylor, William M. The Ministry of the Word. Being the Yale Lecturesfor 1876. 

12mo, pp. 318. New York, 1877. 



574 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Dale, R. W. Nine Lectures on Preaching. Yale Lectures for 1877. 12mo, pp. viii, 

302. New York, 1877. 
Simpson, Matthew. Lectures on Preaching. Yale Lectures for 1878. 12mo, pp. 

336. New York, 1879. 
Crosby, Howard. The Christian Preaclier. Yale Lectures for 1879, 1880. 12mo, 

pp. 195. New York, 1880. 
Brooks, Pliillips. Lectures on Preaching. Yale Lectures for 1877. 12mo, pp. 281. 

New York, 1891. 
1881. No Lecture. 
Robinson, E. G-. Lectures on Preaching Delivered to the Students of Theology at 

Yale College. 12mo. New York, 1883. (Lectures for 1882.) 
1883. No Lecture, 
Burton, Nathaniel J. Yale Lectures on Preaching, and other Writings. 8vo, pp. 

639. New York. (Contains the Lectures for 1884.) 
Storrs, Henry M. Lectures for 1885; not published. 
Taylor, W. M. The Scottish Pulpit from the Reformation to the Present Day. 

Yale Lectures for 1886. New York, 1887. 
Gladden, Washington. The Relation of the Church and the Ministry to Socialism. 

Yale Lectures for 1887. Not published. 
Trumbull, H. Clay. The Sunday School : Its Origin, Methods, and Auxiliaries. Yale 

Lectures for 1888. 8vo, pp. xiii, 415. Philadelphia, 1893. 
Broadus, John A. Lectures for 1889; not published. 
Behrends, A. J. F. The Philosophy of Preaching. 12mo, pp. viii, 234. New York, 

1890. (The Lectures for 1890). 

Stalker, James. The Preacher and His Models. The Yale Lectures on Preaching, 

1891. 12mo, pp. xii, 284. New York, 1891. 
Fairbairn, A. M. Lectures for 1892; not published. 

Horton, Robert F. Yerbum Dei. The Yale Lectures on Preaching, 1893. 12mo, 
pp. ii, 300. New York, 1 893. 

SECTION XVIIL 

PASTORAL THEOLOGY (iN THE LIMITED MEANII^G OP THE TERm). 

See American Presbyterian Review, Vol. Ill, 333. Among the earlier works on the pastoral 
office are : Baxter's Gildas Salvianus ; or, The Reformed Pastor (1656) ; Bishop Burnet's Dis- 
course of the Pastoral Care (1693) ; Edwards's Preacher and Hearer (1705-9) ; Mason's Student 
and Pastor (1755) ; and Fletcher of Madeley's Portrait of St. Paul (1786). 

While Liturgies and Homiletics are concerned with the functions 
Objects of Pas- ^^ the clergyman in the sphere of public worship, Pas- 
toral Theology, toral Theology in its limited meaning has to do with 
the direction of the life of the Christian society and of individuals, 
or, in other words, with pastoral care and the cure of souls. 
Here, again, it is possible to distinguish between functions whose 
exercise is largely governed by official restrictions, and others 
which admit of a greater personal freedom. The former serve to 
display the faithfulness of the pastor, and the latter his love and 
devotion. The rules which apply to the former may be grounded 
in Church government, but those which control the latter must be 
derived from Christian Ethics. • In the case of either it is requisite 



THE FUNCTION OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 575 

that experience and practice should complete what the science is 
able to present only in its most general outlines. 

The term is not definitely fixed/ Many embrace the whole of 
Practical Theology within its scope, but incorrectly. 
Catechetics i> most nearly allied to it of all the torai Theology 
branches hitherto considered, being the common basis ^^ ^ "^^ • 
of the entire body of ecclesiastical functions; while Homiletics and 
Liturgies are not to be regarded as Pastoral sciences. Hnrms cor- 
rectly distinguished the preacher from the pastor. Only w^liat has 
respect to the latter is Pastoral Theoloscy. But to ^ „ , 

'^ _ ^•'^ Is Pastoral 

what extent is Pastoral Theology included in the do- Theology a sci- 

main of science? When Rosenkranz asserts^ ihat there ^^^^' 
can be no Pastoral Theology in the evangelical Church because 
there are no special Ethics for the clergyman, and because the care 
of souls cannot be comprehended under a system of rules, and 
when he even terms it "a beginning of priestcraft," and charges it 
with amounting siinply to " a guide to hypocrisy," and to " a sys- 
tem of belittling tricks which destroy the life of a true devotion," 
or " a low desire for the display of priestly greatness," his mind is 
evidently fixed upon the abuse of Pastoral Theology. There is 
certainly no special system of Ethics for the clergy; but a circle of 
special duties belonging to his calling exists for the minister as for 
any other man — duties devolved on him by reason of his ofiice, or 
by a proper estimate of the position to which God has assigned him. 
The function of Pastoral Theology is to determine what may be 
justly required of the ministei-, and what lie must accept, as be- 
longin-^- within the sphere of his calling. This reaches over into 
Ecclesiastical Law. But matters which the clergyman in the exer- 
cise of his independent choice imposes on himself also need to be 
more specially and thoroughly discussed than is possible in the field 
of Ethics, where only the general principles which bear upon such 
matters are set forth. The chapter on good judgment, or, if it be 
preferred, on icisdom, i. e., genuine moral skill in conducting 
matters with reference to known ends, or in laying hold upon the 
appropriate means, covers a very broad field, which ad- 
mits of being described in conformity with ethical prin- ^i^^'^Larned 
ciples, even though it cannot be comprehended within ^^^"^ experi- 
abstract rules. Mere book-lenrning will not, of course, ^"^' 
be sufiicient for tliat end; the individual judgment is required to 

J On the wovdi pastor, see Yinet, Pastoral Theol, Int., p. 1. 

2 Preface to the first edition of the Encyklopadie, p. xxxi, and second edition, p. 352. 
On the other hand, compare Schleiermacher, § § 299-308 ; Harms, III, p. 26-27, and 
especially Vinet, Theol. Past., p. 236, sqq^. 



576 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

perform most of the work. But the judgment may be directed and 
quickened, and in this the experience of other ministers beromes a 
valuable aid, though it cannot by any means be regarded as abso- 
lutely regulative. 

A collection of clerical anecdotes is, however, not yet a Pas- 
toral Theology. Cases are never exactly parallel to each other, 
and a method which was adapted to the circumstances of a partic- 
ular time and place will not be appropriate to a different time and 
place. But it is meritorious to point out hoio experience may be 
utilizeil, even to the student. If the name of science be denied to 
this loving apostolical service, which the gray-haired veteran in the 
office renders to inexperienced youth, we shall not delay to argue 
the question. We personally believe that at this point the wisdom 
of the professional chair reaches its limit, and that Pastoral Theol- 
ogy may be learned to better advantage at the hands of a guide 
who has been tested in the spiritual office than in the lecture-room. 
It will peril aps be necessary, after all, to admit, with Palmer, that 
Pastoral Theology, as such, is not a science, and that its substantial 
difference from Practical Theology consists in that fact. It con- 
tains consilia rather than pcercepta, and " its partially casuistical 
nature prevents its incorporation wiih any well-constructed organ- 
ism." Theological science is required, nevertheless, to mark out in 
their broad outlines the paths over which the Pastoral life must 
move.^ This becomes so much the more necessary at the ch^se of 
the course of theological study, because so many students fail to 
find the bridge which leads over from the school into actual life. 
Pastoral Theology is required to build that bridge, and to furnish 
the future shepherd with staff and ring or confer upon him his 
spiritual investiture. 

If it be now required that the field of pastoral duty belonging 
Pastoral func- to the minister be outlined in so far as it may be the- 
tions distribu- oreticallv determined in advance, it will be necessary 

tp(l into 1'ViT'pp 

departments, to distribute his functions over three distinct depart- 
ments, in each of which a further distinction may be made be- 
tween the predominantly official and the free individual action, 
although the one reaches over into the other, as in the following 
scheme : 

^ " A better Pastoral Theology will be produced only when the Christian and the 
systematic interests shall mutually recognize and support each other." — Schweizer. 



THE PASTOR AND THE PEOPLE. 577 

1. THE RELATION OF THE PASTOR TO THE COXGREGATIOX AS A 

WHOLE. 

a. Hie pastor as the ordained head of the congregation. 

As presbyter, KaT' e^ox'']^, the pastor is placed at the head of the 

cono"re2:ation, and to him, therefore, beloiiffs tlie ffuid- ^^ 

^ » ' _ ' ' . , The pastor as 

ance (Kvi3Epv7]atg) of the Church, and the administra- the head of the 
tion of Church order and discipline, in which work he c°"°^®sation. 
must have the co-operation of the Churcli, subject to the provisions 
of the laws in force in his particular communion. Here we enter 
upon the department of Ecclesiastical Law. But where the laws 
do not come to his assistance, the free impulses of love will lead 
him to let his light shine as he walks before his people and to ap- 
prove himself as a faithful shepherd of the flock. Especially will 
he rejoice in every thing that is good which springs up among his 
people, even though it be not prescribed by superior authority; 
and, while he will take his stand in opposition to the unhealthful 
manifestations of a misled piety he will gladly co-operate in every 
work which gives shape to religious life, and will assist in prepar- 
ing the way for such work. 

b. The pastor in his personal relation to his people. 

The Christian minister in charge of a congregation has duties to 
perform as important as preaching. He is the shepherd of his 
ilock, and should know his people in their Avants, cares, burdens, 
and griefs. It is his dut}^ to show a reasonable personal interest 
in them; he, of all men, should rejoice with them that rejoice, and 
weep With them that weep. Hoppin lays down the principle that 
the " minister should become personally acquainted with (^very one 
of his people." This is not in every case practicable, especially in 
larofe cities, but at least he "should strive to know somethinsr of 
their varieties of character, their peculiarities of disposition, their 
mental maladies and speculative opinions, as well as their external 
history and circumstances." * Such thorough acquaintance with the 
people is secured by means of pastoral visitation, which can never 
be neglected Avithout injury to the minister's usefulness. Shedd 
reminds us that the minister is apt to be deficient on the one or the 
other side of this double character of preacher and pastor, but ad- 
vises him to make it his aim to "perfect himself in both respects."^ 

c. T/ie minister as related to the administration of charities icithin 
the territory of his congregation!. 

How far should ministering to the necessities of the poor {dia- 

^ Office and Work of the Christian Ministry. By Jas. M. Hoppiu. Pp. 533, 534. 
2 Pastoral Theology, p. 390. 
37 



578 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

KovLa TTig TQane(^rig) be placed in the hands of him who is charged 
with the ministry of the word? (Compare Acts vi.) The' 
mechanical duties may more readily be performed by other per- 
sons which was the original work of the diaconate; but he will 
not be able to withdraw from the work of general supervision. In 
cases, moreover, in which he is relieved from the keeping of ac- 
counts, he will show himself so much the more efficiently a father 
to the poor from choice. 

2. THE RELATION OF THE PASTOR TO THE FAMILY. 

This, too, is partly official, and determined by his position in the 
Church, and partly independent. The relations of the minister to 
the family assume an official form most frequently in connection 
with special events, which belong properly to this section, and only 
in part to the departments of Liturgies and Homi- 
letics. The solemnizing of marriage, for instance, is a 
public ecclesiastical ceremony. Baptism, more than other ser- 
vices connected with the family, passes beyond the 
limits of the home circle, and becomes a public service 
of the (^hurch. If baptism be administered at the house, the cere- 
mony should not degenerate into a mere sentimental family fes- 
tival, but should confer upon the Christian liome the higher conse- 
cration of a temple. In the case of a death the sympathy of the 
congregation is also largely enlisted; but members of 
the family are as a rule affected more than others, and 
the position of the minister thus leads him not only into the 
Church and to the grave, but also to the house of mourning 
and into the circle of the bereaved. The address delivered 
should be primarily adapted to the condition of the lattei* com- 
pany; for which reason more extended funeral sermons should only 
be preached when demanded by the extraordinary n;\ture of the 
case.^ The more nearly perfect the development of piety in a 
family, the less inclination will there be to avoid the clergyman 
until a casus mortis shall demand his services in an official ca- 
pacity; free intercourse with the clergyman will develop itself 
naturally, whose influence will tend to crowd out of sight more 
and more the distinction between clerus naturalis and positivus. 
When, on the other hand, the Christian home is yet upon a low 
level of piety, even the official visits of a clergyman will be pro- 
ductive of good; and in case such visits should not be formally 

' Palmer, Homihtik^ p. 389, has adduced an illustration, which shows in a pointed 
way how contrary to good taste it is to select far-fetched texts for funeral sermons : 
" And the king said unto Barzillai, . . . Who desires to hear about Barzillai now ? " 



THE SPIRIT OF THE PASTOR. 579 

required, a faithful pastor will know liow to secure admission to 
such homes, not for the purpose of asserting his official character, 
but in order to aid the family in attaining to that freedom of action 
which is needed in all the occurrences of life by exciting its love 
and confidence. 

3. THE pastor's relation TO THE MASSES OUTSIDE OP ALL 

CHURCHES. 

The problem of reaching the masses is very simple, if ministers 
have the disposition to preach the Gospel to all sorts Reaching the 
and conditions of men. As the masses, so called, con- masses, 
stitute in every country the bulk of the population, it is as easy to 
find them as it is to find the sun or the sea; and they can be reached 
by a sincere Christian sympathy, even if at the first they repel our 
attempts to do them good. 

Professor Phelps, of Andover, quotes as one of the sayings of his 
honored father : " The man who belongs nowhere belongs to me, 
and I must give account of him; " and Payson showed his readi- 
ness to serve all men by adopting as his motto: "The man who 
wants to see me is the man whom I want to see." All things are 
not possible to the minister, but the recognition of the fact that 
the people of all classes and conditions, dwelling in one neighbor- 
hood, are a community should be unmistakably made by every 
pastor and Church. 

It may even be said in a certain sense that the aim of Pastoral 
Theolosry should be to render the specific office of pas- „ , , 

^*' \ \ Pastoral work 

tor more and more unnecessary; for if the co-operation demands a 
of the congregation is required in the public worship, ^^ ^ ^^"^*' 
it is far more necessary here. Such co-operation must of course be 
conceived of as analogous in character to the work of the pastor, 
and not as counteracting the latter in a separatist spirit. In this 
field, as everywhere, one extreme leads to the other. Any over- 
straining of the idea of office can only lead to evil consequences in 
one way or another. A distinction exists between the shepherd 
and the sheep in the economy of nature, but not in the spiritual 
field. The shepherd must not forget that he is himself a sheep be- 
longing to the great flock, and that One alone is the Good Shep- 
herd. And even he is designated in Scripture as " the Lamb of 
God, which taketh away the sin of the world." There are endless 
modifications, however, with reference to what has now been said. 
The duties of a rural pastor will differ from tho^e of the city pas- 
tor, and further difiTerences arise from the contrast of conditions in 
farming villages as compared with those of manufacturing towns. 



580 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

those of inland towns with those of large commercial cities. And, 
finally, there are also special fi.elds of labor, such as those occupied 
by the chaplains of hospitals, prisons, orphanages, and of troops in 
garrison or in the field, all of which require a special theory, and 
all of which likewise require a suitable man, endowed with all the 
necessary qualities for his position. 

SECTION XIX. 
TRACTICAL SCIEXCES AUXILIARY TO PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 

A true insight into the conditions of the different spheres of life, 
and a scientiric apprehension of their character, are necessary to 
the clergyman, because his duties everywhere reach over into the 
various relations of life. He will therefore need to become ac- 
quainted with various forms of knowledge which lie outside of the 
different departments of strictly theological science, and hence out- 
side of Pastoral Theology as well, but which nevertheless involve 
a practical character. Among such forms we reckon 
e agogics. ^^^ theory of education, the theory of public charities, 
psychical, and, to some extent, also pl)ysical, therapeutics. 

These matters certainly lie beyond the range of studies prescribed 

for the theologian, as such, and remarks like the above cannot, 

therefore, be intended to urge the incorporation of such branches 

with the theological course.^ But it is important, in view of the 

practical nature of the future calling, that the conditions among 

which that calling: must be exercised should at least be 
The pastor ^ 

should be a known. If the clergyman should be required to share 

practical man. • .i • • r /^i, ' j.- i i t ^ 

m the supervision oi Christian schools, and to express 
his judgment upon school matters in general, it will be necessary 
that he should be acquainted with the principles involved ; and an 
additional argument arises from the fact that catechetics stand 

^ It has been wittily observed that they constitute " Pontius in the Credo " (comp. 
Graf, Prakt. Theol, p. 174). Very well; but a hint which prevents the inquirer 
from being sent from Pontius to Pilate, and gives him the necessary information at 
once, can do no harm. Our idea does not require that lectures should be delivered 
upon all such topics ; many things may be preserved for the future ad notam. 
Harms asks his hearers (Pastor, p. 16): "Can you estimate architectural plans cor- 
rectly ? Can you draft a lease ? Do you know what amount of clover seed should be 
sown to the acre ? Can you deal roughly with lazy artisans employed upon your house 
at the expense of the Church? " We are entirely agreed with Sch^^izer that Theology 
proper has no answer to give to questions of this kind ; but such questions are not 
so much out of place as may at first sight be supposed, and constitute interrogation 
points which in their appropriate sphere serve to show the way beyond the borders of 
a different territory. 



PRACTICAL CHARACTER OF THE PASTORATE. 581 

connected with pedagogics. If he is to render substantial aid in 
the department of public charities he will not lind questions relat- 
ing to pauperism, now so frequently discussed, to be wholly foreign 
to liis position. It will be necessary that he should learn to know the 
sources of poverty which lie in existing social conditions, if he is to 
aid in bringing it to an end ; and for this reason a course in Political 
Economy, for instance, might be recommended to the theologian, 
in so far as it relates to the amelioration of pauperism. The 

clerc:yman will also need to understand the nature of „, ,, , 

^'^ , , Should know 

the forms of business if he would be competent to es- the forms of 
timate their influence over the physical, social, and ^^^'^^''^• 
moral welfare of the people. The opinion of religious teachers 
respecting the mighty progress of industrial enterprises in our day, 
for instance, is not an unimportant matter, for the latter not infre- 
quently come into conflict with the Christian life, in appearance, 
at least, as appears from the low degree to which interest in the 
Church has sunken in a majority of manufacturing towns, the ne- 
glect of the Sabbath, and of Christian schools, and the exclusive 
attention given to business, the fasliions, luxury, and recreations. 
Can any thing be accomplished with reference to such matters by 
merely protesting against the spirit of the age, while unable to resist 
its progress? And is not the cultivnted clergyman compelled to 
learn the character of the time, with its requirements and its needs, 
if he would successfully deal with its excrescences and perverted 
tendencies ? Will he not be compelled to devise metliods of relief 
for bread less sufferers who complain that they lack remunerative 
employment ? But all this can be accomplished only when he has 
obtained an insight into the conditions of the time. 

SECTION XX. 

THE METHOD OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 

The Seminary and Vicariate. 

L. Huffell, fiber die Errichtung praktischer Institute zur Aushildung der angehenden evangel- 
chrisil. GeistUchen; Eine Vorarbeit fiir die bevorstehende badnische Generalsynode und 
zugleich alien Eegierungen gewidmet, denen das Wohl der protestantlschen Kirche am Herzen 
liegt. Karlsruhe, 1831 ; Hupfeld a. a. O. S. 52-55; Derselbe : ''1st die Bildung, welch e Theologen 
aiif der Universitat erhalten, auch ausreichend fur ihren Seelsorgerberuf ? " in den Annalen 
der gesammten Theologie und christl. Kirche, Jahgr., 1833 ; Sprague's Annals of the American 
Pulpit ; one of the best exhibitions of practical pastoral life extant in English. See also J. W. 
Alexander's Thoughts on Preaching, p. 125, et seq. 

The student will not be able to do more in the period devoted to 
academical instruction than to secure a clear understanding of the 
task of Pastoral Theology in its general outlines, and to cultivate a 
sympathy for its work. The appropriate school for this, and all 



582 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

other practical accomplishments, will be found either in the semi- 
nary or in the period of candidature which opens the way to the 
Aids to a prep- ^^^^'^^^^ ^^ official functions. A practical school aiford- 
aration for the ing valuable aid in the woi-k of preparation during the 
pistora e. years of candidacy, is found in frequent intercourse witli 

people belonging to different classes in society, and particularly in 
associating with experienced clergymen, in observing the signs of 
the times, in aiding to carry forward the objects of the numerous 
associations for Christian work; and a further special aid will be 
found in the reading of the biographies of eminent pastors. 

To provide a bare sketch of Pastoral Theology is all that theory 
h 11 b ^^^ accomplish ; and it is therefore a question what 
done for prac- sl^U be done to fuinlsh a thorough practical training 
ticai training? supplementary to that of the schools? Medical men 
have their hospitals and their clinics ; should not something sim- 
ilar be provided for theologians ? The proposition is not devoid of 
difficult considerations. At this point we come to consider the 
practical or professional seminary which may exist under diverse 
conditions, either as forming a part of the university, or as entirely 
distinct from it. It might be asked whether the monastic aspect 
which seminary training may assume does not tend to unfit rather 
than to qualify for actual life; whether theory does not in this, 
as in other respects, predominate over practice. Every thing will 
depend upon the spirit which pervades the different seminaries. 

The testimonies of persons w ho are familiar with such institutions 
Value and lim ^^^ ^^ their favor. But it is certain that even the semi- 
itations of the nary can produce ho ready made preaciher and pastor, 
seminary. j^ merely serves to lead over from the college or uni- 
versity into practical life ; and lectures upon practical branches of 
study, which are often entirely too inadequate as delivered at the 
university, are certainly in place here. But who is to lead the 
seminary student to the bedside of the sick, or to the dwellings of 
the poor ? Who will furnish him with opportunities for intercourse 
with farmers, or for studying life in its manifold conditions? Such 
considerations have led some minds in Europe to discuss the idea 
of founding seminaries in rural regions which should not be placed 
under the direction of professors, but of experienced and practical 
pastors. Such seminaries for Protestant clergyman would become 
a kind of model and metropolitan pastorates, from which surround- 
ing villages and dependent churches might receive spiritual service, 
and to which the preachers miglit return, bringing new experiences, 
as bee's bring honey to their cells. But it is to be questioned 
whether such a scheme could be carried practically into effect; 



THE HISTORY OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 583 

Every candidate for the ministry should consider it a duty to visit 

elersryinen in their fields of labor, and to be made ac- , . ^, 

»•' ' _ ^ Association 

quainted with the duties of his station, though it should with experi- 
be at first merely as a non-participating observer. The ^^^^ pasors,. 
preaching of a trial sermon, or the conduct of a catechization will be 
sufticient to entitle the youthful clergyman to enter a Christian home 
in the company of the resident pastor, or to visit the sick. Journeys 
of limited extent, and simple excursions, even, may likewise yield 
fruit, when it is sought after; and upon this, as other points, read- 
ing must be employed to take the place of personal observation 
when the latter is deficient. The reading of good popular authors 
will create an interest for the life and manners of the people, their 
needs, prejudices, and modes of thought ; but it is necessary to 
guard against the forming of false ideals regarding the life of the 
people, and also concerning the life of the shepherd of the people. 
Least of all should one give w^ay to the idyllic dreams of former 
days in an age like ours, which drives them e\ en from the mind of 
the dreamer himself. The biographies of faithful pastors which 
describe their joys and sorrow^s, their lives, labors, and aspirations, 
are of greater value thnn the romantically tinged and imaginary 
pictures of model clergymen. The former constitute the true legends 
of saints for the evangelical theologian. 

SECTIOjS" XXI. 

THE HISTORY OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 

The earliest pastoral instructions are those which were given by 
Christ to his Apostles (Matt, x), and those which they, ^^^ ^^^^ .^_ 
in their turn, addressed to their pupils, especially structionsfrom 

Ctirlst 

through the pastoral epistles. Scattered elements are 
to be found in the early teachers of the Church, and in their works. 
When the care of souls became a priestly and hierarchical function, 
chiefly through the institution of auricular confession, the instruc- 
tions provided for the use of confessors took on a similar character. 
The Reformation urged the importance of the pastoral work in addi- 
tion to the work of preaching, with special emphasis. Z wangle wrote 
his Shepherd according to the Image of Christ and the Word of 
God, and many of Luther's letters afford rich materials for the use 
of pastoral learners. The literary and more or less systematic 
treatment of the subject begins with the Pastorale of First system- 
Erasmus Sarcerius (1558), which was followed by the atic treatise. 
Pastor of Nicol. Hemming (1566) and the Pastorale Lutheri com- 
piled by Conrad Porta (1582). The guides to pastoral work which 
38 



084 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

appeared at a later day were again of a casuistical character (comp. 
Quenstedt, Ethica Pastoralis, 1678). Gottfried Olearius brought 
out a direct Pastoral Theology in his Collegium Pastorale, etc., 
which was written by him at the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
tury (Leipsic, 1718). Spener's Theologische Bedenken^ unquestion- 
ably originated in the recognition, according to the true spirit of 
Protestantism, of a priesthood which is common to all Christians ; 
but the later Pietism led the way back into the casuistical discussion 
of clerical ethics, and thereby introduced many inappropriate ele- 
ments into the practical administration. The Sammlungen by Stem- 
metz, abbot of Klosterbergen, and the Sammlungen zur Pastoral- 
theologie by Philip David Burk (1771-73) furnish a beautiful testi- 
mony in favor of the better Pietism and its tendencies, especially as 
displayed in its Wurtembergian representatives. Rationalistic Pas- 
toral Theology took gound in opposition to the Pietistic treatment, 
making of the clergyman a philanthropic educator of the people, 
and restricting his field of labor principally to the banishing of 
prejudices and the elevating of social conditions, and, in the loftiest 
theories, to the improvement of the schools for the people (Sebaldus 
Nothanker, by Nicolai). Modern Pastoral Theology is based on 
more correct views respecting the nature of religion and the spirit- 
ual office, and must, therefore, be conceded to have divested itself 
of much of what Rosenkranz stigmatizes as savouring of priestcraft. 
English literature abounds in practical treatises upon the duties of 
,. ^ , the pastor, although the discussions of pastoral theol- 

English and . . . 

American ogy on its theoretical side are not very many. Proba- 
vworks. ^ly ^j^g ^^^ work which has made the deepest impression 

is Richard Baxter's Gild as Salvianus, or Reformed Pastor (1656). 
It was prepared by a most successful pastor for a con fe renege of 
pastors, and is still a model of its kind. Doddridge advised the 
reviewing "of the practical part of it every three or four years," and 
John Wesley made the reading of it one of the duties of his lay 
preachers. Bishop Burnet wrote A Discourse on the Pastoral 
Care, and John Fletcher of Madeley, The Portrait of St. Paul. 
Among modern works may be named The Ministry of the Gospel, 
by Francis Wayland; Office and Work of the Christian Ministry, by 
Francis M. Hoppin ; Homiletics and Pastoral Theology, by William 
G. T. Shedd; and The Christian Pastorate, by D. P. Kidder. The 
Yale Lectures on Preaching contain, both directly and incident- 
ally, valuable suggestions for the right oidering of the pastorate/' 

^ Corap. the collection for the times made by Hennicke, Halle, 1838. 
2 For the English Literature of this subject, see M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopae- 
dia, vol. vii, p. 757. 



FURTHER CULTIVATION OF THEOLOGICAL STUDIES. 585 

SECTION XXIL 

THE FURTHER CULTIVATION OF THEOLOGICAL STUDIES. 

The study of theology can never be exhausted,' more than that 
of any other science, and hence constant progress in its study never to 
development is required. The germs of knowledge c^^®- 
imparted by the schools are to be thoroughly elaborated, and espe- 
cially in the years subsequent to graduation. Much, therefore, de- 
pends on a faithful improvement of the years of candidacy ; but 
intercourse with the science is never to cease, even after the pas- 
torate has been reached. Theological science can only retain its 
vitality, however, so long as it is sustained by theological views 
which have been tried and approved in the conflict of life. Much 
has been said with reference to the tendency of clergyman to dete- 
riorate as students. There was a time in Germany and Switzer- 
land when more good bee keepers than Church guardi- gome wasteful 
ans, more capable florists and cattle raisers than capable occupations. 
trainers of human beings, were to be found nmong the clergy. They 
were more skilful in the plant nursery than in the village school, 
and more at home in their cattle stalls than in the sheepfold of 
Clirist. But the Church derives no greater benefit from one sided 
philologists and critics, nor from authors in the department of 
belles-lettres, or even of theology or ethics, if such employments 
cause the interests of the congregation to be neglected. A pastor 
w^ho has not yet completed his studies in this regard should prefer 
not to be a pastor. His studies, in one word, ought not to be sepa- 
rated from bis practical life so as to assume the appearance of aX- 
XoTQia, but ought rather to be enlisted in the service of the practical 
life. 

This does not imply that he should read only devotional 
works ; at no time is he to remain unacquainted with the progress 
of theological science, because his entire efficiency must rise and fall 
with the Church, and Theology is the finger on the dial of the latter. 
But let him not study merely as a scholar or an amateur, but as a 
pastor, who has an eye to his congregation, and also to the Church, 
of which the congregation forms simply a part. Let 
him carry his people in his heart, and cause them to profit the prontof 
by all which he secures, and let him know how to obtain ® ^^°^ ^* 
new seed for the field he has to cultivate from among the finest 

' I have always been unable to regard the period of the university course other- 
wise than as a time of sowing and collecting materials, and have believed that the 
collecting must precede the digesting. — Rothe (Studienjahre, in Nippold, i, p. 70). 



586 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

fruits that science affords. The best means for j^reserving the vitality 
of scientific pursuits among clergymen are found, aside from socie- 
ties for reading, in the conferences of preachers and pastors, and in 
the more extended ministerial associations which have been spring- 
ing up in increasing number in recent years. The object for which 
such associations have been established differs from that of the 
synods. The latter are directly engaged in the service of the 
Church, the former in that of the clergy ; the latter fall within the 
department of Church government, the former in that of Church 
ministrations, to which they contribute a further incitement. The 
more thoroughly the two elements interpenetrate each other, the 
better it will be. The school affords training that fits for life, and 
life in turn becomes a school ; and thus it sliould ever be with each 
one. Life ripens through conflict, and character, disposition, with- 
out which, beyond dispute, there can be no real theological science, 
are likewise steeled and purified by the heat of conflict.* 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 

1, Pastoral Office. 

Barrett, Alfred. Pastoral Addresses : Adapted for Retirement and the Closet. Third 
edition. 16mo, 2 vols., pp. 384. 

Baxter, Richard. The Reformed Pastor: Showing the Natnre of the Pastoral Work, 
8vo. New York, 1860. New edition. 12mo, pp. xv, 311. London. 

Blunt, John Henry. Direetorium Pastorale. The Principles and Practices of Pastoral 
"Work in the Church of England. Svo, pp. 458. London, 1865, 

Blunt, John Henry. The Acquirements and Principal Obligations and Duties of the 
Parish Priest: Being a Course of Lectures Delivered at the University of Cam- 
bridge to the Students in Divinity. 12mo, pp. 394, London, 1869, 

Bridges, Charles. The Christian Ministry ; with an Inquiry into the Causes of its 
Inefficiency. 8vo. New York, 1868. 

Brown, John. The Christian Pastor's Manual. A Selection of Tracts on the Duties, 
Difficulties, and Encouragements of the Christian Ministry. 12mo. Philadel- 
phia, 1837. 

Burder, Henry F. Mental Discipline ; or, Hints on the Cultivation of Intellectual and 
Moral Habits. Addressed Particularly to Students in Theology. 12mo. New 
York, 1830. 

^ The pastor needs to possess a real creative faculty, a certain poetic element 
{noirjTiKov Tt). Tliis creative faculty is primarily related to the sermon, of course, but 
afterward also to the other departments of clerical labor, to instruction and pastoral 
care. The clergyman needs to understand the requirements in either field, and must 
know how to meet them all. If, therefore, he does not carry about with him an ade- 
quate fund, he can be, in his capacity as clergyman, only a sorry comforter, a chatterer, 
or a silent dog. Subordinate, tmproductive, and otherwise contracted characters are 
usually able to make themselves useful in all offices, in some form, at least, but they 
are not qualified for the spiritual office. To be required, and yet not able to produce, 
is the most terrible torture conceivable by man. — Vilmar, p. 30. 



LITERATURE OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 587 

Biirgon, J. W. A Treatise on the Pastoral Office. Addressed Chiefly to Candidates 
for Holy Orders, or to Those who have Recently Undertaken the Care of Souls. 
8vo, pp. xxiv, 470. London, 1864. 

Burnet, Gilbert. A Discourse on Pastoral Care. 32rao. London, 1849. 

Campbell, George. Lectures on Systematic Theology, Pulpit Eloquence, and Pastoral 
Character. Svo. Loudon. 1840. 

Cannon, J. S. Lectures on Pastoral Theology. New York, 1853. 

Chrysostom, St. John. On the Priesthood. In Six Books. Translated by B. H. Cow- 
per. 12mo, pp. 239. London, 1866. 

Douglass, A. F. The Pasior and His People: Discussions on Ministerial Life and 
Character. 12mo. London, 1868. 

Ellicott, C. J. Homiletical and Pastoral Lectures. Delivered in St. Paul's Cathedral 
Before the Church Homiletical Society. Edited by C. J. Ellicott. 12mo. Xew 
York. 

Evans, R. "W. The Bishopric of Souls. Eourth edition. 12mo. London, 1856. 

Fairbairn, P. Pastoral Theology. A Treatise on the Office and Duties of the Christ- 
ian Pastor. 12mo, pp. 386. Edinburgh, 1865. 

Hill, Micaiah. The Principles of the Pastoral Function in the Church. 12mo, pp. 
458. London, 1855. 

Hoppin, James M. The Office and Work of the Christian Ministry. Svo, pp. 620. 
New York, 1869. 

Hovey, Alvah. The Christian Pastor, his Work, and the Needful Preparation : a Dis- 
course, etc. 18mo. Boston, 1857. 

Humphrey, Heman. Thirty-four Letters to a Son in the Ministry. 12mo. Amherst, 
1842. 

James, Jolm Angel. An Earnest Ministry the Want of the Times. 12 mo. New 
York, 1849. * 

Kidder, Daniel P. The Christian Pastorate: Its Character, Responsibilities, and Du- 
ties. 12mo, pp. 569. New York, 1871. 

Liepsner, B. F. (Editor.) The Young Pastor and his People : Bits of Practical Ad- 
vice to Young Clergymen, by Distinguished Ministers. 12mo, pp. 284. New 
York, 1878. 

Littlejohn, A. N. The Bishop Paddock Lectures, 1884. The Christian Ministry at 
the Close of the Nineteenth Century. New York, 1884. 

Meade, William. Lectures on the Pastoral Office : Delivered to the Students of the 
Theological Seminary at Alexandria, Ya. 8vo, pp. 241. New York, 1849. 

Murphy, Thomas. Pastoral Theology : the Pastor in the Yarious Duties of his Office. 
Svo, pp. 509. Philadelphia, 1877. 

Oosterzee, J. J. Van. Practical Tlieology. New York, 1879. 

Oxenden, Ashton. The Pastoral Office: its Duties, Difficulties, Privileges, and Pros- 
pects. 12mo. London, 1864. 

Park, Edwards A. The Preacher and Pastor, by Fenelon, Herbert, Baxter, and 
Campbell. Edited and Accompanied by an Introductory Essay. 12mo. New 
York, 1849. 

Pastoral Letters from the House of Bishops to the Clergy and Members of the Prot- 
estant Episcopal Church in the United States. 12mo. Philadelpliia, 1845. 

Plumer,W. S. Hints and Helps in Pastoral Theology. 12mo,pp.381. New York, 1874. 

Pond, Enoch. Lectures on Pastoral Theology, 12mo, pp. 395. Andover, 1866. 
(Especially adapted to Congregational Churches and ministers.) 

Shedd, Willia'm G. T. Homiletics and Pastoral Theology. Eighth edition. Svo, 
pp. 429. New York, 1870. 



588 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Smith, George. The Doctrine of the Christian Pastorate. 8vo, pp. 123. London, 1851. 
Spooner, Edward. Pastor and People ; or, Incidents in the Every-Day Life of a 

Clergyman. 16mo, pp. 260. New York, 1865. 
Thompson, Henry. Pastoralia. A Manual of Helps for Parochial Clergy of the 

United Church of England and Ireland. Second edition. 12mo, pp. 263. 

London, 1832. 
Tyng, S. H. The OfiBce and Duty of a Christian Pastor. 12mo, pp. 178. New- 
York, 1874. (Delivered before the Boston School of Theology, 187.3.) 
Yinet, A. Pastoral Theology. 12mo, pp. 387. New York, 1854. 
Wilson, James Stewart. The Life, Education, and Wider Culture of the Christian 

Ministry: its Sources, Methods, and Aims. Lectures Delivered at Aberdeen, 

etc. 8vo, pp. 284. London, 1882. 
Wisner, WiUiam. Incidents in the Life of a Pastor. 12mo, pp. 316. New York, 

1851. 

2. Ecclesiastical Law. 
Coleman, L. Manual on Prelacy and Ritualism. Philadelphia, 1867. 
Henry, W. J., and Harris, W. L. Ecclesiastical Law and Rules of Evidence. 8vo, 

pp. 511. Cincinnati, 1879. 
Hodge, Charles. Discussions in Church Polity. From Contributions to the Princeton 

Review. 8vo, pp. xi, 532. New York, 1878. 
Hoffm.an, Murray. The Ritual Law of the Church ; with Its Application to the Com- 
munion and Baptismal Offices. New York, 1872. 
Hoffman, Murray. Ecclesiastical Law in the State of New York. 8vo. New York, 

1868. 
Hunt, Sandford. Laws Relating to Religious Corporations. A Compilation of the 

Statutes of the Several States in Relation to the Incorporation and Maintenance 

of Religious Societies. 8vo. New York, 1876. 
Joyce, James W. The Civil Power and Its Relations to the Church ; Considered 

with Special Reference to the Court of Final Ecclesiastical Appeal in England. 

8vo, pp. xii, 240. London, 1875. 
Strong, William. Two Lectures Upon the Relation of Civil Law to Ecclesiastical 

Polity, Property, and Discipline. 12mo, pp. 141. New York, 1875. 
Tyler, R. H. American Ecclesiastical Law: the Law of Religious Societies, Church 

Government and Creeds, Disturbing Religious Meetings, and the Law of Burial 

Grounds in the United States. 8vo. Albany, 1866. 
Vinton, F. Commentary on the General Canon Law and the Constitution of the 

Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States. New York, 1870. 



APPENDIX. 



•♦•»■ 



RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 

The following titles, cbiefly of English and American works, upon the relations of Religion 
and Science, may be useful to theological students. The list, though large, does not profess 
to be complete- 

Ackland, T. S. The Story of Creation as told by Theology and Science. 16mo. 

London. 
Agassiz, Louis. Contributions to the Natural History of U. S. of America. (An 

essay on classification* Vol. I, pp. 232. Boston, 1857. 

Methods of Study in Natural History. Pp. 313. Boston, 1871. 

The Structure oi Animal Life. 8vo, pp. 128. New York, 1870. (The last 

lecture is entitled: Evidence of an Intelhgent and Constantly Creative Mind in 

the Plans and Variations of Structure.) 
Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History. 1830-1880. Boston. 

(Contains a Critique of Darwinism by Prof. Hyatt.) 4to, pp. 635. 
Annual of Scientific Discovery. Edited by Spencer F. Baird, Secretary of the Smith- 
sonian Institution; formerly by David A. Wells. New York and London, 1860-62. 

(Gives frequent notices of the discussions of the antiquity of man, origin of life, 

etc.) 
Argyll, The Duke of. Primeval Man. An Examination of some Recent Speculations. 

Pp. 200. New York, 1869. 
Bain, Alexandei'. Mind and Body, Theories of their Relations. 12mo. New York. 
Bascom, John. Science, Philosophy, and Religion. 12mo, pp. 311. New York, 

1871. 
Bastian, H. C. Evolution, and the Origin of Life. New York, 1880. 
The Beginnings of Life, Being some Account of the Nature, Modes of Origin, 

and Transformations of Lower Organisms. With Numerous Illustrations. 2 vols., 

12mo. New York, 1872. 
Beale, Lionel S. Protoplasm; or, Life, Matter, and Mind. 12mo, pp. 160. 2d ed. 

London, 1870. (A scientific refutation of Huxley's protoplastic theory.) 
Birks, T. R. The Difficulties of Belief in Connection with the Creation and Fall. 

12mo. Cambridge, 1855. 
The Scripture Doctrine of Creation, with Reference to Religious Nihilism and 

Modern Theories of Development. 16mo. New York, 1875. 
Brace, Charles L. The Races of the Old World. A Manual of Ethnology. 12mo, 

pp. 540. New York, 1863. (Discusses the geological question of the antiquity 

of man.) 
Bruntin, T. Landon. The Bible and Science. London, 1881. 12mo, pp. 415. (Aims 

to show the agreement of evolution with the Pentateuch.) 
Biichner, Louis. Force and Matter. Empirico-Philosophical Studies, intelligibly 

rendered. Edited by J. Frederick CoUingwood. 12mo, pp. 374. London, 1870. 



590 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 

Biichner, L. Man in the Past, Present, and Future. A Popular Account of the Re- 
sults of Recent Scientific Research as regards the Origin, Position, and Prospects 

of the Human Race. 8vo. London, 1872. (Atheistic.) 
Cabell, J. L. The Testimony of Modern Science to the Unity of Mankind. 12mo, 

New York, 1860. 
Calderwood, Henry. The Relations of Science and Religion. The Morse Lecture, 1880. 

12mo, pp. xiii, 323. New York, 1881. 
Chadbourne, P. A. Instinct : its Office in the Animal Kingdom, and its Relation to 

the Higher Powers of Man. 16mo, pp. 307. New York, 1872. (Argues that 

man has an instinctive belief in the existence of God.) 
Chapin, James H. The Creation and the Early Developments of Society. 12mo, 

pp. 274. New York, 1880. 
Christianity and its Antagonisms : Evangelical Alliance, Conf. of 1873. Division III. 

8vo. New York, 1874. 
Christlieb, Theodor. The Best Methods of Counteracting Modern Infidelity. A Paper 

read before the Evangelical Alliance, 1873. 18mo, pp. 89. New York, 1874. 

(Discusses scientific unbelief.) 
Church and Science (The). The Debate between ; or, the Ancient Hebraic Idea of the 

Six Days of Creation ; with an Essay on the Literary Character of Tayler Lewis. 

Andover, 1860. 
Claims of the Bible and of Science : Correspondence between a Layman and the Rev. 

F. D. Maurice on some Questions arising out of the Controversy respecting the 

Pentateuch. 12mo. London, 1863. 
Clark, Edson L. Fundamental Questions : Chiefly Relating to the Book of Genesis and 

the Hebrew Scriptures. 12rao, pp. vi, 217. 
Clark, Henry James. Mind in Nature ; or, the Origin of Life and the mode of 

Development of Animals. With over Two Hundred Illustrations. 8vo. New 

York, 1865. 
Cook, Joseph. Biology. 15th ed., 12mo, pp. 325. Boston, 1878. (Wholly popular in 

its treatment of the subject.) 
Creatioi;, Yestiges of. 12mo. New York. 
Dabney, R. L. The Sensualistic Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century Considered. 

8vo. Edinburgh. 
Dana, James D. Manual of Geology ; with Special Reference to American Geological 

History. 8vo, pp. 814. Philadelphia and London, 1863. (Discusses the An- 
tiquity and Unity of the human race.) 2d ed., pp. 828. New York, 1875. 
Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man, and Selection in relation to Sex. 2 vols., 

12mo, pp. 409, 436. New York, 1875. 
The Origin of Species by Natural Selection ; or, the Preservation of Favoured 

Races in the Struggle for Life. 6th ed., pp. xx, 458. London, 1873. 
Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. 2 vols., pp. 494, 568. 



New York, 1875. 
Dawk ins, W. B. Early Man in Britain, and his Place in the Tertiary Period. Pp. 

xxiv, 537. 
Dawson, J. W. Archaia ; or. Studies of the Cosmogony and Natural History of the 

Hebrew Scriptures. 12mo, pp. 400. Montreal, 1860. 
Fossil Men and their Modern Representatives. An Attempt to Illustrate the 

Character and Condition of Prehistoric Men in Europe by those of the American 

Races. 12nio. New York. 
' Nature and the Bible. Lectures delivered in Union Theological Seminary on 



the Morse Foundation. New York, 1875. Pp. 257. 



APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 591 

Dawson, J. W. The Chain of Life in Geological Time. London, 1880. Pp. 272. 

The Story of the Earth and Man. 12ino, pp. 493. New York, ISYS. 

Dick, Thomas. Chiistian Philosophy; or, the Connection of Sciemte and Philosophy 

with Religion. Revised edition. Illustrated with upward of 50 Engraving.s, 

12mo. New York, \So1. 
Draper, John William. History of the Conflict between Religion and Science. New 

York, 1875. Pp. 373. 
Duns, John. Biblical Natural Science. Being the Explanation of all References in 

Holy Scriptures to Geology, Botany, Zoology, and Physical Geography. Super- 
royal 8vo, pp. 1152. London, 1864. 
Elam, Charles. Winds of Doctrine. An Examination of Modern Theories of Atoma- 

tism and Evolution. Pp. 163. London, 1877. 
Farrar, Adam Storey. Science in Theology. Sermons preached in St. Mai'y's, Oxford. 

12mo, pp. 250. Am. ed. Philadelphia, 1860. 
Figuier, Louis. Primitive Man. Revised Translation. Illustrated with Thirty Scenes 

of Primitive Life, etc. 8vo. New York, 1870. 
The To-morrow of Death ; or, the Future Life According to Science, translated 

by S. R. Crocker. 16mo, pp. 395. Boston, 1872. 
The World before the Deluge. Edited by H. W. Bristow. 12mo, pp. 518. 



New York, 1872. 

Fiske, John. Darv/inism, and other Essays. ]2mo, pp. viii, 283. London, 1879. 

Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, based on the Doctrine of Evolution. 2 vols., 

pp. 465, 523. Boston, 1875. 

Fly, E. M. The Bible True ; or, the Cosmogony of Moses compared with the Facts of 
Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1871. 

Fowle, T. W. The Reconciliation of Religion and Science. Being Essays on Im- 
mortality, Inspiration, Miracles, and the Being of Christ. 8vo, pp. 404. London, 
1873. 

Fraser, William. Blending Lights ; or, the Relations of Natural Science, Archaeology, 
and History to the Bible. 12mo. New York, 1874. 

Geikie, Cunningham. Hours with the Bible ; or, the Scriptures in the Light of Mod- 
ern Discovery from the Creation to the Patriarchs. (Discusses the geological age 
of the woi'ld and the antiquity of man.) New York, 1881. (Vol. II is from 
Moses to Judges.) 

Geikie, James. The Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man. 
Pp. XXV, 545. New York, 1874. 

Gibson, Stanley. Religion and Science : their Relations to each other at the Present 
Day. Three Essays on the Grounds of Religious Belief. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Gloag, Paton J. The Primeval World. A Treatise on the Relations of Geology to 
Theology. 12mo, pp. 194. Edinburgh, 1859. 

Gray, Asa. Darwiniana. Essays and Reviews pertaining to Darwinism. 12mo, 
pp. 396. New York, 1876. (Aims to show that natural selection is not incon- 
sistent with natural theology.) 

Natural Science and Religion. Lectures to the Theological School of Yale 

College, 1880. 12mo, pp. 111. 

Haeckel, Ernst. The History of Creation ; or, the Development of the Eai-th and its 
Inhabitants from Natural Causes. {A. popular exposition of the doctrine of Evolu- 
tion.) Translated by E. Ray Lancaster. 2 vols., pp. 408, 374. London, 1876. 

Harcourt, L. V. The Doctrine of the Deluge, Vindicating the Scriptural Account 
from the Doubts which have been recently cast upon it by Geological Specula- 
tions. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1838. 



592 APPENDIX— RELIGIOjN^ AND SCIENCE. 

Harris, John. Man Primeval ; or, the Constitution and Primitive Condition of tho 

Human Being. 12mo. Boston, IS'ZO. 
The Pre-Adamite Earth. Contributions to Theological Science. 5th ed., 12mo, 

pp. 300. Boston, 1857. 
Heard, J. B. The Tripartite Nature of Man: Spirit, Soul, and Body. 12mo, pp. xxiv, 

374. Edinburgh, 1870. 
Hedge, Frederic Henry. The Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition. 12mo, pp. 288. 

Boston, 1870. 
Henslow, George. The Theory of Evolution and the Application of the Principles of 

Evolution to Religion. Pp. 220. London, 1873. 
Hill, Thomas. Geometry and Faith. A Supplement to the Ninth Bridgewater 

Treatise. 3d ed. greatly enlarged. 12mo, pp. 109. Boston and New York, 

1882. 
Hitchcock, Edward. Religious Truth Illustrated from Science, in Addresses and 

Sermons upon Special Occasions. 12rao. Boston, 1857. 
The Religion of Geology and its Connected Sciences. 12mo, pp. 511. Boston, 

1851. 
Hodge, Charles. "What is Darwinism ? Timo, pp. 178. New York, 1874. (Argues that 

Darwinism is Atheistic.) 
Homo versus Darwin. A Judicial Examination of Statements recently Published by 

Mr. Darwin regarding " The Descent of Man." 12rao. Philadelphia, 1872. 
Huxley, Thomas H. Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. 12mo, pp. 184. New 

York, 1862. 

Critiques and Addresses. Pp. 350. London, 2 873. 

Lay Sermons, etc. London and New York, 1872. 

The Origin of Species ; or, the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature. 

Pp. 150. New York, 1872. 
The Theorv of Evolution. Lectures delivered in New York. New York Trib- 



une Extra No. 36. Popular Science Monthly, 1876 and 1877. 

Janet, Paul. The Materialism of the Present Day: a Critique of Dr. Biichner's 
System. From the French. 12mo, pp. 202. London and New York, 1866. 

Jevons, W. Stanley. The Principles of Science. A Treatise on Logic and Scientific 
Method. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 463, 480. London and New York, 1874. (Argues that 
Science as well as Religion rests on probable evidence ; and that there is no 
necessary antagonism between Science and Theology.) 

Kurtz, John Henry. The Bible and Astronomy; an Exposition of the Biblical Cos- 
mology, and its Relations to Natural Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1861. 

Laidlaw, John. The Bible Doctrine of Man. The Seventh Series of Cunning- 
ham Lectures. 8vo, pp. 397. Edinburgh and New York, 1879. (Discusses 
Evolution.) 

Lange, F. A. History of Materialism. With a Criticism of its Present Importance. 
3 vols., 8vo. Boston, 1880. 

Le Conte, Joseph. Religion and Science. A Series of Sunday Lectures on the Rela- 
tion of Natural and Revealed Religion ; or, the Truths Revealed in Nature and 
Scripture. Pp. 324. New York, 1874. 

Lenormant, Frangois. The Beginnings of History, according to the Bible and the 
Traditions of Oriental Peoples. From the 2d French ed. 12mo, pp. 588. New 
York, 1882. 

Leslie, J. P. Man's Origin and Destiny Sketched from the Platform of the Physical 
Sciences. (Argues the consistency of evolution with theism, but rejects revelation.) 
Boston, 1881. 12mo, pp. 442. 



APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 593 

Lewes, George H. The Physical Basis of Mind. Forming the Second Series. 8vo. 
Boston, 1880. 

Problems of Life and Mind. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 434, 487. Boston, 1874-5. 

Lewis, Tavier. The Bible and Science s, or, the World Problem. 12mo. Schenec- 
tady, 1856. 

The Six Days of Creation; or, the Scriptural Cosmogony. 12mo, pp. 416. 

New ed., 1879. 

Lubbock, Sir John. Prehistoric Times, as Illustrated by Ancient Remains and the 
Manners and Customs of Modern Savages. 8vo, pp. 640. New York, 1872. 

The Origin of Civilization, and the Primitive Condition of Man. Mental and 

Social Condition of Savages. 8vo, pp. viii, 380. New York, 1870. 

Lyell, Sir Charles. Principles of Geology ; or, 'the Modern Changes of the Earth 
and its Inhabitants, considered as Illustrative of Geology. 2 vols., pp. 671, 652. 
New York, 1873. '(Furnishes, in his " Uniformitarian " theory, the ground for 
Darwinism.) 

The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, with Remarks on Theories 

of the Origin of Species by Variation. 8vo, pp. 526. Philadelphia, 1863. Re- 
vised edition, pp. xix, 572. London, 1873. 
The Student's Elements of Geology. Pp. 624. London, 1871, 



Macdonald, Donald. The Creation and Fall. A Defense of the First Three Chapters 

of Genesis. 8vo. Edinburgh. 
M'Causland, Dominick. Adam and the Adamites ; or, the Harmony of the Scriptures 

and Ethnology. 12mo, pp. 324. London, 1868. 
Sermons in Stones ; or. Scripture confirmed by Geology. 16mo. London, 

1870. 
M'Cosh, James. The Development Hypothesis. Is it Sufficient? 12mo, 104. New 

York, 1876. 
Martineau, James. Modern Materialism and its Relations to Theology and Religion. 

With an Introduction by H. W. Bellows. 18mo, pp. 211. New York, 1877. 
Maudsley, Henry. The Physiology and Pathology of Mind. From the London edition. 

8vo, pp. 442. 1867. (Resolves Psychology into Physiology, and holds that mind 

is the highest form of force.) 
Mill, John Stuart. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Deductive. 8vo, pp. 600. 

New York, 1867. (Argues that we can give no account of the permanent causes 

in nature.) 
Miller, Hugh. The Testimony of the Rocks ; or. Geology in its Bearing on the Two 

Theologies, Natural and Revealed. 12mo, pp. 511. Boston, 1870. 
Mivart, St. George. Lessons from Nature as Manifested in Mind and Matter. 12mo, 

pp. viii, 462. New York, 1876. (Anti-Darwinian.) 

Man and Apes. An Exposition of Structural Resemblances and Differences 

bearing upon questions of Affinity and Origin. 12mo, pp. 200. London, 1874. 

The Genesis of Species. ]2mo, pp. 296. London, 1871. (An argument against 

Darwin for a Special Creation.) 

MoUoy, Gerald. Geology and Revelation ; or, the Ancient History of the Earth Con- 
sidered in the light of Geological Facts and Revealed Religion. 12mo, pp. 380. 
New York, 1870. 

Miiller, Max. Chips from a German Workship. 5 vols., 12mo. New York, 1876. 
(The essays in Vol. lY are chiefly on the science of Language.) 

Murphy, Joseph John. Habit and Intelligence in their Connexion with the Laws of 
Matter and Force. 2 vols., pp. 349, 240. 

The Scientific Basis of Faith. 8vo. London, 1873. 

38 . 



594 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 

Nott, Josiah, and Gliddon, George R. Types of Mankind ; or, Ethnological Researches. 
8vo. Philadelphia, 1854. 

Indigenous Races of the Earth ; or, New Chapters of Ethnological Inquiry. 

Including other valuable contributions. Royal 8vo. Philadelphia, 1857. 

Ormathwaite, Lord. Astronomy and Geology Compared. 16mo, pp. 179. New 
York, 1872. (An argument against Darwinism as atheistic.) 

Owen, Richard. Palaeontology ; or, a Systematic Survey of Extinct Animals and their 
Geological Relations. 2d ed., pp. 463. Edinburgh, 1861. 

The Anatomy of the Vertebrates, 3 vols. London, 1868. (Chapter 40 is 

especially important.) 

Paine, Martin. Physiology of the Soul and Instinct as distinguished from Material- 
ism. With supplementary demonstrations of the Divine Communication of the 
Narratives of the Creation and the Flood. 8vo, pp. 707. New York, 1872. 

Painter, R. B. Science a Stronghold of Belief ; or, Scienti^c and Common Sense 
Proofs of the Reasonableness of Religious Belief. 1 2mo. New York, 1 880. 

Paul, "William. The Scriptural Account of Creation Vindicated by the Teaching of 
Science. 12mo. 

Peabody, Andrew P. Christianity and Science. Lectures delivered before the 
Students of the Union Theological Seminary. 16mo, pp. 287. New York, 1874. 

Pendleton, N. W. Science a Witness for the Bible. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1860. 

Peschel, Oscar. The Races of Man and their Distribution. From the German. 12mo, 
pp. 528. 

Phin, John. The Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation. 12mo. New 
York, 1870. 

Poole, R. S. The Genesis of the Earth and of Man ; or, the History of Creation and 
the Antiquity and Races of Mankind. 12mo. London, 1860. 

Pratt, John H. Scripture and Science not at Variance. With Remarks on the His- 
torical Character, Plenary Inspiration, and Surpassing Importance of the Earlier 
Chapters of Genesis. 7 ed., revised and corrected. 12mo. London, 1872. 

Pratt, Henry T. A. The Genealogy of Creation, Newly Translated from the Unpointed 
Hebrew Text of the Book of Genesis. Showing the General Scientific Accuracy 
of the Cosmogony of Moses and the Philosophy of Creation. 8vo. London, 
1861. 

Primeval Man Unveiled ; or, the Anthropology of the Bible. Crown 8vo. London, 
1871. 

Problems of Faith. A Contribution to Present Controversies. Third Series of Lect- 
ures to Young Men delivered at the Presbyterian College, London, by the Duke of 
Argyll, Professor Watts, Dr. Donald Fraser, and William Carruthers, Edited by 
Oswald Dykes. 12mo. London, 1875. 

Quarry, John. Genesis and its Authorship. Two Dissertations. 8vo, pp. 635. 
London and Edinburgh, 1866. (Argues that revelation was not designed to teach 
any system of science.) 

Ragg, Thomas. Creation's Testimony to its God. The Accordance of Science, Phi- 
losophy, and Revelation. A Manual of the Evidences of Natural and Revealed 
Religion. 12mo. London, 1867. 

Rawlinson, George. The Origin of the Nations, 12mo, pp. 272. New York, 1878. 
(Aims to show the harmony between Genesis and the science of Ethnology.) 

Recent Scientific Conclusions, (Thoughts on,) and their Relation to Religion. 12mo. 
London, 1872. 

Rigg, A. The Harmony of the Bible with Experimental Physical Science, A Course 
of Four Lectures. 18mo. London, 1869. 



APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. ' 595 

Ritchie, A. T. The Creation. The Earth's Formation on Dynamical Principles, iu 
Accordance with the Mosaic Record and the Latest Scientific Discoveries. 5th ed., 
revised, 8vo, pp. 680. London, 1882. 

Sandys, R. H. In the Beginning. Remarks on certain Modern Views of the Crea- 
tion. 2d ed., crown Svo. London, 1 880. ' 

Saville, B. W The Truth of the Bible. Evidence from the Mosaic and other Records 
of Creation ; the Origin and Antiquity of Man ; the Science of Scripture ; and 
from the Ar^ihaeology of Different Nations of the Earth. Svo. London, 1870. 

Schmidt, Oscar. The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism. Pp. 33-1. London, 1875. 

Science and the Gospel ; or, the Church and the Nations. A Series of Essays on 
Great Catholic Questions. 12mo. London, 1870. 

Science and Revelation. A Series of Lectures in Reply to the Theories of Tyndall, 
Huxley, Darwin, Spencer, etc. Lectures delivered in Belfast in 1874-75. Belfast 
and New York, 1875. 

Sewall, J. B. Evenings with the Bible and Science. 16mo, pp. 151. Boston and 
New York, 1864. 

Sewell, William. Christian Vestiges of Creation. 12mo. Oxford, 1861. 

Shields, Charles W. Religion and Science in their Relations to Philosophy, Svo. 
New York, 1875. 

The Final Philosophy. A System of Perfectible Knowledge, issuing from the 

Harmony of Science and Religion. Svo, pp. 609. New York, 1877. 

Smith, John Pye. Geology and Scripture ; or, the Relation between the Holy Script- 
ures and Geological Science. 12aio. pp. 364. New York, 1840. 

Smyth, Thomas. The Unity of the Human Races proved to be the Doctrine of Script- 
ure, Reason, and Science. 12mo. New York, 1850. 

Smyth, William W. The Bible and the Doctrine of Evolution. ' Being a Complete 
Synthesis of their Truth, and giving a Sure Scientific Basis for the Doctrines of 
Scripture. 12mo. London, 1873. 

Southall, James T. The Recent Origin of Man, as Illustrated by Geologv and the 
Modern Science of Prehistoric Archaeology. Svo, pp. 606. Philadelphia, 1875. 

Spencer, Herbert. First Principles of a New System of Philosophy. 12mo, pp. 503. 
New York, 1864. (The fifth chapter attempts a reconciliation of Religion and 
Science. 

The Principles of Biology. 2 vols., pp. 492, 569. New York, 1871. 

St. Clair, George. Darwinism and Design ; or. Creation by Evolution. Pp. 359. Lon- 
don, 1873. 

Stirling, James H. As Regards Protoplasm. In relation to Prof. Huxley's Essay on 
the Physical Basis of Life. ISmo, pp. 71. New Haven, 1870. 

Thompson, Joseph P. Man in Genesis and in Geology; or, the Biblical Account of 
Man's Creation tested by Scientific Theories of his Origin and Antiquity. 12mo, 
pp. 149. New York, 1870. 

Tullidge, Henry. Triumphs of the Bible, with the Testimony of Science to its Truth. 
12mo, pp. 439. New York, 1863. 

Tyndall, Professor John. Fragments of Science for Unscientific People. A Series of 
Detached Essays, Lectures, and Reviews. New York. 12mo, pp. 422. 1871. 
(The second essay discusses prayer and natural law ; the sixth, the scope and limit 
of scientific materialism.) 

Venn, J. On some of the Characteristics of Belief, Scientific and Religious. (Hulsean 
Lectures for 1869.) Svo. London, 1870. 

Wallace, Alfred Russell. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. 2d ed., 
pp. 384. New York, 1869. 



596 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 

Wallace, Alfred Russell. The Geographical Distribution of Species, etc. 2 vols., pp. 
607, 503. New York, 1876, (Aims to apply certain facts in the distribution of 
species to the Darwinian theory of their origin.) 

The Malay Archipelago. Pp. 638. New York, 1869. 

W arring, Charles B. . The Mosaic Account of Creation, etc. ; or, New Witnesses to 
the Oneness of Genesis and Science. 16ino, pp. 292. New York, 1875. 

Warrington, George. The Week of Creation ; or, the Cosmogony of Genesis, con- 
sidered in its Relation to Modern Science. 12mo. London, 1870. 

Whewell, Wm. History of the Inductive Sciences. 3d ed., 2 vols., pp. 566, 648. 
New York, 1870. 

The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. 2 vols., pp. 586, 523. London, 1840. 

Whitney, M. D wight. Language and ihe Study of Language. 12mo, pp. 505. New 
York, 1868. 

Oriental and Linguistic Studies. First and second series. 12mo, pp. 416, 431. 

New York, 1873, 1874. 

Wight, George. Geology and Genesis. A Reconciliation of the two Records. Rec- 
ommendatory Note by W. L. Alexander. 12mo. London, 1857. 

Williams, Charles, The First Week of Time ; or, Scripture in Harmony with Science. 
12mo. London, 1863, 

Wilson, Daniel. Prehistoric Man, Researches into the Origin of Ciivlization in the 
Old and the New World, 2 vols., 8vo, London, 1865. 

Winchell, Alexander. Pre- Adamites ; or, a Demonstration of the Existence of Man 
before Adam. 8vo, pp. xxvi, 500. Chicago and London, 1880. 

Reconciliation of Science and Religion. 12mo, xvi, 403. New York and Cincin- 
nati, 1877. (Argues that there is no contradiction between evolution and direct 
creation.) 

Sketches of Creation. A Popular Yiew of some of the Grand Conclusions of 

the Sciences in Reference to the History of Matter and of Life. With Illustra- 
tions. 12mo, pp. xii, 459. New York, 1870. 

The Doctrine of Evolution. Its Data, its Principles, its Speculation, and its 



Theistic Bearings. 12mo, pp. 148. New York, 1874. 

Wiseman, (Cardinal,) Nicholas. Twelve Lectures on the Connection between Science 
and Revealed Religion. 8vo, pp. xii, 404. London, 1837. 

Wright, G. Frederic. Studies in Science and Religion. 16mo, pp. 406. Andover, 
1882. (The seventh essay discusses the Bible and Science.) 

The Logic of Christian Evidences. 12mo, xiv, 312. Andover, 1880. 

Wythe, Rev. Joseph H. The Agreement of Science and Revelation. 12mo, pp. 290. 
Philadelphia and London, 1872. 

Yorke, J. F. Notes on Evolution and Christianity. 8vo, pp. 296. London, 1882. 

Young, J. R. Modern Skepticism Viewed in Relation to Modern Science. 12mo. 
London, 1865. 

See also J, W, Dawson's address before the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, Montreal, 1875 ; John L. Leconte's address before the same, 
Salem, 1875 ; Huxley's article on Biology in ninth edition of Encyclopaedia Bri- 
tannica ; Professor Clerk Maxwell's article on Atoms in same ; Edward S. Morse's 
paper before American Association in Popular Science Review, 1876 ; Goldwin 
Smith's article on Ascent of Man, in Macmillan's Magazine for January, 1877 ; M. 
A. Wilder's article on Natural Law and Spiritual Agency, in the New Englander 
for October, 1874. 

For an account of recent German works on Theology and Science, Darwinism, etc., 
see Bibliotheca Sacra for April, 1877, pp. 386 and 387, and July, 1877, pp. 577-584. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 597 

II. 

Histories of the Chrjstiais" Churches i^ the United States. 

The histories of ihe Churches in the United States are of so much importance to the 
tlieological student tliat we offer here a hst of those most accessible. As many ol 
the denominational publishing houses, from which they are generally issued, are 
not well known, the location of each has also been stated. 

General. 

Baird, Eobert. Religion in America ; or. An Account of the Origin, Relation to the 
State, and Present Condition of the Evangelical Churches in the United States. 
With Notices of the Unevangelical Denomiaations. 8vo, pp. xvii, 696. New 
York : Harper & Brothers. 1856. ^ 

Belcher, Joseph. The Religious Denominations in the United States. Illustrated. 
Large 8vo,. pp. 1024. Philadelphia, 1861. 

Ellis, George E. The Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of the Massachusetts Bay, 
1629-1685. 8vo, pp. 576. Boston, 1888. 

Gambraill, Theodore C. Church Life in Colonial Maryland. 12mo, pp. 309. Balti- 
more, 1885. 

Greenleaf, Jonathan. Sketches of the Ecclesiastical History of the State of Maine, 
from the Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. 12 mo, pp. 293 ; Appendix 77. 
Portsmouth, 1821. 

Religious Denominations of the United States. Their Past History, Present Condi- 
tion, and Doctrines, Accurately Set Forth in Fiftj^-three Articles by Clergymen and 
Lay Authors Connected with the Respective Persuasions. 8vo. Philadelphia: 
C. Desilver & Sons. 1871. 

Rupp, I. Daniel. History of the Religious Denominations in the United States. 
8vo, pp. vi, 734. Philadelphia: J. Y. Humphreys. 1844. 

Sprague, William B. Annals of the American Pulpit ; or. Commemorative Notices 
of Distinguished American Clergymen of Various Denominations, with Historical 
Introductions. 8vo, 10 vols. New York: R. Carter & Brothers. 1859-69. 

Baptist. 

Anderson, George W. The Baptists in the United States. 18mo, pp. 72. Phila- 
delphia : American Baptist Publication Society, 1420 Chestnut Str,eet. 

Armitage, Thomas. A History of the Baptists, Traced by their Yital Principles and 
Practices from the Time of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ to the Year 1886. 
With an Introduction by Rev. J. L, M. Curry. 8vo. St. Louis, 1887. (The 
best recent history of the denomination.) 

Backus, Isaac. A History of New England, from 1629 to 1804. With Particular 
Reference to the Denomination of Christians called Baptists. Second edition, 
with Notes, by David Weston. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. x, 538 ; ix, 584. Newton, Mass., 
1871. 

Bailey, G. S. The Trials and Victories of Religious Liberty in America. A Centen- 
nial Memorial, 1776-1876. 18mo, pp. 72. Philadelphia : American Baptist Pub- 
lication Society. 

Barrows, C. E. Development of Baptist Principles in Rliode Island. ISmo, pp. 104. 
Philadelphia : American Baptist Publication Society. 



598 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 

Benedict, David. General History of tlie Baptist Denomination ia America and 

Other Parts of the World. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 970. New York : L. Colby. 1848. 
Bitting, C. C. Religious Liberty and tlie Baptists. ISmo, pp. 72. Philadelphia: 

Bible and Publication Society. 
Borum, Joseph H. Biographical Sketches of Tennessee Baptist Ministers. 12mo, 

pp. xiv, 640. Memphis, 1880. 
Cook, R. B. The Story of the Baptists in all Ages and Countries. Illustrated, 

pp. 409. Baltimore, 1884. 
Cox, F. A., and Hoby, J. The Baptists in America. A Narrative of the Deputation 

from the Baptist Union in England to the United States and Canada. 12mo, 

pp. 476. New York, 1836. 
Cramp, J. M. Baptj^t History. From the Foundation of the Cliristian Church to the 

Close of the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. 598. Philadelphia: American 

Baptist Publication Society. 1869. 
Crowell, W. Literature of tlie American Baptists During the Last Fifty Years. 

Missionary Jubilee Volume. New York. 1865. 
Curry, J. L. M. Struggles and Triumphs of Virginia Baptists. A Memorial Dis- 
course. 18mo, pp. 71. Philadelphia: Bible and Publication Society. 
Hovey, Alvah. Progress of a Centu^3^ 18mo, pp. 70. Philadelphia: American 

Baptist Publication Society. 
Minutes of the General Conference of the Free-will Baptist Connection, to which is 

prefixed an Introduction containing a Brief Outline of the Rise, Progress, and 

Early Polity and Leading Measures of the Denomination. 12mo, pp. xii, 444. 

Dover, N. H., 1859. 
Moss, Lemuel, Editor. The Baptist and the National Centenary. A Record of 

Christian "Work, 1776-1876. 8vo, pp. 310. Pliiladelphia : American Baptist 

Publication Society. 1876. 
Smith, J. T. The Six- Principle Baptists. A Historical Sketch. Pp. 19. Baptist 

Quarterly Review, 1883, p. 456. 
Stewart, J. D. History of the Free-will Baptists for Half a Century. 12mo, pp. 480. 

Dover, N. H, 1862. . 
Stewart, J. D. The Centennial Record of Free-will Baptists, 1780-1880. Pp.266. 

Dover, N. H. 
Taylor, Geo. B. The Baptists and Religious Liberty. 18mo, pp. 36. Philadelphia: 

Bible and Publication Society. 
Taylor, G. B. Virginia Baptists. ISmo, pp. 35. Philadelphia : American Baptist 

Publication Society. 
The Letters of Roger Williams, 1632-1682, now first collected. Edited by John 

Russell Bartlett. 4to. Providence, 1874. 
Williams, A. D. Memorials of the Free Communion Baptists. 8vo. Dover, N. H: 

Free-will Baptist Printing Establishment. 1852. 
Wilhams, WiUiam R. Lectures on Baptist History. Philadelphia, 1877. 
Also various biographies of Free-will Baptist ministers, to wit: John Colby, pp. 316; 

William Burr, pp. 208; Clement Phinney, pp. 190; John Stevens, pp. 120; 

Martin Cheney, pp. 471; David Marks, pp. 515; George F. Day, pp. 481. 

Dover, N. H. : Free-will Baptist Publishing House. 

Christian. 

Summerbell, N. History of the Christiana. Dayton, 0. : Christian Publishing Asso- 
ciation. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 599 



Congregational. 

Bacon, Leonard. The Genesis of the New England Churches. 8vo, pp. xvi, 485. 
New York: Harper & Brothers. 1874. 

Bacon, Leonard. Historical Discourses on the Completion of Two Hundred Years, 
from Beginning of the First Church in New Haven, Conn. 8vo. Boston : A. 
H. Maltby. 1849. 

Cambridge (Mass.) Platform of (Congregational) Church Discipline, 1648. Confes- 
sion of Faith, 1680. Platform of Ecclesiastical Government by N. Emmons. 
12mo, pp. ii, 20-84. Boston: Congregational Publishing Society, Beacon Street, 
1855. 

Clark, Joseph S. Historical Sketches of the Congregational Churches in Massachu- 
setts, from 1620 to 1858 ; with an Appendix. 12mo, pp. 344. Boston: Congre- 
gational Publishing Society. 

Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of Connecticut; Prepared under the 
Direction of the General Association, to Commemorate the Completion of One 
Hundred and Fifty Years since its First Annual Assembly. 8vo, pp. 578. New 
Haven: W. L. Kingsley. 186L 

Dexter, Henry M. Congregationalism : "What it Is, "Whence it Is, etc. 8vo, pp. 3.38. 
Fourth edition. Revised and enlarged. 12mo. Boston : Lockwood, Brooks & 
Co. 1876. 

Dexter, Henry M. A Monograph. As to Roger "Williams and his " Banishment " 
from tiie Massachusetts Plantation, with a Few Furtlier Words Concerning the 
Baptists, the Quakers, and Religious Liberty. Boston : Congregational Publish- 
ing Society. 

Dexter, Henry Mart3'^n. The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, 
as Seen in its Literature; with Special Reference to Certain Recondite, Neg- 
lected, and Disputed Passages. In Twelve Lectures, Delivered, on the South- 
worth Foundation, in the Theological Seminary at Andover, Mass., 187G-1879. 
With a Bibliographical Appendix. Royal octavo, pp. 1082. New York, 1880. 

Felt, Joseph B. The Ecclesiastical History of New England ; Comprising not only 
Religious, but also Moral and Other Relations. 8vo, 2 vols, pp. 664, 721. 
Boston: Congregational Library Association. 1855. 

Goodwin, John A. The Pilgrim Republic : an Historical Review of the Colony of 
New Plymouth, with Sketches of the Rise of Other New p]ugland Settlements, 
. the History of Congregationalism, and the Creeds of the Period. 8vo, pp. 662. 
Boston, 1888. 

Government and Communion, Practiced by the Congregational Churches in tlie 
United States of America, which were Represented by Elders and Messengers in 
a National Council at Boston, A. D. 1865. Boston: Congregational Publishing 
Society. 

M.irvin, Abijah P. The Life and Times of Cotton Matlier ; or, A Boston Minister of 
Two Centuries Ago. 1663-1728. 8vo, pp. v, 582. Boston, 1892. 

Mather, Cotton. Magnalia Christi Americana ; or, Ecclesiastical History of New 
England, from 1620 to 1698. "With Notes and Translations by Bobbins and 
Robinson. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 626, 682. Hartford : S. Andrus & Son. 1853. 

Minutes of the National Councils of the Congregational Cliurclies of the United 
States, from 1821 to 1883. Boston : Congregational Publishing Society. 

Morton, Nathaniel. New England Memorial, with Governor Bradford's History; an 
Appendix Containing the Views of the Pilgrims and Early Settlers on the 
39 



coo APPENDIX- AMERICAN" CHURCH HISTORY. 

Subject of Cburcli Polity, 8vo, pp. 536. Boston: Congregational Publishing 
Society. 

Palfrey, John G. History of New England During the Stuart Dynast}'. 8vo 4 
vols., pp. xxxi, 636; xx, 640 ; xxii, 659; xxiv, 604, Boston : Little, Brown & 
Co. 1858-77, 

Park, Edwards A. The Associate Creed of Andover Tlieoiogical Seminary, Pub- 
lished at tlie Request of Drs. R, S, Storrs, Mark Hopkins, William M, Taylor, 
A. C, Thompson, and many other Congregational Ministers. Boston, 1883. 

Punciiard, George. History of Congregationalism from About A. D, 250 to the 
Present Time. Second edition. 12mo, 3 vols., pp, xvi, 562; xiii, 519; xxii, 
455. New York, 1865-67. 

The Congregational Year-Book. 5 vols. 1854-59. New York. Also of Succeed- 
ing Years. 

Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening : A History of the Revival of Religion in 
the Time of Edwards and Whitetield, 12mo, pp, 433. Boston : Congregational 
Publishing Society. 

Tyler, Bennet. Memoir of Asahel Nettleton, D.D. 12mo, pp, 376. Boston: Con- 
gregational Publishing Society. 

Uhdeii, H. F, The New England Theocracy: a History of the Congregationalists in 
New England to the Revivals of 1740. Translated from the German by H, C. 
Conant, 12mo, pp. 303. Bo-ton: Gould & Lincoln. 1858. 

Young, Alexander. Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers of the Colony of Plymouth, 
from 1620 to 1628. Boston, 1841. 

Young, Alexander. Clironicles of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachu- 
setts Bay, from 1623 to 1G36. Boston, 1846. 

Lutheran. 
Ayres, Anne. The Life and Work of William Augustus Muhlenberg. Svo. pp. 

xiv, 524. New York, 1880. 
Bernheim, G, D, History of the German Settlements and of the Lutheran Church in 

North and South Carolina, 12mo, pp. 558. Pliiladelphia : Lutheran Book Siore, 
Hazelius, E. L. History of the American Lutheran Church, from its Commence- 
ment in 1685 to the Year 1842, Pp, 300. Zanesville, 0., 1846. 
Jacobs, TTenry Eyster. A Historj^ of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United 

States, Svo, pp. xvi, 539. New York, 1892. (The American Church History 

Scries.) 
.Morris, J. G. Bibliotheca Lutherana : List of Publications of Lutheran Ministers in 

the United States, ]2mo. Pliiladelphia: Lutheran Board of Publication. 42 

North Ninth Street, 1876. (Contains notices of many local histories.) 
Schaffer, C. W. Early History of the Lutheran Church in America to the Middle of 

the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. 143, Philadelphia: Lutheran Board (»f 

Publication. 1857, New edition, 1868, 
Schmucher, S. S, The American Lutheran Church, Historically, Doctrinally. and 

Practically Delineated, Fifth edition. 12tno, pp. x, 286. Philadelphia: E. W. 

Miller. 1862. 
Schmucher, S. S, Retrospect of Lutheranism in the United States, Baltimore: 

1841, 
Seiss, Joseph A, Ecclepia Lutherana, A Brief Survey of the Lutheran Church. 

Thirty-second edition. 12mo, Philadelphia, 1867. 
Stoever, M. L. Memoir of the Life and Times of Henry M. Muhlenberg, D.D, Pp. 

120. Philadelphia, 1856. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. GOl 

Stoever, M. L. Reminiscences of Lutheran Ministers. Evangelical Review, v, 515; 
vi, 1, 261, 412, 542 ; vii, 63, 151, 377, 527; viii, 105, 186, 398, 501 : ix, 1 ; xi, 
202,428,585; xiii, 362, 561 ; xiv, 293; xv, 129, 428, 355; xvi, 4*70 ; xvii, 390, 
485 ; xviii, 25, 232 ; xix, 89, 405, 622 ; xx, 381 ; xxi, 24, 171, 374. 

Stoever, M, L. Lutheran Church iu'tbe United States. Congregational Quarterly, 
1862. 

Strobel, P. A. The Salzburgers and their Descendants : Being the History of a Col- 
ony of German Lutheran Protestants, who Emigrated to Georgia in 1734, and 
Settled at Ebenezer. Pp. 308. Baltimore, 1855. 

Mennonite. 

Ellis, Franklin, and Evans, Samuel. History of Lancaster County, Pa., with Bio- 
graphical Sketclies of Many of its Pioneers and -Prominent Men. Chapter xxvii. 
Churches of the Mennonites, Bunkers, Reformed Mennouites, River Brethren, 
and Araish. 

Funk, John F. The Mennonite Church and her Accusers. Elkhart, Ind. : Mennon- 
ite Publishing Co. 1878. 

Martin, E. K. The Mennonites. Svo, pp. 17. Philadelphia: Everts & Peck. 
1883. 

Musser, Daniel. The Reformed Mennonite Church : its Rise and Progress, with its 

Doctrines and Principles. Lancaster, Pa. : Inquirer Printing and Publishing Co. 

1878. 

Methodist. 

Annals of Southern Methodism. 1855. 12mo, 1 vol., 1857. !N"ashville, Tenn. : 
Publishing House of tiie Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Archibald, F. A. Metiiodisra and Literature. A series of articles from several 
writers on the " Literary Enterprise and Achievements of the Methodist Episco- 
palChurch." Edited by F. A. Archibald, D.D., with a Catalogue of Select Books 
for the Home, the Church, and the Sunday-school. 12mo. Cincinnati, 1883. 

Arnett, B. W. The Budget: Containing the Annual Reports of the General Officers 
of the African M. E. Church, etc., with Facts and Figures, Historical Data of 
the Colored Methodist Churcii, etc.. Together with Religious, Educational, and 
Political Information Pertaining to the Colored Race. Pp. 136. Xenia, 0. : 
Torchlight Printing Co. 1881. The same for 1883, pp.154. Dayton, 0. ; 
Christian Publishing House Print. 

Asbury, Francis, Journal of. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. 524, 492, 502. New York: Meth- 
odist Book Concern. 150 Fifth Avenue. 1852. 

Atkinson, John. Centennial History of Methodism, Inclusive of the Period of its 
Ecclesiastical Organization in 1784, and its Subsequent Development under the 
Superintendency of Francis Asbury. With Sketches of the Character and History 
of all the Preachers known to have been Members of the Christmas Conference. 
Also, an Appendix, showing the Numerical Position of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church as compared with the other leading Evangelical Denominations in the 
cities of the United States, and the Condition of the Educational Work of the 
Church. 12mo, pp. 559. New York, 1884. 

Bangs, Nathan. A Historj'- of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 12mo, 4 vols. 
New York : Methodist Book Concern. 

Bascom, Henry B., Life of. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn.: Pubhshing House of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Bascom, H. B., Greene, A. L. P., Parsons, C. B. Brief Appeal to Pubhc Opinion in 
a Series of Exceptions to the Course and Action of tlie Methodist p]piscopal 



602 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 

Clmrcli, from 1844 to 1848. 8vo, pp. 202, Louisville, Ky. : Morton and Gris- 
wold. 1848. 

Bassett, Ancel H. A Concise History of the Methodist Protestant Church from its 
Origin. Introduction by William Collier. 12mo, pp. 424. Pittsburg : James 
Robinson, 1877. Third edition, 1887. 

B nnett, . Methodism in Virginia. 12ma Nashville, Tenn.r Publishing 

House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Bond, Thomas E. The Economy of Methodism Illustrated and Defended : In a Series 
of Papers. 8vo, pp. 391. New York: Methodist Book Concern. 1852. 

Colhouer, T. Sketches of the Founders of the Methodist Protestant Church and its 
Bibliography. With an Introduction by Rev. J. T. Ward. 12rao, pp. xii, 466. 
Pittburg, 1880. 

Cornish, George H. Cyclopaedia of Methodism In Canada, containing Historical, 
Educational, and Statistical Information, Dating from the Beginning of the Work 
in Several Provinces of the Dominion of Cannda and Extending to the Annual 
Conferences of 1880. 8vo, pp. 850. Toronto, 1881. 

Crooks, George R. The Life of Bishop Matthew Simpson, of the Methodist Episco- 
pal Church. 8vo, pp. xii, 522. New York, 1887. 

Deems, Charles F. Annals of Southern Methodism for 1856. 12mo, pp. 312. Nash- 
ville, Tenn : Stevenson & Owen. New York : John A. Gray. 

Drew, Samuel. Life of the Rev. Thomas Coke, LL.D. 12mo, pp. 381. New York: 
Methodist Book Concern. 183Y. 

Elliott, Charles. History of ihe Great Secession from the Methodist Episcopal Churcli 
in the Year 1845, Eventuating in the Organization of the New Church Entitled 
"Methodist Episcopal Church, South.'' 8vo, pp. 1143. Cincinnati, 1855. 

Emory, Robert. Life of the Rev. John Emory. With an Appendix. 8vo, pp. 380. 
New York: Methodist Book Concern, 1841. 

Finley. J. B. Sketches of Western Methodism. Cincinnati: Methodist Book Con- 
cern. 1875. 

Formal Fraternity. Proceedings of the General Conferences of the Methodist Epis' 
copal Church and of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in 1872, 1874, and 
1876, and of the Joint Commission of the Two Churclies on Fraternal Relations 
at Cape May, N. J., August 16-23, 1876. 8vo, pp. 87. New York: Meth- 
odist Book Concern. Nashville, Tenn. : A. H. Bedford. 

Goss, C. C. Statistical History of the First Century of American Methodism. 16mo, 
pp.188. New York: Methodist Book Concern. 1866. 

History of the Organization of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South : Comprehend- 
ing all the Official Proceedings of the General Conference, etc. 8vo, pp. 267. 
Nashville: Pubhshed by Order of the Louisville Convention. William Came- 
ron, Printer. 1845. 

Holliday, F. C. Indiana Methodism. Being an account of the Introduction, etc., of 
Methodism in the State. Svo, pp. 360. Cincinnati, 1863. 

Jones, John G. A Complete History of Methodism as Connected with the Mississippi 
Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Yol. I, 1799-1817, 
pp. 461. Nashville, Tenn., 1887. 

Journal of the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, for 
1854, 1866, 1870, 1874, 1878, 1882. Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing House of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Lednum, John. A History of the Rise of Methodism in America. Containing 
Sketches of Methodist Itinerant Preachers from 1736 to 1785, e'c, etc. 12mo, 
pp. 434. Philadelphia: John Lednum. 1859. 




APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 603 

Lee, L. M. Life and Times of tlie Rev. Jesse M. Lee. 8vo, pp. 517. Nashville, 
Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist P]piscopal Church, South. 

McClintock, J. Biographical Sketches of Methodist Ministers. Cincinnati: Western 
Methodist Book Concern. 

McFerrin, John B. Methodism in Tennessee. 12mo, 3 vols. Nashville, Tenn.: 
. Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

McTyeire, Holland N. A History of Methodism, Comprising a View of the Rise of 
tiie Revival of Spiritual Religion in the First Half of the Eighteenth Century, and 
of the Principal Agents by whom it was Promoted in Europe and America. With 
Some Account of the Doctrines and Polity of Episcopal Methodism in the 
United States, and Means and Manner of its Extension down to A. D. 1884. 
8vo, pp. 688. Nashville, Tenn. 

Metliodist Church Property Case. Reported by R, Sutton. 8vo, pp. 372. Rich- 
mond and Louisville: John Early. 1851. 

Mood, F, A. Methodism in Charleston. Edited by T. 0. Summers. 18mo. Nash- 
ville, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Moore, M. H. Sketches of the Pioneers of Methodism in North CaroHna and Virginia. 
12mo, pp. 314. Nashville, Tenn., 1884. 

Myers, Edward H. The Disruption of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1844-1846. 
Comprising a Thirty Years' History of the Relations of the Two Methodisms. 
With an Introduction by T. 0. Summers. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing 
House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Orwig, W. W. History of the P]vangelical Association, from its Origin to the Year 
1845. 12mo. Cleveland, 0., Publishing House. Lauer & Yost, Agents. 

Paine, Robert. Life and Times of William McKendree. 12mo, 2 vols. Nashville, 
Tenn.: Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, 

Redford, A. H. History of Methodism in Kentucky. Third edition, Nashville, 
Tenn.: Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Cliurch, South. 

Ridgaway, Henry B. Life of Edmund S. Janes, Senior Bishop of the Methodist 
Episcopal Cliurch. 12mo. New York, 1882. 

Rivers, R. H. The Life of Robert Paine, D.D., Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, South. With an Introduction by Rev. W. P. Harrison, D.D. 12mo, 
pp. 314. Nashville, Tenn. 

Sherman, David. History of the Revisions of the Discipline of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church. 12mo, pp. 422. New York: Methodist Book Concern. 1874. 

Shipp, Albert M. History of Methodism in South Carolina, 12mo, pp. 652. Nash- 
ville, Tenn., 1884. 

Simpson, Matthew. A Hundred Years of Methodism. 12mo, pp. 369. New York: 
Methodist Book Concern. 1876. 

Simpson, Mattliew. Cyclopaedia of Methodism. Revised edition. 4to, pp. 1031. 
Philadelphia: L. H. Everts. 1880, 

Stevens, Abel. Centenary of American Methodism: with an Introduction by John 
McClintock. 12rao, pp. 287. New York: Methodist Book Concern. 1866. 

Stevens, Abel. History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States of 
America. 12mo, 4 vols., 423, 511, 510, 522. New York: Methodist Book 
Concern. 1867. 

Stevens, Abel. Life and Times of Nathan Bangs. 12mo, pp. 426. New York: 
Methodist Book Concern. 

Summers, T. 0. Biograpiiical Sketches of Itinerant Ministers, Pioneers Within the 
Bounds of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Third edition. Pp. 176. 
Nashville, Tenn.: Publisliing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 



G04 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 

Thrall, H. S. Methodism in Texas. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn. : Pubhsliing House of 
the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Travis, Joseph, Autobiography of. Edited by T. 0. Summers. 12mo, pp. 331. 
Nashville, Term. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Wightman, Bishop. Life of William Capers, Including an Autobiography. Nash- 
ville, Tenn, : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

"Wood, E. M. Methodism and the Centennial of American Independence; with a 
Brief History of the Various Branches of Methodism, and Pull Statistical Tables. 
12mo, pp. 412. New York: Methodist Book Concern. 1876. 

Yeakel, R. Jacob Albright and his Colaborers. 12mo, pp. 329. Cleveland, 0., 
1883. (Albright was the founder of the Evangelical Association.) 

Moravian. 

Moravian Historical Society, Transactions of. Vol. I. Containing all the Important 
and Interesting Papers publislied by the Society from 1857 to 1876. 8vo. 
Bethlehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office. E. G. Klose, Manager. 

Ritter, A. The Moravian Church in Philadelphia from 1742. 8vo, pp. xv, 281. 
Philadelphia, 1858. (Has a curious account of Cornplanter, the famous Indian.) 

Rondthaler, Edward. Life of John Heckewelder. Edited by B. H. Coates. 1847. 
8vo, pp. 150. Bethlehem, Pa. ; Moravian Publication Office. 

Schweinitz, Edmund de. The Moravian Manual, Containing an Account of the Mo- 
ravian Church, or Unitas Fratrum. Second enlarged edition; with Historical 
Tables, Extending from the Foundation of the Ancient Church to the Present 
Day. 8vo, pp. 208. Bethlehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office. 

The Provincial Digest. Supplementary to the Results of the General Synod of 1879. 
Ordered by the Provincial Synod of the Northern District of the Province of the 
Moravians, held at Bethlehem, Pa., May, 1830-1881. Bethlehem, Pa. : Mora- 
vian Publication Office. 

The Text-Book for 1884 and subsequent years. English and German editions. 
Bethlehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office. 

Presbyterian. ♦ 

Alexander, Archibald. Biographical Sketclies of the Founder and Principal Alumni 
of the Log College. Together witli an Account of the Revivals of Religion 
under their Ministry. 12mo, pp. 279. Philadelphia : Presbyterian Board of 
Publication, 1334 Chestnut Street. 

Alexander, Gross ; Scouller, James B. ; Foster, R. V. ; Johnson, T. C. A History 
of the Methodist Church, South; the United Presbyterian Church; Cumberland 
Presbyterian Church ; and the Presbyterian Church, South. 8vo, pp. 487. New 
York, 1894. (Vol. XI of the Am.erican Church History Series.) 

Baird, Samuel J. A History of the New School, and of the Questions Involved in the 
Disruption of the Presbyterian Church in 1838. 8vo, pp. xii, 564. Philadelphia : 
Claxton, Remsen, & Haffelfinger. 1868. 

Bannerman, D. D. The Worship of the Presbyterian Church, with Special Reference 
to the Question of Liturgies. Edinburgh, 1884. 

Beard, Richard. Why Am I a Cumberland Presbyterian? Nashville, Tenn. 1872. 

Blaikie, Alexander. A History of Presbyterianism in New England. Its Introduc- 
tion, Growth, Decay, Revival, and Present Mission. 12mo, pp. 512. Boston, 
1881. 

Breed, William P. Presbyterians and the Revolution. 16mo, pp. 205. Philadel- 
phia: Presbyterian Board of Publication. 1872. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 605 

Briggs, Charles A. American Presbyteriaiiism : its Origin and Early Hist Ty. 

12mo, pp. xviii, 373, exlii. New i''ork, 1885, 
Brown, I. N. An Historical Viudicauoii of the Abrogation of the Plan of Union l>y 

the Presbyterian Ciinrch. Svo. Ptiiladelphia: W. S. Martien. 1855. 
Ceuteunicil liistorical Discourses delivered in the City of Philadelphia, June, 1876. by 

Appointment of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Cliurch in the United 

States of America. 12rao, pp. 300. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Pub- 
lication. 1876. 
Crisman, E. B. Origin and Doctrines of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. 

2 parts. 12mo, pp. Iv, 150. Perrin & Smith. 1877. 
Davidson. Robert. History of the Presbyterian Church in the State of Kentucky, 

with a Preliminary Sketch of the Churches iu the Valley of Virginia. 18mo, 

pp. 371. New York, 1847. 
Division of the Presbyterian Church (A History of) in the United States, by a Com- 
mittee of the Synod of New York and New Jersey. 12mo, pp. vii, 278, 2iew 

York, 1852. 
Gillett, E. H. History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of 

America. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 576, 605. Pliiladelphia: Presbyterian Publication 

Board. 
Hodge, Charles. The Constitutional History of the Presbyterian Church in tlie 

United States. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xxiv, 576 ; xii, 605. Philadelphia: W. S. Mar- 
tien. 18?!9-40. 
Howe, Greorge. History of the Presbyterian Church in South Carolina. Svo, pp. 

xiii, 709. Columbia, 1870. 
Moore, William E. The Presbyterian Digest of the Acts and Deliverances of the 

General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. 

Svo, pp. 718. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication. 
Presbyterian Reunion: A Memorial Volume, 1837-1871, with Map, in separate vol., 

originally published in Neio York Evangelist Svo, pp. viii, 568. New York : 

D. C. Lent & Co. 1870. 
The Confession of Faith of the Cumberland Presbyterian Churcli in the United 

States of America. Pp. 286. Nashville, Tenn. : Board of Publication of the 

Cumberland Presbyterian Church. 1S75. 
Webster, Richard. A History of the Presbyterian Church in America, from its 

Origin until the Year 1760; with Biographical Sketches of its Early Ministers. 

Svo. Philadelphia: J. M. Wilson. 1858. 

Protestant I-^piscopal. 

Aycrigg, Benjamin. Memoirs of the Reformed Episcopal Church, and of tlie Prot- 
estant Episcopal Church, with Contemporary Reports Respecting these and the 
Church of England, extracted from the Public Press. 8vo, pp. Ixvi, 373. New 
York, 1880. 

Beardsley, E. E. The History of the Episcopil Church in Connecticut from the 
Settlement of the Colon}-^ to the Death of Bishop Seabury. Fourth edition. 
Svo, 2 vols., pp. 470, 465. Boston, 1883. 

Bolton. Rjbert. History of the Protestant Episcopal Clmrch in the County of West- 
chester from iis Foundation A. D. 1693 to A. D. 1853. Svo, pp. xxiii, 749. 
New York. 1855. 

Caswell, H. America and the American Church. Second edition. Svo. London: 
Mozlev. 1851. 



606 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 

Collections of the Protestant Episcopal Historical Society for the Year 1851. Pub- 
lislied by order of the Executive Committee of the Society. 8vo, pp. xliii, 187. 
New York, 1851. 

Dalcho, Frederick. An Historical Account of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 
South Carolina from the First Settlement of the Province to the War of the 
Revolution. 8vo, pp. vii, 613. Charleston, 1820. 

Hawks, Francis L. Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of the United Stales 
of America. Vol. I. A Narrative of Events connected with the Rise and 
Progress of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Virginia. Also an Appendix. 
Svo, pp. xvi, 17, 286, 332. Vol. II. History of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church in Maryland. 8vo, pp. 524. New York : Harper & Brothers. 
1836-39. 

Lord, Samuel. A History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America. 12mo, 
pp. 357. New York : Stanford & Swords. 1849. 

Meade, William. Old Cluu'ches, Ministers, and Families of Vir_inia. Second edi- 
tion, revised. 8vo, 2 vols. Philadelphia: J. B, Lippincott & Co. 1858. 

Perry, William S. A Hand-book of the General Convention of the Protestant Epis- 
copal Church, giving its History and Constitution, 1785-1880. 12mo, pp. 365. 
New York : Whittaker. 1881. 

Perry, William S. Papers Relating to the History of the Church in Virginia. A. D. 
1650-1776. 4to. New York: Protestant Episcopal Sunday-School Union. 
1870. 

Perry,' William S. Same in Pennsylvania, A. D. 1680-1778. 4to. New York : 
Protestant Episcopal Sunday-School Union. 1871. 

Waylen, Edv^rard. Ecclesiastical RL-miniscences of the United States. Svo. pp. 
501. New York, 1846. (Protestant E[)iscopal Church.) 

White, William. Memoirs of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States 
of America. 8vo, pp. xiv, 474. New York: Stanford & Swords. 1836. 

Wilberforce, Bishop S. A History of the Protestant Episcopal Cliurch in America. 
12mo, pp. 357. New York, 1849. 

Keformed Church in America (Dutch). 
Anderson, James. Appeal to General Synod of the Reformed Protestant Dutch 

Clnirch on the Ciiange of Name, November, 1867. 8vo, pp. 15. New York : 

Board of Publication, 34 Vesey Street. 
Bentley, E. W. " The Classis of Orange." An Historical Discourse. 8vo, pp. 80. 

New York : Board of Publication. 
Brinkerhoff, Jacob. History of the True Dutch Reformed Church of tlie United 

States of America. 12mo, pp. 139. New York: Board of Publication. 
Brownlee, William C, Editor. Reformed Dutch Church Magazine. Svo, 4 vols. 

New York : Board of Publication. 
Centennial Discourses. A Series of Sermons Delivered in the Year 1876 by Order of 

the General Synod of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America. Svo, pp. 601. 

New York: Reformed Church Board of Publication. 1877. 
Collegiate Dutcli Church. Proceedings at the Centennial Anniversary of the Dedi- 
cation of the Noi'th Dutch Church, May 25, 1869, etc. Illustrated. Svo, pp. 

76. New Y'ork : Board of Publication. 
Collegiate Reformed Protestant Dutch Church. Quarter Millennial Anniversary, 

Nov. 21, 1878. Svo, pp. 104. New York: Board of Publication. 
Centennial of the Thei^logical Seminary of the Reformed Church in America, 

1784-1884. Svo, pp. 526. New York, 1885. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 607 

Corwiii, Edward T, Manual of the Reformed Protestant Dutcli Church ia North 
America. 8vo. New York. 1859. Third edition, 1879. 

Demarest, David D. History and Cliaracteristies of the Reformed Protestant 
Dutch Church. J'2mo. New York: Reformed Church Board of Publica- 
tion. 1856. 

Ferris, Isaac. Memorial Discourse ; or, Fifty Years' Ministry in the Reformed 
Church of America. February 26, 1871. 8vo, pp. 38. New York: Board of 
Publication. 

First Reformed Church Memorial, Schenectady, New York. Two Hundredth Anni- 
versary, 1680-1880. 8vo. New York : Board of Publication. 

Hartley, J. S. Reformed Church, Uiica, New York. Semi-Centeunial Discourse. 
8vo. New York : Board of Publication. 

Matthews, J. M. " Fifty Years in New York." A Semi-Centennial Sermon. 8vo, 
pp. 44. New Y'ork : Board of Publication. 

Minutes of General Synod. Yol. I, 1771-1812. 8vo. New York : Board of Publi- 
cation. 

Stryker, Peter. Historical Discourse at the Last Service in the Reformed Protestant 
Dutch Church, corner of Broome and Greene Streets, New York, April 15, 1860, 
12mo. New York : Board of Pubhcation. 

Taylor, B. C. Annals of the Classis and Township of Bergen. 12mo. New York: 
Board of Publication. '*' 

Thompson, Henry P. History of the Reformed Church of Peapack, New Jersey. 
Svo, pp. 68. New York: Board of Publication. 

Thompson, Henry P. History of the Reformed Church of Readington, New Jersey. 
1719-1881. Svo. New York : Board of Publication. 

Wells, Theo. W. Brick Church Memorial, 1699-1877. 8vo, pp. 96. New York : 
Board of Publication. 

Wells, Theo. W. The Classis of Monmouth, its Members, its Churches, and its 
Work for Twenty-five Years. A Statistical History, Avith a Review of the 
Past, by Rev. William Reiley. Svo, pp. 30. New York : Board of Publication. 

The Reformed Church in the United States (German). 

Dubbs, Joseph H. Historic Manual of the Reformed (German) Church. 12mo. 
Lancaster, Pa., 1885. 

Gerhart, E. V. Bibhotheca Sacra, Yol. XX, 1863. "The German Reformed Church." 
Andover: Warren F. Draper. 

Harbaugh, H. Fathers of the German Reformed Church. 12mo, 4 vols. Vol. T, 
pp. 394. Philadelphia: Reformed Church Publication Board, 907 Arch Street. 
1857. 

Mayer, Lewis. The History of the German Reformed Church. To which is pre- 
fixed a Memoir of the Life of the Author, hy Elias Heiner. Yol. I, Svo, pp. 
477. Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1851. 

Russell, George B. Creeds and Customs : A Popular Handbook Treating of the Doc- 
trines and Practices of the Reformed Church in the United States. 12mo. 
Philadelphia: Reformed Church Board of Publication. 

Roman Catholic. 

Bayley, J. R. Early History of the Catholic Church in the Island of New York. 
12mo. Second edition, 1870. New York : Catholic Publication Society, 9 Bar- 
clay Street, New York. Lawrence Kehoe, Manager. 



608 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. v. 

Bayley, J. R. Memoirs of ihe Right Rev. Simon William Gabriel Brute, D.D., First 
Bishop of Yincennea. 12mo. 1876. New York : Catholic Publication Society. 

Clarke, R. H. Lives of Deceased Bishops of the Catholic Church in the United States. 
8vo, 2 vols. New York : O'Shea, 37 Barclay Street. 

Finnoiii, Joseph M. Bibliograpliia Catholica Americana. A List of Works written 
by Catholic Authors, and published in the United States. Svo, pp. 318. New 
York: CathoHc Publication Society. 1872. 

G-rants of Land and Gifts of Money to Catholic and Non-Catholic Institutions in New 
York Compared. New York : Catholic Publication Society. 

Hewit, F. A. The Life and Sermons of the Rev. Francis A. Baker. 8vo, pp. 504. 
New York : Catholic Publication Society. 

Kehoe, Lawrence. The Works of the Most Reverend John Hughes, First Arch- 
bishop of New York, containing Biography, Sermons, etc. 8vo, 2 vols. New 
York : Catholic Publication Sociaty. 

Murray, J. 0. A Popular History of the Catholic Church in the United States. 
8vo, pp. 619. New York, 1876. 

Official Report of the Proceedings of the Catholic Congress held at Baltimore, Md., 
1889. 8vo. Detroit, 1889. 

Parkman, Francis. The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century. 
Thirteenth edition, pp. Ixxxix, 463. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 1879. 

Shea, J. G. History of Catholic Missions Among the Indian Tribes of the United 
Stales, from A. D. 1529 to A. D. 1 854. 12mo. New York : T. W. Strong. 1854. 

Shea. J. G, History of the Catholic Church in the United States. 4to, 4 vols., 
pp. 663-732, 727. New York, 1886-92. (The first two volumes treat of the 
life and times of Archbishop Carroll. Yol. Ill, the period embracing the years 
1808-1843; Yol. lY, 1844-1866.) 

Spalding, J. L. Life of the Most Rev. M. J. Spalding, Archbishop of Baltimore. 
8vo, pp. 465. New York : Catholic Publication Society. 1874. 

Spalding, J. L, The Religious Mission of the Irish People, and Catholic Coloniza- 
tion. 12mo. New York : Catholic Publication Society. 

Spalding, M. J. Sketches of the Early Catholic Missions in Kentucky from 1787- 
1827. 16mo. Louisville, no date. 

Quakers (Friends). 

Bickley, A. C. George Fox and the Early Quakers. 12mo, pp. xix, 426. London, 
1884. 

Biographies of William Penn, by Marsiliac (1791), Clarkson (1813), Ellis (1852), 
Hep worth Dixon (1856). 

Hallowell, Richard P. The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts. Small 8vo, pp. 228. 
Boston. 

Hodgson, William. The Society of Friends in the Nineteenth Century. Svo, 2 vols., 
pp. 349, 441. Philadelphia, 1875. 

Janney, S. M. History of the Friends to 1828. 12mo, 4 vols. Philadelphia: C. H. 
Davis & Co. 1859-67. 

Janney, S. M. Life of William Penn : With Selections from his Correspondence and 
Autobiography. 12mo. Philadelphia: Friends Book Association, 706 Arch 
Street. 

Smith, Joseph. Bibliotheca Quakeristica. A Bibhography of Miscellaneous Liter- 
ature Relating to the Friends (Quakers), chiefly written by persons not members 
of their Society; also of publications by authors in some way connected ; and 
Biographical Notices. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 1027, 984. London, 1883. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 609 

Smith, Joseph. Bibliotheca Anti-Quakeriana; or, A Catalogue of Books Adverse to 
the Society of Friends, Alphabetically Arranged ; with Biographical Notices of 
the Authors, together with the answers which have been given to some of them 
by Friends and others. 8vo, pp. 474. London, 1873. 

Wagstaff, W. R. A History of the Society of Friends, compiled from its Standard 
Records, and other Authentic Sources. Svo, pp. 400. New York : Wiley & 
Putnam. 1845. 

Shakers. 

Evans, F. "W. Shakers. Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules, aud 
Regulations, Government, and Doctrines of the United Society of Believers in 
Christ's Second Coming. 16mo. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1859. 

Millennial Church, A Summary View of ; or, The United Society of Believers, com- 
monly called Shakers, comprising the Rise, Progress, and Practical Order of 
the Society. 12mo, pp. 320. Albany : Packard & Yan Benthuysen. 1823. 

Universalis!. 

Adams, John 0. Fifty Notable Years. One Hundred Biographical Sketches of 
"Well-known and Distinguished Universalist Ministers, (ft also contains the 
rise and progress of the Universalist Church in America.) Pp. 336. Boston, 
Mass. : Universalist Publishing House, 16 Bromfield Street. 

Eddy, Richard. Universalism in America: a History. 12mo, 2 vols. Boston, 
1884-86. (Yol. II contains a valuable bibliography of the subject in 115 pages.) 

Eddy, Richard. Universalism in America. A History. 2 vols. Yol. I, A, D. 
1636-1800. 12mo, pp. 554. Boston, 1884-86. 

Murray, John, Life of. Written by Himself, with a Continuation by Mrs. J. S. 
Murray. A new edition, with an Introduction and Notes, by G. L. Demarest. 
Boston, Mass.: Universalist Publishing House. 

Proceedings of the Universahst Centennial held in Gloucester, Mass., September 20, 
21, 22, 1870. 8vo. Boston, Mass.: Universalist Publishing House. 

Thomas, Abel C. A Century of Universalism. Boston, Mass. : Universalist Pub- 
lishing House. 

Unitarian. 

Allen, Joseph Henry. Our Liberal Movement in Theology, Chiefly as Shown 
in Recollections of the History of Unitarianism in New England; being a 
closing course of Lectures given in the Harvard Divinity School. Pp. v, 220. 
Boston, 1882. 

Brooks, Charles T. Channing. A Centennial Memorial. ]2mo, pp.259. Boston, 
1880. 

Channing, W. E. Memoirs of, 12mo, 3 vols., pp. 1400. Boston, Mass. : American 
Unitarian Association, 7 Tremont Place. 

Ellis, George E. Half Century of the Unitarian Controversy, with Particular Refer- 
ence to its Origin, its Course, etc. Svo, pp. 536. Boston, Mass. : American 
Unitarian Association. 

Frothingham, 0. B. Transcendentalism in New England : a History. Svo, pp. ix, 
395. New York : G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1876. 

Gannett, William C. Memoir of Ezra Stiles Gannett. Boston, Mass.: American 
Unitarian Association. 

Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer. Reminiscences of Rev. William Ellery Channing, D.D. 
12mo, pp. 459, Boston. 
39 



610 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 

Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer. Channing Centennial Celebration in Brooklyn, N. T. 

8vo, pp. 205. Boston, 1880. 
Ware, William. American Biography. Memoirs of Individuals who have been 

Distinguished in the Cause of Liberal Christianity. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 396, 452. 

Boston : J. Munroe & Co. 1850-51. 

United Brethren in Christ. 

Drur}'-, A. W. The Life of Rev. Philip William Otterbein, Founder of the Church 

of the United Bretliren in Christ. With an Introduction by Bishop J. Weaver, 

D.D. 12mo, pp. 384. Dayton, 0., 1884. 
Lawrence, John. History of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. 8vo, 2 

vols, in one. Dayton, Ohio : United Brethren Publishing House. (The same in 

German. Pp. 283.) 
Reichel, William C. The Early History of the Church of the United Brethren in 

North America. 8vo. Nazareth, Pa., 1888. 
Spayth; Henry G. History of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. 12mo, 

pp. 344. Circleville, Ohio: Conference Office. 1851. 



INDEX. 



Adhortatio, the, of Theobald Thamer, 

122. 
Esthetic feeling not the same as religious 

feeling, 34. 
-Esthetic religion as deficient as a merely 

legal religion, 21. 
Alexandrian classification of the Old Test- 
ament books, 155. 
Allegorical interpreters, Origen the first 

of the, 252. 
Allegorical method of interpretation, rise 

of the, 252. 
Alsted, John Henry, the Method us of, 

124. 
America, philosophical speculation in, 78. 

theological encyclopaedia in, 133. 
American Presbyterians, alliance of 
Churches of the Keformed faith 
with, 106. 
Angelology and demonology, 450. 
Anthropology, 451. 

the doctrine of sin, 452. 
Antiquities, Hebrew, German and English 

works on, 182. 
Apologetics, 425. 

an introduction to dogmatics, 427. 
Clement and Origen, 430. 
divinity and truth of Scripture in- 
volved in each other, 429. 
earliest apologetics, the field of, 430. 
German apologies, 432. 
Grotius and Limborch, 431. 
history of, 430. 
literature of, 434. 

must precede dogmatic science, 426. 
philosophy and Christianity, conflict 

between, 431. 
relation of, to dogmatics, 425. 
relation of polemics and apologetics 

to dogmatics, 426. 
remote beginning of all departments 

in theology, 427. 
separate science, not yet a, 433, 
task of, a twofold one, 428. 
Apologetics and polemics, Schleiermach- 
er's definition of the relations 
of, 441. 
Apostles, the, 306. 

literature on, 307. 
Apostolic age requires separate treatment, 
307. 
Vol. III. 



Apostolos, meaning of the term, 306. 
Arabic, a knowledge of, useful to the the- 
ologian, 168. 
Archaeology, ancient writers on, 180. 

classification of the material of, 176, 
historical sketch of, 179. 
includes more than Hebrew antiqui- 
ties, 176. 
narrowness of the term, 175. 
works on, of a general character, 
181. 
Archaeology, biblical, 175. 

related to exegesis and Church his- 
tory, 274. 
scope of, 175. 
Archaeology, ecclesiastical, 410. 
a history of worship, 411. 
history of, 412. 

necessarily related to the present, 411. 
Architecture, sacred, as related to Protes- 
tant worship, 537. 
Aristides, apology by, 430. 
Art, Law, and Doctrine co-related, 23. 
Artists and legislators the teachers of man- 
kind, 19. 
Arts and sciences among the Hebrews and 

kindred peoples, 178. 
Asceticism and pedagogics, 489. 
Astronomy not necessarily related to the- 
ology, 71. 
Augustine, his instructions respecting the 
proper mode of presenting Scrip- 
ture doctrines, 569. 
qualifications of the minister accord- 
ing to, 118. 
Auxiliary sciences, the five, 159. 
Auxiliary sciences to Church history, 369. 

Bacon, Lord, strongly against confounding 

theology and philosophy, 82. 
Baden and the Palatinate, liturgical con- 
troversy in, 545. 
Basle and Saumur, the theologians of, 125, 
Bible, The : 

constitutes a sacred literature, 149. 

ethnography of, 177. 

everywhere teaches a God for man, 

448. 
geography of, 176. 

hermeneutics furnishes the key to, 
236. 



612 



INDEX. 



Bible, The : 

historical form and development of 
the doctrine of, 310. 

its first exposition wholly practical, 
251. 

narratives of, are God's word to man- 
kind, 149. 

natural science of, IVY. 

nature of biblical narrative, 278. 

the object of exegetical theology, 146. 

original languages of, 160. 

presents only a single body of truth, 
148. 

providentially guarded, yet subject to 
human vicissitudes, 205. 

reasons why it needs care in its inter- 
pretation, 235. 

reverence for the letter and style of, 
observable in English literature, 
149. 

study of the Bible, relation of ency- 
clopaedia to, 147. 

the standard of judgment in Church 
history, 327. 

tie which binds the books of the Bible 
together, 148. 
Biblical archaeology, 175. 

history of, 179. 
, related to exegesis and Church his- 
tory, 274. 

scope of, 175. 

the Old Testament, always its princi- 
pal source, 176. 
Biblical characters, English and American 

literature on, 282. 
Biblical criticism : 

historical sketch of, 215. 

in the Middle Ages, 216. 

no one need be startled by the phrase, 
204. 

objects contemplated by, 204. 

often paltry, 206. 

revival of, in the eighteenth century, 
217. 
Biblical dogmatics, the natural point of 
transition from historical to sys- 
tematic theology, 144. 
Biography of Christ, history of the, 290. 
Brief e, defects of Herder's, 130. 

Calixtus, separates ethics from dogmatics, 

419. 
Canon, changes in the, unlikely, 209. 

New Testament canon in the early 

Church, 194. 
New Testament canon not formed at 

one time, 159. 
object of a history of the, 191. 
period of the|first formation of the, 194. 
Canonicity, conditions of, 206. 

should ciiticism consider the question 

of? 208. 
Vol. III. 



Canonics, the name proposed as a substi- 
tute for Introduction, 192. 
biblical, 191. 
Casuistry, 489. 
Catechetical methods, 516. 
Catechetics a part of pastoral work, 519. 
demands a love for childhood, 520. 
endowment for, mental and spiritual, 

520. 
function of catechetics, 517. 
real art of the catechist, the, 518. 
religious nature of youth should be 

studied, 518. 
Socratic method of, 517. 
work of the catechist, 616, 
Catechetics, 514. 

literature of, 525. 
scope of, 515. 

difference between ethics and cate- 
chetics, 516. 
Catechetics, history of, 521. 

affected by sceptical pedagogics, 524. 
authors, leading, between Luther and 

Spener, 523. 
catechisms, the first, 522. 
early catechetical works, 522. 
Heidelberg Catechism, the, 523. 
Luther's two catechisms, 522. 
*' Philanthropic " method of, 524. 
Roman Catholic catechetics, 525. 
Schleiermacher, services of, to cate- 
chetics, 525. 
Catechists, the older, did but little theo- 
rizing, 523. 
Catechumens in the ancient Church, 521. 
Categories of Practical Theology, 506. 
Causality, twofold law of, in Church his- 
tory, 325. 
Centurial division of Historical Theology 

wrong, 321. 
Chaldee, certain portions of the Old Testa- 
ment written in, 160. 
knowledge of, useful to the theolo- 
gian, 168. 
Character, formation of, 55. 

importance of, to the theologian, 55. 
Characteristics of Hebrew, 161. 
Characters, biblical, English and American 

literature on, 282. 
Christian Ethics, 379. 
Christianity : 

Church, the idea of a, eminently pe- 
culiar to, 527. 
destined to develop into a system, 416. 
expansion and limitation of, 319. 
moral power of, the universal, 486. 
not chargeable with narrow Church 

history, 330. 
Wolfenbuttel assault on historical 
Christianity, 65. 
Christian language, the New Testament 
obliged to create a, 170. 



INDEX. 



613 



Christian philosophy, conditions of a, 86. 

the only possible, theistic, 86. 
Christian sermon, history of the, 563. 
Christian teaching : has superseded the old 

conditions, 320. 
Christian theologians should study the Old 

Testaraeut, and why, 151. 
Christian theology conditioned by the his- 
tory of Christianity, 62. 

Deism and Pantheism antagonistic to, 
84. 

origin of formal, 64. 
Christology, 453. 

center of dogmatics, the, 453. 

doctrine of the Church on, improperly 
defined, 454. 

life of Christ the basis of Christology, 
453. 
Chronology, ecclesiastical, 377. 
Chrysostom, beginnings of theological en- 

cyclopagdia in, 118. 
Church, the : 

advantage of groupings in Church life, 
320. 

both external and internal, 318. 

constitution of the, 319. 

guidance of the Church the object of 
theology, 59. 

historical development of the, 318. 

must not be excluded from the school, 
47. 

not alone social or theocratic, 318. 

not merely a society, 317. 

Pentecost the beginning of the, 317. 

philosophy in, after the Reformation, 
75. 

sacraments, the Church and the, 
458. 

soul-life of the, 319. 

the early theological science in, 63. 

theological tendencies in the early 
Church, 98. 

theology and the Church, 44. 
Church Fathers, the, 396. 
Church History : 

acquaintance necessary with Church 
history of our own country, 333. 

atomistic mode of treating, 325. 

cannot be understood without a knowl- 
edge of ancient and oriental his- 
tory, 70. 

causality, twofold law of, 325. 

central point of historical theology, 
316. 

centurial division of, wrong, 321. 

Council of Trent, the, an epoch in 
Church history from the Roman 
Catholic standpoint, 323. 

denominational character of, 337. 

extremes to be avoided in, 326. 

God's word the standard of judgment 

in, 327. 
Vol. III. 



Church History : 

great and exciting events in, demand 

a separate treatment, 321. 
great epochs in, 322. 
historian, the best in sympathy with 

the people, 329. 
history of Church history, 335. 
individual Churches deuiand a sepa- 
rate treatment, 321. 
.A Middle Ages, necessity of under- 
standing the, 333. 
intimate relations of general and 

Church history, 369, 
Latin Church historians, the, 336. 
literature of, general and special, 338. 
Lutheran writers on, 336. 
method of, 331. 
moral and rehgious disposition of the 

historian, 329. 
Mosheim the reformer of, 337. 
Neander, the work of, 337. 
obscure causes, true value of, 326 
parallels, necessity of, 334. 
prejudice in, damage from, 329. 
principle of Christianity must be ever 

present in, 328. 
proper treatment of, 324. 
Protestant emphasis on the history of 

teaching, 334. 
reciprocal influences in, 325. 
requires a knowledge of the ancient 

world and its faiths, 370. 
Reformation, effect of, upon, 336. 
Reformed writers on, 336. 
reports, difference in, 324. 
sciences auxiliary to, 369. 
sixteenth century, the division of the 
Church in tlie, an epoch in 
Church history, 323. 
twofold criticism of sources, 324. 
whole field of, must be understood, 
331. 
Church svmbols, the three principal, 

403. 
Classic languages, value of the ancient, 

69. 
Clergy, various designations of the, 48. 
Commentaries not to be too much relied 

on, 249. 
Commentator and interpreter, their func- 
tions distinguished, 245. 
Commonwealth, structure of the, 178. 
Community, the religious, 42. 
Concordances, Hebrew, Greek, and Eng- 

glish, 230. 
Confessionalism, ecclesiastical, 104. 
Conscience, religious feeling becomes a 
steadfast disposition through, 40. 
religious feeling not resolvable into, 
40. 
Constitution, the, of the Church, 319. 
Critical methods, 210. » 



614 



INDEX. 



fViticism, Biblical : 

carefully defined limits to be fixed to 
internal criticism, 212. 

conjectural attempts not forbidden in 
needful cases, 213. 

critical and exegetical skill the result 
of practice, 214. 

critical hypotheses, frequent fallacies 
in, 213. 

criticism and exegesis act on each 
other, 215. 

destructive criticism as applied to 
New Testament not yet success- 
ful, 207. 

external criticism defined, 211. 

first critical edition of the New Test- 
ament, 217. 

higher and lower criticism, 210. 

historical criticism, the place for, 
274. 

history of, 215. 

hypotheses, critical, frequent fallacies 
in, 213. 

leadership in criticism maintained by 
English scholars in the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries, 
218. 

Middle Ages, criticism in the, 216. 

mischief done by dabblers in, 214. 

necessary for understanding of the 
Gospels, 287. 

negative and positive criticism, func- 
tions of, 212. 

negative criticism no ground for 
alarm, 286. 

objects contemplated by, 204. 

office of internal criticism, 211. 

often paltry, 206. 

positive and negative, 212, 

prejudice, necessity of freedom from, 
in criticism, 276. 

relation of criticism to exegesis, 214. 

revival of, in the eighteenth century, 
217. 

should criticism consider the question 
of canonicity ? 208. 

sometimes employed for perverse and 
frivolous ends, 205. 

spiritual sympathy necessary to a cor- 
rect view of the life of Christ, 
288. 

though often perverted, yet of great 
value, 205. 

Tiibingen tendency critics, the, 218. 
Culture, uses of {esthetic, 72. 

Danz's division of theologv, 140. 
Deism : 

application of the term, 84. 

incapable of Christian ideas, 84. 

in England in the time of Charles 
First, 76. 

Vol. III. 



Deism : 

pantheism and deism antagonistic to 
Christian theology, 84. 
Demonology, 450. 

Denominational character of Church his- 
tory, 337. 
DeWette and Grotius, rise of the school 

of, 255. 
Didascalion, the, of Hugo St. Victor, 119. 
Discussion, utility of oral, 54. 
Disputes, disorderly, antidote against, 54. 
Divine training of humanity, the notion of, 

153. 
Division of Historical Theology into pe- 
riods, 321. 
Divisions of knowledge — philosophy, na- 
ture, history, 67. 
Doctrine, development of, in the Protes- 
tant Churches, 65. 
no cessation in the development of, 

416. 
relation of life and doctrine, 311. 
Doctrine, Christian, ethical character of, 
418. 
Christian doctrine a unit, 387. 
Doctrine, Law, and Art co-related, 23. 
Doctrine of the Bible, historical form and 

development of the, 310. 
Doctrines, history of, 384. 

arrangement controlled by dogmatic 

character, 388. 
Baur's division of, 390. 
changes in, necessity of recognizing, 

391. 
definition of, 385. 
difficulty of discovery of beginnings 

of change, 389. 
division of, into periods, 389. 
dynamic principle, in, important, 391. 
relation of history of doctrines to 

symbolics, 404. 
task of doctrinal history, the, 385. 
Dogma, inability of philosophy to originate, 

illustrated, 81. 
Dogmatical systems, interpretations should 

be independent of, 245. 
Dogmatics : 

' biblical, 310. 
apologetics an introduction to, 427. 
apologetics and polemics, relation of 

to, 425. 
a progressive science, 422. 
began with the Reformation, 313. 
both biblical and ecclesiastical, 438. 
central point, the, of all theology, 421. 
Christology the center of, 453. 
defined, 421. 
difference between dogmatics and 

ethics, 419. 
ecclesiastical dogmatics, 417. 
ethics depends upon doctrine in the 
last analysis, 421. 



INDEX. 



615 



Dogmatics : 

flexible treatment of, 312. 

history of biblical, 813. 

liistory of doctrines presumes ac- 
quaintance with dogmatics, 385. 

method of, 444. 

objection to Schleiermacher's defini- 
tion of, 423. 

object of, 417. 

outline of dogmatical system, 447. 

Schleiermacher's method in, 445. 

Schweizej-'s method in, 448. 
Dogmatics, history of: 

Augustine's works, 466. 

Calvin and his successors, 468. 

degeneration of dogmatics, 467. 

dogmatic literature in the Reformed 
Church, 468. 

literature of, 472. 

local or topical method, in, 445. 

Lutheran dogmatic writers, 468. 

Melanchthon the founder of Protes- 
tant dogmatics, 467. 

progress of most recent dogmatics, 
470. 

reactionary tendency of dogmatics, 
469.* 

Roman Catholic dogmatists, 471. 

Schleiermacher's dogmatics, 469. 

scholasticism and mysticism, 466. 

summaries, 467. 

transition to rationalism, 469. 

Twesten aiid Nitzsch, 470. 
Dogmatizer, every judicious, a harmonize r, 

439. 
Doubt, temper in which it should be met, 56. 
Doubt, true method of dealing with, 107. 

Early history of the Israelites, 279. 
Ecclesiastical confessionalism, 104. 
Eighteenth century, theology in the, 100. 
Eloquence, the limit of sacred, 553. 
Empirics theological, 12. 
Encyclopaedia, Theological : 

as treated bv Harless, Lange, and 

Pelt, 134"". 
as treated by Pfaff and Buddseus, 

128. 
contributions of Semler and Mosheim 

to, 128. 
Gerhard, John, the Encyclopsedia of, 

123. 
in the early part of the eighteenth 

century, 132. 
iu the Lutheran Church, 126. 
Isidore, the Encyclopgedia of, 119. 
keeps pace with science, 11. 
made independent by Schleiermacher, 

132. 
natui'e of, 9. 

relation of encvclopsedia to the study 
of the Bible, 147. 



40 



Encyclopaedia, Theological . 

Roman Catholic encyclopaedia, 136. 

study of encyclopaedia can never be 
exhausted, 11. 

study of encyclop;edia necessary to 
the theologian, 15. 
England, theological encyclopaedia in, 134. 

theological tendencies in, in the eigh- 
teenth century, 105. 
English Deism and Gibbon and Paine, 105. 
Epiacopos and Preahuteros in the Apostolic 

Church, 47. 
Epoch, the Reformation a universal, 323. 

what constitutes an epoch, 313. 
Erasmus determines the pi'oper aim of 
theological study, 120. 

merits of tlie work of, 121. 

preface of Erasmus to the New Test- 
ament, 120. 

rationalistic tendencies manifested by, 
99. 
Erasmus Sarcerius, the Pastorale of, 583. 
Eraesti the restorer of sound exegesis, 254. 
Eschatology, 460. 

Christian hope to be realized only in 
Christ, 462. 

immortality not to be confounded 
with, 461. 
Eschenburg the first to employ the title 

Wissenschaftskunde, 8. 
Ethics, Christian, 481. 

analytical, philosophical, synthetical, 
482. 

based on dogmatics, 482. 

casuistry, 489. 

Christ not a mere moral and statutory 
teacher, 486. 

Christianity the universal moral pow- 
er, 486. 

Christ's work the basis of ethics, 485. 

division of ethics, 487. 

ethical labors of the Fathers, 490. 

ethical reaction in the Church, 491. 

first separate treatment of, 492. 

general and special ethics, 487. 

harmony of philosophical and Christ- 
ian ethics, 483. 

history of ethics, 490. 

Humanism and ethics, 491. 

includes duties which men owe to the 
State, 484. 

Kant's treatment of, 493. 

literature of, 494. 

distinguished from philosophical, 483. 

liturgies, relation of, to ethics, 532. 

place of Christian ethics, 481. 

positive element of, 485. 

Protestant ethical writers, 492. 

Reformers, the, and ethics, 491, 

Roman Catholic ethics, 492. 

Rosenkranz's system, 488. 

Schleiermacher's method, 488. 

Vol. III. 



616 



INDEX. 



Ethics, Christian : 

transcends philosophical ethics, 485. 

views of Rothe, Harless, and others, 
487. 

works of early writers, 490. 
Ethnography, biblical, 177. 
Eusebius, work of, 335. 
Eusebius the first of Bible geographers, ] 80. 
Evangelical Union of Prussia, 439. 
Ewald's Life of Christ, 292. 
Exegesis : 

additional reasons for making it a 
separate department, 142. 

application of exegesis, the, 247. 

as much an ecclesiastical as a relig- 
ious science, 140. 

complete exegesis dependent on re- 
ligious growth, 247. 

critical and exegetical skill the result 
of practice, 214. 

criticism and exegesis act on each 
other, 215. 

definition of, 244. 

distinguished from hermeneutics, 244. 

effect of the Reformation on, 254. 

Ernesti the restorer of sound exege- 
sis, 254. 

includes both interpretation and ex- 
plication, 244. 

influence of the Reformation on, 836. 

Kant's separation of dogmatical from 
ethical exegesis, 255. 

Latin Fathers, exegesis of the, 253. 

method of applying, 249. 

Middle Ages, exegesis in the, 253. 

neological exegesis, rise of, 255. 

J!^ew Testament, a knowledge of He- 
brew necessary to the exegesis 
of the, 162. 

practical exegesis the result of the 
scientific, 247. 

process by which exegesis is made 
practical, 248. 

Reformed and Lutheran exegesis, 254. 

relation of criticism to exegesis, 214. 

sciences auxiliary to exegesis, 159. 

should not be studied alone with a 
view to the pulpit, 560. 

student's self-training in, 250. 
Exegete, the New Testament, should be 
familiar with the Semitic lan- 
guages, 168. 

spirit of the ti^ue, 246. 
Exegetical theology, definition of, 146. 

first in order, 143. 

practical sciences auxiliary to, 175. 

reasons why exegetical theology 
should be a separate department, 
141. 

relations of exegetical theology with 
historical theology, 273. 

the Bible the object of, 146. 
Vol. III. 



Exposition of the Bible at first wholly 
practical, 251. 

False readings, how originated, shown by 

internal criticism, 212. 
Fathers, the Church, 396. 

ethical labors of the, 490. 

exegesis of the Latin Fathers, 253. 
Feeling, in what sense religionis rooted in,33. 
Feeling, the theory of, 37. 
Five auxiliary sciences, the, 159. 
Founders of religions, 43. 
France, theological encyclopaedia in, 134. 
French pulpit, the, 565. 

General history, importance of familiarity 
Avith, to the Church historian, 369. 

Genuineness of books and passages to be 
determined bv biblical criticism, 
206. 

Geography, biblical, 176. 

writers on, in the eighteenth and niife- 
teenth centuries, 180. 

Geography, ecclesiastical, 376. 

Gerhard, Andrew, the Theologus of, 123. 

Gerhard, John, the Encyclopaedia of, 123. 

German Catholic works on theological 
encyclopaedia, 137. 

Gesenius and DeWette, rise of the school 
of, 255. 

Gesticulation, pulpit, 559. 

Glassius, Solomon, the first to bring to- 
gether the grammatical peculiari- 
ties of New Testament diction, 
172. 

God. See Theology. 

God-man, objections to the term, 454. 

Gospel, the: 

does not contradict itself, 286. 
spoken first, then written, 158. 

Gospels, the : 

criticism necessary for understanding, 

287. 
discrepancies in the Gospel may be. 

admitted, 286. 
exposition of the Gospel an exeget- 
ical, not an historical, task, 273. 

Grammars, Hebrew, 165. . 

Grammars of the New Testament, 173. 

Greek, history of the exposition of the 
character of New Testament, 172. 

Greek words, new meaning given to some 
current in the New Testament, 
172. 

Growth of biblical hermeneutics, 237. 

Gymnastic exercises for students, advan- 
tages of, 57. 

Halieutics and Keryktics, 514. 
Harless, definition of encyclopaedia by, 10. 
Harless, Lange, and Pelt, their treatment 
of encyclopaedia, 134. 



INDEX. 



617 



Harms's scheme of practical theology, 481. 
Harmonies on the life of Christ, 226. 
Hase, his definition of religion, 25. 
Heads, theological, 444. 
Hebraistic character of the language of 
the New Testament, recognition 
of, 171. 
Hebrew antiquities, American and English 

works on, 182. 
Hebrew commonwealth, structure of the, 

178. 
Hebrew grammars and chrestomathies, 165. 
Hebrew language, a knowledge of, indis- 
pensable to the exegesis of the 
New Testament, 162. 
characteristics of Hebrew, 161. 
derivation of the word, 161. 
historical sketch of the study of, 163. 
included in school curriculum solely for 

the sake of theology, 66. 
necessity of a knowledge of, 161. 
not perfected before the time of Da- 
vid, 163. 
study of Hebrew in several ages of 
the Church, 163. 
Hebrew learning, Reuchlin the restorer of, 

164. 
Hebrew lexicons, 166, 168. 
Hebrews, art and science among the, 178. 

religious institutions of the, 178. 
Hegelianism, theological encyclopaedia 

treated in the spirit of, 133. 
Hegelian school, divisions of the, 76. 
Heidelberg Catechism, the, 523. 
Hellenistic-Greek the original language of 
the New Testament Scriptures, 
169. 
Herder, great influence on theology of, 129. 
Herder and Schleiermacher, new direction 

given to theology by, 101. 
Hermeneutics : 

biblical hermeneutics a branch of 

general hermeneutics, 235. 
causes which make hermeneutics nec- 
essary, 235. 
definition of, 234. 
distinguished from exegesis, 244. 
distinguished from rhetoric, 234. 
furnishes the key to the Bible, 236. 
gradual growth of, 237. 
has the right to require unconditional 
surrender to its rules by the ex- 
positor, 237. 
literature of, 238. 
Heterodoxy, 464. 
Historian, the best, in sympathy with the 

people, 329. 
Historian, the, should be superior to the 

appeals of party interest, 329. 
Historical sketch of the study of Hebrew, 

163. 
Historical theology, 273. 



History and literature of theological en- 
cyclopaedia, 118. 
History, biblical : 

difficulty connected with early periods 

of, 275. 
early history of the Israelites, 279. 
general and special, 387. 
must precede doctrine, 317. 
Christ's life the center of, 285. 
should precede dogmatics, reasons 

why, 144. 
study of, should follow philology, 69. 
History of the exposition of the character 

of New Testament Greek, 172. 
History, sacred, place of, 274. 
Hobbes, atheistic opinions of, attacked by 

Cudworth, 77. 
Holland, theological encyclopaedia in, 134. 
Homiletics : 

arrangement and material, 553. 
artistic division of the sermon, 556. 
art of preaching, the, a part of theo- 
logical science, 568. 
Christian sermon, history of the, 563. 
defects of first sermons, 561. 
delivery, 556. 

division of homiletics, 553. 
early homilies, the, 563. 
effect of a sermon to be studied by 

the preacher, 558. 
fanciful divisions, 565. 
French pulpit, the, 565. 
gesticulation, pulpit, 559. 
history of homiletics, 563. 
invention, 554. 
lay preaching, 552. 
lesson, every sermon may be a, 562. 
literature of, 571. 
mediaeval preaching, 563. 
method of homiletics, 560. 
Mystic preachers, the, 564. 
not a theory of sacred eloquence, 547. 
oratory a conversation, 551. 
Pietists, sermons of the, 565. 
preaching, history of the theory of, 

568. 
pulpit, preparations for, 560. 
pulpit, the, should be always before 

the mind, 561. 
pulpit, the, has its own peculiar style, 

556. 
Reformed writers on homiletics, 570. 
Reformers, preaching by, 564. 
relation of the sermon to the congre- 
gation, 551. 
relation of, to liturgies, 547. 
repentance, necessity of a continual 

preaching of, 548. 
Roman Catholic writers on, 571. 
sacred eloquence, the limits of, 553. 
secret of homiletical invention, the, 
554. 

Vol. III. 



618 



INDEX. 



Honiiletics : 

sermon, the, not a lecture, 550. 
sermon, the, should be mentally con- 
structed, 557. 
sermonic division, 556. 
synthetic and analytical methods, 555. 
testimony to Christ, the sermon a, 

551. 
text, the, 549. 
texts, conditions necessary for proper, 

554. 
useless ornament to be avoided, 557. 
Homilist, the, needs to be an exegete, 502. 
Hugo St. Victor, the Didascalion of, 119. 
Humanism and ethics, 491. 
Humanity, notion of the divine training of, 

153. 
Hymnology : 

existing treasures gladly used by li- 
turgies, 539. 
new hymns to receive recognition, 

539. 
old hymns not necessarily good, 539. 
poetry of Protestantism culminates in 
the Church hymn, 539. 

Idealism and sensationalism both unchrist- 
ian, 83. 
Idiom, the New Testament, based on the 

later Greek, 171. 
Individual, the, and his relations to science, 

16. 
Industry, private, the supplement to pub- 
lic instruction, 53. 
Institutions, the religious, of the Hebrews, 

178. 
Instruction, public, should be supplement- 
ed by private industry, 53. 
Interpretation of the Scriptures : 

a religious disposition essential to the 

right, 246. 
need for care in the, 235. 
rise of the allegorical method of, 252. 
should be independent of dogmatic 

systems, 245. 
sketch of the history of, 251. 
Interpreter and commentator, their func- 
tions distinguished, 245. 
Interpreters, the allegorical, Origen the 

first of the, 252. 
Introduction, biblical : 

American and English literature on, 

195. 
either general or special, 191. 
properly limited to history of the 

canon and criticism, 193. 
relation of general to special, 193. 
scope and limits of, not precisely de- 
fined, 191. 
Isagogics, biblical, 191. 
Isidore, the Encyclopaedia of, 119. 
Israelites, early history of the, 279. 
Vol. III. 



Israelites : 

nation, history of the, 275. 

people of God, the, 277. 

people under the law, a, 21. 

sources for history of, 279. 
Israelites, history of: 

begins with the head of the race, 275. 

literature on the, 280. 

non-Jewish writers on, 279. 

writers on, among Christian Fathers, 
279. 

Jansenists, the, opposed philosophy, 75. 
Jesuits, the, favored philosophy, 75. 
Jesus Christ : 

different views of, 289. 

his life the center of history, 285. 

his person the center of dogmatics, 

446. 
his walk the basis of ethics, 485. 
life of, the basis of Christology, 453. 
not a mere moral and statutory teacher, 

486. 
parallels between Christ and Socrates, 

291. 
worship of, in hymns and prayers, 

early manifestation of, 290. 
Jesus Christ, life of : 

absurdity of the mythical theory, 289. 
diverse views of different writers on, 

289. 
does not come within the range of 

Church history, 317. 
efforts to eliminate the miraculous 

from the, 291. 
English and American literature on, 

293. 
Ewald's Life of Christ, 292. 
harmonies of the, 226. 
history of the biographies of, 290. 
importance of attaining to a satisfac- 
tory view of, 285. 
is matter for history only so far as it 

is definitely human, 287. 
its own explanation, 288. 
Keim's work on the, 293. 
literature of the, 293. 
negative criticism of, no ground for 

alarm, 286. 
Kenan's Life of Christ, 292. 
separate historical study, a, 290. 
spiritual sympathy necessary for cor- 
rect criticism of, 288. 
Strauss's Life of Christ, 291. 
Jewish Old Testament expositors in Mid- 

die Ages, importance of, 253. 
Jews. See Israelites. 
Justification and Sanctification, 457. 

Kant, categorical imperative of, 31. 

his separation of dogmatical from 
ethical exegesis, 255. 



INDEX. 



619 



Kant : 

his treatment of ethics, 493. 
influence of Kant on philosophy, 76. 

Keim, his work on the life of Christ, 
293. 

Keryktics, 514. 

Kliefoth, his division of doctrinal history, 
390. 

Knowledge, divisions of — philosophy, na- 
ture, and history, 67. 

Knowledge of Hebrew a necessity, and 
why, 161. 

Lange, Harless, and Pelt, their treatment 

of encyclopaedia, 134. 
Language of the New Testament, not pure 

Greek, 171. 
Languages of the Bible, the original, 160. 
Latin Fathers, exegesis of the, 253. 
Latin writers of Church history, 336. 
Law and medicine, relations of theology 

with, 60. 
Law, art, and doctrine co-related, 23. 
Lay preaching, 524. 
Learning and religion, a desire for both 

needful to the study of theology. 

Lecture, preparation and repetition to be 

added to the, 54. 
Lectures, attendance on too many, works 

injury and confusion, 54. 
Lectures, true method of profiting by, 53. 
Legend and myth, difference between, 

277. 
Letter, the, is not science, 14. 
Lexicons of the Xew Testament, 174. 
Lexicons, Hebrew, 166. 
Life the object of all study, 12. 
Liturgies, 526. 

based on dogmatics, 459. 
contrast between Protestant and Ro- 
man Catholic liturgies, 530. 
ethics and ecclesiastical law, liturgies 

in relation to, 532. 
field of, 526. 
homiletical and liturgical elements, 

distinction between, 532. 
limitations of, 538. 
literature of, 545. 
living worship, need of a, 529. 
mechanical liturgy in Roman Catholi- 
cism, 530. 
Protestant recognition of, 533. 
Protestant liturgies, 531. 
relation of worship to art, 527. 
religious feeling, necessity of in litur- 
gies, 531. 
Roman Catholic and Protestant litur- 

gists, difference between, 531. 
sermon, place of the, defined by, 

528. 
worship defined, 499, 527. 



Liturgies, history of: 

Christian worship developed from the 

Jewish, 543. 
hymn-book controversy, the, in Baden 

and the Palatinate, 545. 
methodology of, 541. 
rationalistic works, 544. 
propriety, every thing depends upon a 

sense of, 542, 
Scripture lessons, proper reading of 

the, highly essential, 542. 
service, every part of the, must be 

minutely studied, 541. 
singing, the preacher's relation to the, 
542. 
Logographs and mythographs, 276. 
Lord's Prayer, the : 

prayer should conclude with, 536. 
Luther, Martin : 

catechisms, his two, 522. 
his opposition to philosophy, 75, 
more practical than theoretical, 569. 
Lutheran Church, eucycloptedia in the, 126. 
Lutheran dogmatic writers, 468. 
Lutheran exegesis, 254. 
Lutheran writers on Church history, 314. 

Maccabees, First Book of, importance of 

to the post-exilian period, 279. 
Manuscripts, most important, of the Xew 

Testament, 216. 
Marheineke's method of practical theology, 

508. 
Mathematical knowledge, uses of, to the 

theologian, 70. 
Mathematics, has to do with form and 

numbers, 70. 
Mary Magdalene, her conduct incompre- 
hensible to the banqueters, 32. 
Mass, the : 

Reformed theologians rejected the 

name and the thing, 543. 
transformed by Luther into a simple 
observance of the Lord's Supper, 
543. 
Mediaeval preaching, 563. 
Medicine and law, relations of theology 

with, 60. 
Melanchthon, apology of, 440. 

founder of Protestant dogmatics, the, 

467. 
little tract of, the, 121. 
recommends the study of the Fathers 
with that of the "Bible, 121. 
Methodology, dangers in the treatment of, 
11. 
definition of, 11. 
Methodology of missions, 514. 
Methodology of systematic theology, the, 
496. 
moral growth needed for the study of 
ethics, 499. 

Vol. III. 



620 



INDEX. 



Methodology of systematic theology : 

of dogmatics both historical and phil- 
osophical, 497. 
religious experience necessary for the 
understanding of dogmatics and 
ethics, 498. 

Methodus, the, of John Henry Alsted, 124. 

Middle Age sense of the word theology, 63. 

Middle Ages, biblical criticism in the, 216. 
biography of Jesus Christ in the, 290. 
dogmatic tone of the, 64. 
exegesis in the, 253. 
necessary for Chui'ch historian to un- 
derstand the, 333. 
theological tendencies in the, 99. 

Ministerial training, sketch of the history 
of, 51. 

Ministry, an undoubted religious impulse 
to the, has enabled many to sur- 
mount great difficulties, 17. 

Missions, history of, 379. 

Missions in Theological Encyclopaedia, 50. 

Missions, methodology of, 514. 

Moabite Stone, works concerning, 182. 

Mohammed, appearance of, an epoch in 
secular history, 322. 

Mohammedanism, history of, important to 
Church historian, 370. 

Modern rationalism, the, 106. 

Moll's method of practical theology, 509. 

Moral action determined by outward con- 
ditions, 32. 

Moral feeling not identical with religious 
feeling, 35. 

Morality and religion have been found sep- 
arated, 31. 

Morality based on independence, 33. 

Mosheim and Semler, contributions of, to 
encyclopaedia, 128. 

Mosheim the reformer of Church history, 
337. 

Music in worship, 537. 

Myth : 

difference between myth and legend, 

277. 
meaning of the term, 276. 

Mysticism, 466. 

the preparation for the Reformation, 
64. 

Mystic preachers, the, 564. 

Mystic tendency, the, in theology, 104. 

Mystics unconsciously borne in the direc- 
tion of rationalism, 99. 

Mystics, the, their understanding of the 
term theology, 63. 

M^'thical theory of Strauss, 291. 

Mythical theory of the life of Christ, ab- 
surdity of, 289. 

Narrative, the Bible, nature of, 278. 

sacred narrative as compared with pro- 
fane, 278. 
Vol. III. 



Natural science of the Bible, 177. 
Natural sciences, acquaintance with the, 

important, 71. 
Neander, work of, as a Church historian, 

337. 
Negative criticism of Christ's life no ground 

for alarm, 286. 
Neological exegesis, rise of, 255. 
Nestorius and the school of Antioch, 100. 
New Covenant, revelations of the, 278. 
New Testament, a knowledge of Hebrew 
necessary to the exegesis of the, 
162. 
concordances of the, 230. 
covers only a single generation of 

men, 156. 
embraces but few nations, 157. 
Erasmus's preface to his Greek, 120. 
first critical edition of the, 217. 
grammars of the language of the, 

173. 
Greek of the, varies with the writers, 

172. 
Greek synonymes of the, 174, 
Greek text-books on the, 173. 
Hellenistic-Greek the original lan- 
guage of the, 170. 
history of the exposition of the Greek 

of the, 172. 
its sub-divisions — history, doctrine, 

and prophecy, 158. 
lexicons of the, 174. 
most important manuscripts of the, 

216. 
new meaning given in the, to some 

current Greek words, 172. 
Scrivener's introduction to the, 219. 
Tregelles, text of, 219. 
critical editions of the, 221. 
Westcott and Hort's text of the, 
219. 
New Testament canon, the: 
in the early Church, 194. 
not formed at one time, 159. 
New Testament thought, form of, derived 

from the Old, 153. 
Nosselt's Introduction to Theology, 130. 

Old Catholic Party, the, 46. 
Old Testament : 

Alexandrian classification of the 
books of the, 155. 

always the principal source for bib- 
Heal archaeology, 176. 

contents of the, 154. 

covers a period of several thousand 
years, 156. 

critically revised editions of the, 219. 

different views as to the value of the, 
152. 

its leading object visible throughout 
its contents, 156. 



INDEX. 



021 



Old Testament: 

Schlcierniacher's treatment of the, 

152. 
written mainly in Hebrew, 160. 
Oral discussion, utility of, 54. 
Oratory, a conversation, 551. 
Origen : 

chief of the allegorical interpreters, 

252. 
his threefold sense of Scripture, 253. 
Origin of formal Christian theology, 64. 
Origin of the term theology, 62. 
Original languages of the Bible, the, 160. 
Orthodoxy and heterodoxy : 

orthodoxy not to be confounded with 

superuaturalism, 464. 
rationalism a heterodox phenomenon, 
465. 

Palatinate, liturgical controversy in the, 

545. 
Pantheism and Deism antagonistic to 

Christian theology, 84. 
Pantheism, theological and moral outcome 

of, 85. 
Pantheistic spirit has often donned the 
garb of superior orthodoxy, 102. 
Parallels in Church history, necessity of, 

334. 
Patristics : 

Church Fathers, 396. 
Classic, the term, 398. 
history of, 399. 
limits of, in time, 397. 
literature of, 400. 

other terms for Church Fathers, 397. 
relation of, to doctrinal history, 398. 
the best works of the Fathers, 398. 
Patrology, 397. 

Pauline epistles, exposition of the, 306. 
Passion-plays, the, 290. 
Pastoral Theology, 574. 
Pastors, terms by which they are known, 

47. 
Paul the apostle, 300. 

the founder of a body of doctrine, 
306. 
Pedagogics, 489. . 
Pelt, Lange, and Harless, their treatment 

of encyclopaedia, 134. 
Pentecost the beginning of the Church, 

317. 
People of God, Israelites the, 277. 
Philology, ecclesiastical, 377. 
Philology, the first of the preparatory stud- 

' ies, 68. 
Philosophic speculation in America, 78. 
Philosophic thought in England much in- 
fluenced by Mills and Coleridge, 
77. 
Philosophy : 

branches of. important to theology, 87. 



Philosophy : 

cannot originate theological doctrine, 
81. 

divisible into that of nature and that 
of mind, 88. 

hard terms of, should not be feared, 
80. 

history of, 374. 

importance of a sound psychology to, 
88. 

inability of philosophy to originate 
dogma illustrated, 81. 

influence of Kant on, 76. 

in the Church after the Reformation, 
75. 

leading object in the study of, 80. 

literature of, 374. 

Luther's opposition to, 75. 

no sound objection to philosophy 
from the variety of systems, 83. 

philosophy, object of all, 79. 

Platonic and Aristotelian division of, 
88. 

Schleiermacher's division as to, 70. 

sense in which it must be Christian, 
86. 

should be pursued in connexion with 
other studies, 80. 

theologv not bound to anv one philos- 
ophy, 82. 

value of the several branches of phi- 
losophy, 87. 
Philosophy and Christianity, conflict be- 
tween, 431. 
Philosophv and theologv, early relations 
of, 64. 

tlieir relations traced historically, 74. 
Philosophy of religion — German literature 

on, 89. 
Physical qualifications demanded of the 

future servant of God, 57. 
Pietism : 

fondness of, for dabbling with philoso- 
phy and natural science, 103. 

joins the older superuaturalism, 103. 

position of, in the current conflict, 
103. 

Spener's pietism, 313, 
Pietists, sermons of the, 565. 
Piety cannot take the place of learning, 18. 
Polemics, zeal for, diminished after the 
middle of the eighteenth centurv, 
442. 
Polemics and Irenics : 

every judicious dogmatizer a harmo- 
"nizer, 439. 

history of, 441. 

literature of, 443. 

not separate departments, 438. 

Reformed writers on, 442. 

Roman Catholic and Protestant po- 
lemics, modification of, 440. 
Vol. III. 



023 



INDEX. 



Positive science, theology as a, -58. 
Positive theology : 

all divisious of, relative only, 144. 

departments of, 139. 

Rosenkranz's threefold division of, 

140. 
Schleiermacher's division of, 140, 
Practical theology, 500. 
Prayer : 

closing prayer, the, should have di- 
rect bearing on the sermon, 536. 
effeminacy and insipidity to be ex- 
cluded from prayer, 540. 
public prayer, 540. 

should conclude with the Lord's 
Prayer, 536. 
Prayer and singing : 

as forms of worship, 536. 
should precede and follow the ser- 
mon, 536. 
Preacher, the : 

should never cease to be a teacher, 

24. 
should study the possible effect of a 
sermon, 558. 
Preaching: 

art of preaching, the, a part of theo- 
logical science, 568. 
histoi'y of the theory of, 568. 
Predestination, 462. 
Predisposition, the so-called avoidance of, 

a prejudice, 245. 
Preparation and repetition to be added to 

the lecture, 54. 
Preparatory and auxiliary sciences, dis- 
tinction between, 66. 
Preparatory sciences, the, 66. 
Preparatory studies, philology the first of 

the, 68. 
Presbyterians, American, 106. 
Prevailing tendencies of theological 

thought, 98. 
Priest, the title of, cannot be entirely appro- 
priated by Protestant clergy, 
48. 
Propaedeutics, theology as related to, 66. 
Protestant Churches, development of doc- 
trine in the, 65. 
Protestant emphasis on the history of 

teaching, 334. 
Protestant student, the, during his aca- 
demical studies, 50. 
Prussia, Evangelical Union of, 439. . 
Psychology, importance of a sound to phi- 
losophy, 88. 
Pulpit, the : 

has its own peculiar style, 556. 
preparations for, 560. 

Qualities which should be united in the 

theologian, 61. 
Quadratus, Apology of, 430. 
Vol. III. 



Rational criticism, beginning of the, with 

Semler, 217. 
Rationalism : 

a heterodox phenomenon, 465. 

chief traits of modern rationalism, 

100. 
has ceased to dispose of miracles, 

245. 
largely a question of method, 109. 
modern rationalism, 106. 
Rationalism and supernaturalism : 

approaches of, to each other, 103. 
literature of the conflict, 109. 
Reason co operative with religious feeling, 

38. 
Recent theology, latest representatives of, 

102. 
Rector, proper meaning of the term, 49. 
Reformation, the : 

a universal epoch, 323. 
effect of, on Church history, 336. 
effect of, on exegesis, 254. 
mysticism, the preparation for the, 

64. 
sprang from moral, not doctrinal, 
causes, 418. 
Reformed and Lutheran exegesis, 254. 
Reformed Church, dogmatic literature in 

the, 468. 
Reformed writers on Church history, 336. 

on homiletics, 5*70. 
Reformers, the, and ethics, 491. 
preaching by the, 564. 
theological spirit of the, 99. 
Relation of life and doctrine, 311. 
Relations of philosophy and theology 

traced historically, 74. 
Religion a feeling of dependence upon 

God, 36. 
Religion and learning, a desire for both, 
needful to the study of theology, 
17. 
Religion and morality, reasons for distin- 
guishing, 30. 
Religion : 

a religion of reason impossible, 39. 
a subject in which the whole inner 

man is engaged, 41. 
based on dependence, 33. 
definition of, 25. 
evidence that it is not exclusively the 

product of the intellect, 28. 
in what sense is religion rooted in 

feeling, 33. 
is original spiritual power, 31. 
not a transcendental knowledge of 

the absolute, 27. 
not bare knowledge as grounded in 

the memory, 27. 
not bare knowledge as grounded in 

the understanding, 27. 
not identical with morality, 30. 



INDEX. 



623 



Religiou : 

not ideutical with a supposed spirit- 
ual activity, oO. 
not merely actiou, 29. 
not merely knowledge, 26. 
requires more than action for its ex- 
pression, 32. 
scope of the word, and distinction be- 
tween it and other terms, 25. 
seeks to manifest itself symbolically 
in terms and imagery, 32. 
Religion, Philosophy of, German literature, 

89. 
Religious disposition essential to the right 

interpretation of the Bible, 246. 
Religious disposition the only one that 
can apprehend a religious writer, 
246. 
Religious doctrine, superiority of the teach- 
ing of, to law and art, 20. 
Religious feeling : 

becomes a steadfast disposition 

through conscience, 40. 
connects itself with the understanding 

and the will, 38. 
common to a community, 43. 
is aided by the imagination, 38. 
not identical with moral feeling, 35. 
not mere sensibility, 34. 
not resolvable into conscience, 40. 
not the same as aesthetic feeling, 34. 
school and home culture of, 73. 
synthesis of, with our other faculties, 

37. 
the root of the religious life, 39. 
twofold character in, 36. 
Religious teacher, the : 

position as to other teachers, 24. 
threefold task of the, 42. 
Remonstrants, the, 254. 
Renaissance of learning prepared the way 

for the Reformation, 28. 
Renan's Life of Christ, 292. 
Reuchlin the restorer of Hebrew learning, 

164. 
Revelation, a belief in, requires criticism 
of the historical books of the 
Bible, 275. 
Roman Catholicism, mechanical liturgy of, 

530. 
Roman Catholic dogmatists, 471. 
Roman Catholic encyclopiedia, 136. 
Roman Catholic ethics, 492. 
Roman Catholic theologians, scientific char- 
acter of, 46. 
Roman Catholic waiters on homiletics, 571. 
Roman Empire, overthrow of the Western, 
forms an epoch in secular his- 
tory, 322. 
Rosenkranz's threefold division of positive 

theology, 140. 
Rubrics, 320. 



Sacraments, the Church and the, 458. 

doctrine of the Church can only be 
understood through the doctrine 
of Christ, 459. 
faith the connecting medium, 460. 
Sacred history, place of, 274. 
Sacred writings ; 

integrity of, necessary to their canon- 
ical reception, 209. 
not the exclusive property of a priest- 
ly order, 45. 
Salvation not dependent on subtleties, 

463. 
Sanctification, 457. 
Saumur and Basle, the theologians of, 

125. 
Schleiermacher : 

desired that philosophy and theology 

should remain distinct, 76. 
did not advocate mere sensibility, 34. 
division of positive theology by, 140. 
dogmatics of, 469. 
definition of dogmatics by, 422. 
early life nourished in piety, 17. 
his aim as to philosophy, 76. 
his definition of the term religion, 

26. 
his system of ethics, 488. 
his preaching, introduced new life into 

the method of, 567. 
his treatment of Old Testament, 

152. 
made encyclopaedia independent, 132. 
objection to his definition of dogmat- 
ics, 423. 
relations of apologetics and polemics, 

his definition of the, 441. 
reserved for him to allay the conflict 
between rationalism and super- 
naturalism, 101. 
services of, to catechetics, 525. 
the whole of theology greatly indebt- 
ed to, 10. 
Schleiermacher and Herder, new direction 

given to theology by, 101. 
Scholar, every, should be familiar with the 
history of the Church, the Ref- 
ormation, and Protestantism in 
his country, 332. 
School and home culture of religious feel- 
ing, 73. 
Scholasticism and mysticism, 466. 
Schoolmen and positive theologians, the 

quarrel between, 74. 
School, the, must not be bolted out of the 

Church, 47. 
Schweizer : 

arrangement of practical theology bv, 

507. 
defect of his division of practical the- 
ology, 508. 
dogmatical system of, 448. 

Vol. III. 



634 



INDEX. 



Science and learned pedantry, difference 

between, 11. 
Sciences auxiliary to Church history, 369. 
Sciences auxiliary to exegesis, 159. 
Sciences, the natural, acquaintance with 

important, Vl. 
Sciences, the practical, auxiliary to exe- 

getical theology, IVS. 
Scientific instruction can only be conveyed 

in connected discourse, 52. 
Scientific spirit, dangers of the excess of 

the, 59. 
Scripture history, Christ's life the center 

of, 285. 
Scripture lessons, proper reading of, highly 

essential, 542. 
Scriptures, the: 

considered as the object of exegesis, 

147. 
Origen's threefold sense of, 253. 
when interpreted to be practically ap- 
plied, 247. 
Self-training, helps to, 250. 
Semitic languages, 161. 
Semler, beginning with, of the rational 

criticism, 217. 
Semler and Mosheim, contributions of, to 

encyclopaedia, 128. 
Sensationalism and Idealism, both un- 
christian, 83. 
Sensibility, religious feeling not mere, 34. 
Sermon, the : 

a testimony to Christ, 551. 

defects of first sermons, 561. 

effect of a sermon should be studied 

by the preacher, 558. 
essential element of Protestant wor- 
ship, an, 534. 
fanciful divisions of, 565. 
history of the Christian sermon, 563. 
not a lecture, 550. 

not to become a mere intellectual dis- 
course, 24. 
place of the sermon in worship, 535. 
prayer and singing should precede and 

follow the, 536. 
relation of the sermon to the congre- 
gation, 551. 
sermouic division, 556. 
should be mentally constructed, 557. 
should be sustained by the whole 

economy of the worship, 532. 
the delivery of, 556. 
useless ornament in to be avoided, 
557. 
Seventeenth century, theology in the, 100. 
Sin and repentance religious-ethical ideas, 

31. 
Sin, the doctrine of, 452. 
Singing and prayer as forms of worship, 

536. 
Singing, the preacher's relation to the, 542. 
Vol. III. 



Society, the Church not merely a, 317. 
Socrates and Christ, parallels between, 

291. 
Soteriology, 455. 

Christ the mediator, 456. 
justification and sanctificatiou, 457. 
subjective soteriology, 456. 
Spanish Jews, grammatical studies revived 

by, 163. 
Special Theological Encyclopaedia, 146. 
Specialty, devotion to a, should not begin 

too early, 15. 
Spener : 

contributions to theological encyclo- 
paedia, 126, 
pietism of, 313. 
value of the work of, 127. 
Spurious works in the early Church, 206. 
Statistics, ecclesiastical, 412. 
best source for, 413. 
history must furnish statistics, 413. 
literature of ecclesiastical, 414. 
travel, shallow books of, 414. 
Strauss : 

mythical theory of the life of Christ, 

291. 
numberless works issued in reply to, 
292. 
Strife, the old, in its newer forms, 102. 
Student, the : 

relation of, to rationalistic tendencies, 

107. 
self -training of the student in exegesis, 

250. 
teacher and student, relations of, 55. 
Supernaturalism, orthodoxy not to be con- 
founded with, 464. 
Supernaturalism and rationalism : 

approaches of, to each other, 103. 
literature of the conflict, 109. 
Sweden, theological encyclopaedia in, 134. 
Symbolics : 

a broad science to-day, 405. 
definition of, 402. 

integral part of the history of doc- 
trines, an, 402. 
literature, 406. 

Lutheran and reformed views, opposi- 
tion between, 406. 
Lutheran symbols, 403. ~ 
origin of modern symbols, 405. 
pragmatic method of discussing, 405. 
principal symbols, the three, of the 

Church, 403. 
relation of symbolics to the history of 

doctrines, 404. 
symbol, first and later office of, 402. 
Synonymes, Greek, of the New Testament, 

174. 
Synopses and Harmonies, 226. 
Synthesis of religious feeling with our 
other faculties, 37. 



INDEX. 



625 



Syriac, knowledge of, useful to the theo- 
logian, 168. 

Systematic and historical theology, relative 
positions of, 144. 

Systematic Theology, 416. 

Teacher, the : 

qualifications of the religious, 44. 
religious teacher, the, must be pene- 
trated by religious principle, 42. 
student and teacher, relations of, 55. 
Teachers : 

an order of, necessary to the culture 

of mankind, 20. 
not an isolated order of society, 19. 
order of teachers, the, highest in so- 
ciety, 18. 
Teaching function, the : 

superiority o^ to law and art illus- 
trated, 22. 
more prominent in Protestantism than 
in Romanism, 23. 
Teaching, relation of, to art and legisla- 
tion, 19. 
Testaments, the Old and the Ifew : 
differences in the scope of, 157. 
relations of, 151. 
Text, a pure, indispensable, 210. 
Text-books, elementary, 166. 
Texts, the, conditions necessary for proper, 

554. 
Thamer, Theobald, the Adhortatio of, 

122. 
Theistic method, the, in Church history, 

327. 
Theologian, the : 

a knowledge of Chaldee, Syriac, and 

Arabic useful to, 168. 
Hebrew, a knowledge of, indispensa- 
ble to, 163. 
qualities Avhich should be united in 

the, 61. 
relation of the theologian to school 

and Church, 50. 
uses of mathematical knowledge to 

the, 70. 
obliged to give attention to human 

matters, 62. 
personal character in, necessity of a 

pure and well-endowed, 403. 
should be thoroughly familiar with 
the Scriptures, 121. 
Theologians and practical Church teachers, 

how distinguished, 46. 
Theologians, scientific, and pastors co- 
related, 46. 
Theologians, testimonies of great, 108. 
Theologians, the, of Saumur and Basle, 

135. 
Theological doctrine, philosophy cannot 

originate, 81. 
Theological empiricism, 12. 
40 



Theological Encyclopaedia : 

both general and special aim to con- 
centrate the mental faculties, 8. 
definition of, 7. 

demand for a proper science of, 8. 
differs from the Real Encyclopaedia, 

or Dictionary, 9. 
German Catholic works on, 137. 
history and literature of, 118. 
history of, noticed, 8. 
in Holland, France, Sweden, England, 

and America, 134. 
its position, 7. 
missions as treated in, 50. 
relation of, to the body of theological 

science twofold, 10. 
separate contributions to, 138. 
Spener's contributions to, 126. 
treated in the spirit of Hegelianism, 
133. 
Theological heads, 444. 
Theological learning rests on a classical 

basis, 67. 
Theological school, the, and the clergy, 46. 
Theological Science : 

in the early Christian Church, 63. 
must achieve its results through the 

Word, 14. 
true method of making it practical, 14. 
Theological spirit of the reformers, 99. 
Theological student, true spirit of the, 44. 
Theological study will increase faith, 108. 
Theological tendencies : 

in England in the eighteenth century, 

105. 
in the early Church, 98. 
in the Middle Ages, 99. 
in the seventeenth century, 100. 
Theological thought, bias of, 98. 
Theologus, the, of Andrew Gerhard, 123. 
Theology : 

angelology and demonology, 450. 
approached by many with false ex- 
pectations, 107. 
as a positive science, 58. 
as a practical art, 61, 
as related to the preparatory sciences, 

66. 
centurial division of, wrong, 321. 
conditions of a fully developed the- 
ology, 45. 
Danz's division of, into a religious and 

a Churchly science, 140. 
departments in theology, remote be- 
ginning of, 427. 
departments of theology, and their re- 
lation to each other, 139. 
does not stand or fall with any one 

system of philosophy, 83. 
great influence of Herder upon, 129. 
has never been able to separate itself 
.from philosophy, 78. 

Vol. III. 



626 



INDEX. 



Theology : 

historica. development of, 62. 

historical and exegetical theology, re- 
lations of, 273. 

influence of the Wolfian philosophy 
on, 65. 

Middle Age sense of the word, 63. 

Nosselt's Introduction to, 180. 

not bound to any one philosophy, 82. 

origin of formal Christian theology, 
64. 

origin of the term, 62, 

premonitions of a vocation to, 18. 

relation of to the arts and general cul- 
ture, 72. 

relations of, with law and medicine, 
60. 

relations of, to philosophy, 74. 

religious element of a doctrine should 
be prominent, 450. 

representatives of the recent theol- 
ogy, 102. 

the Mystic tendency in, 104. 
Theology, Historical: 

worldly motiv^es for the study of, not 
sufficient, 16. 

archaeology, 410. 

doctrines, history of, 384. 

doctrinal history, province of, 386. 

general history, elastic treatment of, 
necessary, 388. 

history and revelation, problem of, 
, 386. 

missions, literature of, 380. 

missions, history of, 379. 
Theology, Pastoral : 

biographies, value of religious, to the 
student, 583. 

business forms, the pastor should 
have acquaintance with, 581. 

charities, the pastor as related to, 577. 

Christ the first instructor in, 583. 

congregation as a whole, relation of 
the pastor to the, 577. 

English and American literature of, 
584. 

Erasmus Sarcerius, the Pastorale of, 
583. 

experience, how it may be utilized by 
the pastor, 576. 

family, relation of the pastor to the, 
578. 

history of, 583, 

indefiniteness of the term, 575. 

irreligious masses, problem of reach- 
ing the, 574, 578, 

method of, 581. 

objects of pastoral theology, 574, 

pastor, the, the head of the congrega- 
tion, 577. 

pastoral duties best learned from ex- 
perience, 575. 

Vol. III. 



Theology, Pastoral : 

pastoral duties divided into three de- 
partments, 576. 

pastorate, aids to a preparation for 
the, 581, 

pedagogics in relation to, 680. 

people, personal relation of the pastor 
to the, 577, 

practical sciences auxiliary to, 580. . 

practical training, what shall be done 
to furnish a, 582. 

preacher distinguished from pastor by 
Harms, 575. 

scientific pursuits among the clergy, 
best means of preserving, 686. 

special events — marriage, baptism, 
and death — position of the pas- 
tor in relation to, 578. 

wasteful occupations of pastors, 585. 
Theology, Practical : 

all modes of division important, 506. 

catechetical methods, 516. 

catechetics, 514, 

categories of, 506. 

clerical life, practical side of, 603. 

completes tlie theological course, 502. 

definition of, 500, 

former restriction of, 503. 

Harms's scheme of, 509. 

historical basis, of, 502. 

history of, 510, 

homiletics, 547. 

literature of, 513, 

liturgies, 526. 

Marheineke's distribution of, 508. 

method of treatment, 506. 

methodology of, 541. 

Moll's method, 509. 

necessity of emphasis on the practical 
side of clerical duties, 505. 

rationalistic teaching of, 511, 

Reformers, works of the, 510. 

relation of the preacher to practical 
theology and other departments, 
506. 

Schweizer's division of, 508, 

scientific character of, 501. 

systems of Nitzsch and others, 507. 

universities, practical theology in the, 
511. 

worship, forms of, and their relation 
to ai't, 634. 

worship, the theory of, — liturgies, 
526. 
Theology, Systematic : 

anthropology, 451. 

apologetics, 425. ♦ 

Calixtus emancipated ethics from dog- 
matics, 419, 

Christian ethics as a part of, 481, 

Christianity destined to develop into 
a system, 416. 



INDEX. 



637 



Theology, Systematic : 
Christology, 453. 
Christ's Avork the basis of ethics, 

485. 
Church and tlie sacraments, the, 458. 
dogmatics, 421. 

dogmatics and etliics, difference be- 
tween, 419. 
dogmatics, history of, 466. 
dogmatic interest, predominance of 

the, 418. 
dogmatics, method of, 444. 
dogmatics, object of, 417. 
ecclesiastical dogmatics, 417. 
eschatology, 460. 
methodology of, 496. 
orthodoxy and heterodoxy, 464. 
polemics and irenics, 437. 
soteriology, 448. 
theology, meaning of, 448, 
Trinity, the, and predestination, 462. 
Theology and Astronomy, not necessarily 

related, 71. 
Theology and Philosophy, early relations 

" of, 64. 
Thirty Years' War, the, 323. 
Threefold sense of Scripture, Origen's, 

253. 
Tractarian movement in the United States, 

106. 
Tractarian movement, the, 106. 
'' Tracts for the Times," the, 105. 
Training, general, must precede special, 15. 
Tregelles, basis of his text, 219. 
Trinity and predestination : 

salvation not dependent on subtleties, 

463. 
Trinity less emphasized than God's 
relation to man, 463. 
Tubingen School, the : 

destructive efforts of, 307. 
elder, the, 313. 
Tiibingen tendency critics, 218. 

United States, the Wesleyan revival in the, 

106. 
Universities, the rise of, 51. 
University, the, 52. 



University lecture system, the, 52. 
Utility of oral discussion, 54. 

Value of Spener's work, 127. 
Vocation, choice of the theological, 15. 
Vocation to theology, premonitions of a, 18. 

Wesleyan, revival, the, 105. 

in the United States, 106. 
Westphalia, peace of, 322. 
Wissenschaftskunde, Eschenburg the first 

to employ the title, 8. 
Wolf opposed by the Pietists, 75. 
Wolfenbiittel assault, the, on historical 

Christianity, 65. 
Wolfenbiittel Fragnientist, the, 290. 
Wolfian philosopliy, influence of, on the- 
ology, 65. 
Wolfian school, the : 

homiletical writers, 570.^ 
Works, a mechanical doing of, not religion, 

30. 
Worldly motives for the study of theology 

not sufficient, 16. 
Worship altogether an expression of the 
feelings, 40. 
architecture, sacred, as related to 

Protestant worship, 537. 
Christian worship developed from the 

Jewish, 543, 
elements of worship, 534. 
eucharistic element, the, 534. 
Worship : 

forms of worship and their relation to 

art, 534. 
music in worship, 537. 
opportunity for attending public wor- 
ship when traveling should never 
be neglected, 542. 
prayer and singing, 536. 
service, the order of, 536. 
sermon, place of, in the, 535. 
singing and prayer, 536. 
theory of worship, 526. 
Writing both profitable and improving, 55. 
Writings, the sacred, accessible to all, 45. 

Zwingle more nearly related to rationalism 
than Calvin, 99. 

Vol. III. 






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